INTRODUCTION Conventional monolithic materials have limitations in good combination

of strength, stiffness, toughness and density. Metal matrix composites (MMCs) possess
significantly improved properties including high specific strength, specific modulus, damping
capacity and good wear resistance.
2 METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES (MMCs)
A metal matrix composites is composite material with at least two constituent part one
being a metal. The other material be a different metal or another material such as organic or
ceramic compound. When at least three materials are present it is called hybrid composites.
3 MATRIX The matrix is the monolithic material in to which the reinforcement is
embedded and is completely continuous This means that there is a path through the matrix to
any point in the material, unlike two materials sandwiched together. The matrix is usually a
lighter metal such as aluminium, magnesium or titanium and provides a compliant support for
the reinforcement.
Methods of manufacturing MMCs
1.Liquid phase processing 2.Solid phase processing 3. Two phase processing 6
Liquid State Fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites Liquid state fabrication of Metal Matrix
composites involves incorporation of dispersed phase in to a molten matrix metal, followed by
its solidification In order to provide high level of mechanical properties of the composites, good
interfacial bonding (wetting) between the dispersed phase and the liquid matrix should be
obtained 7 The Methods of Liquid State Fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites Stir casting
Infiltration Gas pressure infiltration Squeeze casting infiltration Pressure die infiltration 8
Stir Casting Stir Casting is a liquid state method of composite materials fabrication, in which a
dispersed phase (particles, short fibers) is mixed with a molten matrix metal by means of
mechanical stirring. Stir Casting is the simplest and the most cost effective method of liquid
state fabrication. The liquid composite material is then cast by conventional casting methods
and may also be processed by conventional Metal forming technologies. 9 . Content of dispersed
phase is limited (usually not more than 30 vol.%). Distribution of dispersed phase throughout
the matrix not perfectly homogeneous. The technology is relatively simple and low cost. Stir
Casting is characterized by the following features 10 Infiltration Infiltration is a liquid state
method of composite materials fabrication, in which a preformed dispersed phase (particles,
fibers, woven) is soaked in a molten matrix metal, which fills the space between the dispersed
phase inclusions. 11 Gas Pressure Infiltration Gas Pressure Infiltration is a forced infiltration
method of liquid phase fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites, using a pressurized gas for
applying pressure on the molten metal and forcing it to penetrate into a preformed dispersed
phase
Gas Pressure Infiltration Gas Pressure Infiltration method is used for manufacturing large
composite parts. The method allows using non-coated fibers due to short contact time of the
fibers with the hot metal. In contrast to the methods using mechanical force, Gas Pressure
Infiltration results in low damage of the fibers. 14 Squeeze Casting Squeeze Casting Infiltration is
a forced infiltration method of liquid phase fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites, using a
1

movable mold part (ram) for applying pressure on the molten metal and forcing it to penetrate
into a performed dispersed phase, placed into the lower fixed mold part. Squeeze Casting
Infiltration method is similar to the Squeeze casting technique used for metal alloys casting. 15
16 Squeeze Casting Infiltration Technique has the following steps A preform of dispersed phase
(particles, fibers) is placed into the lower fixed mold half. A molten metal in a predetermined
amount is poured into the lower mold half. The upper movable mold half (ram) moves
downwards and forces the liquid metal to infiltrate the preform. The infiltrated material solidifies
under the pressure. The part is removed from the mold by means of the ejector pin. 17
Pressure Die Infiltration Pressure Die Infiltration is a forced infiltration method of liquid phase
fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites, using a Die casting technology. When a preformed
dispersed phase (particles, fibers) is placed into a die (mold) which is then filled with a molten
metal entering the die through a sprue and penetrating into the preform under the pressure of a
movable piston (plunger). 18 19 Solid state fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites
Solid state fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites is the process, in which Metal Matrix
Composites are formed as a result of bonding matrix metal and dispersed phase due to mutual
diffusion occurring between them in solid states at elevated temperature and under pressure.
There are two principal groups of solid state fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites 21 . .
22 Sintering is the method involving consolidation of powder grains by heating the green
compact part to a high temperature below the melting point, when the material of the separate
particles diffuse to the neighboring powder particles). Sintering 23 Two Phase Processing In this
method the reinforcing fibers are mixed with matrix that contains both solid and liquid phases .
It consist of the process of compocasting and osprey deposition
24 THE ADVANTAGES OF MMCs
Higher temperature capability Fire resistance Higher transverse stiffness and
strength No moisture absorption Higher electrical and thermal conductivities Better
radiation resistance Fabric ability of whisker and particulate-reinforced MMCs with
conventional metalworking equipment. 25 THE DISADVANTAGES OF MMCs Higher cost of some
material systems. Relatively immature technology. Complex fabrication methods for fiberreinforced systems (except for casting).
26 Applications of MMCs
27 Applications Partial short fiber reinforced light metal diesel pistons Cast brake disk
particle of reinforced aluminum for the ICE 28 Applications Drive shaft particle of reinforced
aluminum for passenger cars Disk brake calliper for passenger cars of conventional cast iron
(left) and an aluminum matrix composite material ceramic fiber (right) 29 Applications Midfuselage structure of Space Shuttle Orbiter showing boron-aluminum tubes Al high-gain antenna
wave guides for the orbit from the space shuttle orbiter 30 Ceramic Matrix Composites
Types of Ceramics Whitewares Refractories Glasses Abrasives Cements
33 Fabrication of Ceramic Matrix Composites
Slurry Infiltration Chemical Vapor Infiltration Chemical Synthesis 34
Fabrication of Ceramic Matrix Composites by Slurry Infiltration
2

Slurry is a dispersion of ceramic particles in a liquid carrier, which may also contain
additives such as binders and wetting agents. Slurry infiltration method utilizes a slurry
percolating into a porous reinforcing preform. The infiltration process is driven by the capillary
forces. After the infiltration process has completed, the preform is dried and hot pressed
forming a ceramic matrix composite. 35 Slurry Infiltration The reinforcing fibers passes through
a slurry, which penetrates into the porous structure of the reinforcing phase. The driving force
of the infiltration is capillary effect but the process may be enhanced by vacuum or pressure.
Slurry Infiltration Process The fibers are wound onto a mandrel. Then it is dried, cut and
laid-up. After drying they are cut and laid-up on a tooling (mold). Hot pressing is performed at
high temperature and increased pressure, which enhance the diffusion of the ceramic material
between the particles incorporated into the fibers structure. The particles consolidate resulting
in a porosity densified composite. 38 Advantages Low porosity Good Mechanical Properties
Disadvantages The reinforcing fibers may be damaged by the high pressure applied in the hot
pressing stage. Hot pressing operation requires relatively expensive equipment. Relatively
small and simple parts may be fabricated. 39 Chemical Vapor Infiltration Matrix material is
infiltrated into fibrous preforms by the use of reactive gases at elevated temperature to form
fiber-reinforced composites. The fibrous preform is supported on a porous metallic plate
through which a mixture of carrier gas along with matrix material is passed at an elevated
temperature 40 Chemical Vapor Infiltration Reinforcement: SiC fibers serve as a preform(1000 )
Matrix CH3SiCl3 (g) SiC(s)+ 3 HCl(g) Silicon Carbide / Silicon Carbide (SiC/SiC)
Composite 41 Chemical Synthesis Solgel Process This involves preparation of the matrix from a
liquid colloidal suspension of fine ceramic particles (sol), which soaks a preform and then
transforms to solid (gel). 42 Chemical Synthesis Solgel Process 43 Applications of CMCs 44
Applications CMC shaft sleeves with outer diameters between 100 and 300 mm for ceramic slide
bearings of pumps. Components for a ceramic slide bearing SiC/SiC-shaft sleeve shrink-fitted on
metal 45 Applications Pair of steering flaps for the NASA-space vehicle X-38. various components
are mounted using more than 400 CVI-C/SiC screws and nuts. 46 Applications 47

Material Coating
Introduction
After a part is manufactured,some of its surfaces may have to be processed further inorder to
ensure certain properties and characteristics, depending upon the type of application.
Thissurface
treatment
will
help
to
improve
resistance
corrosion,wear,erosion,lubrication,modify surface textures and to impact decorative features.

to

These
properties
are
obtained
by
different
process
like
conversion
coating,ceramiccoating,organiccoating,diamondcoating,hotdipping,thermalspraying,vapourdepos
ition,etc
2. Conversion coatings
Conversion coatings are coatings for metals where the part surface is converted into the coating
with a chemical or electrochemical processprocess.
3

Examples include chromate conversion coatings, phosphate conversion coatings, black

oxide coatings on steel. They are used for corrosion protection, to add decorative color and as
paint primers.
Conversion coatings may be very thin, on the order of 0.00001". Thick coatings, up to 0.002",
are usually built up on aluminium alloys by chromate conversion.
2.1 Phosphate coatings
These are used on steel parts for corrosion resistance, lubricity, or as a foundation for
subsequent coatings or painting.
It serves as a conversion coating in which a dilute solution of phosphoric acid and phosphate
salts are applied via spraying or immersion and chemically reacts with the surface of the part
being coated to form a layer of insoluble, crystalline phosphates
Phosphate conversion coatings can also be used on aluminium, zinc, cadmium, silver and tin.
Process
The application of phosphate coatings makes use of phosphoric acid and takes advantage of the
low solubility of phosphates in medium or high pH solutions. Iron, zinc or manganese phosphate
salts are dissolved in a solution of phosphoric acid. ] When steel or iron parts are placed in the
phosphoric acid, a classic acid and metal reaction takes place which locally depletes
the hydronium (H3O+) ions, raising the pH, and causing the dissolved salt to fall out of solution
and be precipitated on the surface..
.The following is a typical phosphating procedure: [3]
1. cleaning the surface
2. rinsing
3. surface activation
4. phosphating
5. rinsing
6. neutralizing rinse (optional)
7. drying
8. application of supplemental coatings: lubricants, sealers, oil, etc.
Uses
Phosphate coatings are often used to provide corrosion resistance, however, phosphate coatings
on their own do not provide this because the coating is porous. Therefore, oil or other sealers are
used to achieve corrosion resistance. Zinc and manganese coatings are used to help break in
4

components subject to wear[1] and help prevent galling.[3]

Most phosphate coatings serve as a surface preparation for further coating and/or painting, a
function it performs effectively with excellent adhesion and electric isolation. The porosity allows
the additional materials to seep into the phosphate coating and become mechanically
interlocked after drying. The dielectric nature will electrically isolate anodic and cathodic areas
on the surface of the part, minimizing underfilm corrosion that sometimes occurs at the interface
of the paint/coating and the substrate.[3]
Zinc phosphate coatings are frequently used in conjunction with sodium stearate (soap) to form a
lubrication layer in cold and hot forging.[1] The sodium stearate reacts with the phosphate crystal
which in turn are strongly bonded to the metal surface. [7][dead link] The reacted soap layer then
forms a base for additional unreacted soap to be deposited on top so that a thick three part
coating of zinc phosphate, reacted soap and unreacted soap is built up. The resulting coating
remains adhered to the metal surface even under extreme deformation. The zinc phosphate is in
fact abrasive and it is the soap which performs the actual lubrication. The soap layer must be
thick enough to prevent substantial contact between the metal forming dies and phosphate
crystal.
2.2 Chromate Coatings:
Chromate coatings, similar to phosphate coatings, are processes of chemical conversion. But the
chromate coatings are formed by the reaction of water solutions of chromic acid or chromium
salts. The coatings can be applied to aluminum, zinc, cadmium, and magnesium. The coatings
usually have good atmospheric corrosion resistance. Chromate coatings are widely used in
protectingcommon household products, such as screws, hinges, and many hardware items with
the yellow-brown appearance.

2.3 Oxide Coatings:

The oxide coatings are in fact corrosion products which is a thin, usually less than 2.5 m
(.00001 in) oxide with good adhesion. The oxide treatments are done by heat, chemicals, or
electrochemical reactions.
Gun-bluing-type oxidations are done by heating the metals, generally steel, at 370C (700F)
in a steam atmosphere. An oiled gun bluing provides some atmospheric corrosion resistance, but
Anodizing is produced by electrochemical conversion. The anodizing process, usually performed
on aluminum for protection and cosmetic purposes, builds up both on the surface as well as into
the metal. Thin coatings, 2 m to 25 m (100 in to 1000 in) can be coated on most
aluminums. Thick coatings from 25 to 75 m (1000 to 3000 in) are more durable and abrasion
resistant than above chemical conversion oxide coatings. This oxide layer can be made
in different colors depending on the post chemistries that are employed. The anodized parts are
quite durable and do not tarnish and maintain their cosmetic appearance for a long period of
time. Anodized coatings are usually dielectric in nature.
5

3 Ceramic coating
can be applied to metal components in order to enhance their functional properties. Most
ceramic coatings are electrically nonconductive (making them excellent insulators), have a
significantly higher level of abrasion resistance than most metals, and are capable of maintaining
their integrity under severely elevated temperatures, sometimes up to 4,500 degrees Fahrenheit.
Wear-resistant ceramics, such as titanium nitride and chromium carbide, can be applied to work
steels and air-hardening tool steels via chemical vapor deposition (CVD), which is one of the
more common application methods currently in use.
Before applying a coating, it is important to ensure compatibility between the ceramic material
and the metal surface. Much of this compatibility depends on thermal expansion properties, as
having expansion rates that differ too greatly can cause a coating to crack when it is being
cooled after application. In addition, a diffusion layer typically forms on the metal surface, and
this can lead to a coating that is too soft or too brittle for the design specifications.
Complementary thermal properties will help to prevent heat checking and improve resistance to
wear and fracture.
Manufacturing Applications
Ceramic coatings are often used as barrier materials to enhance the interaction between moving
metal parts, such as in the automotive industry. However, they are also increasingly being
employed to augment certain manufacturing processes, and exhibit potential for improving the
efficiency of some fabricating methods.
Ceramic coatings are sturdy and have a high level of lubricity, but due to oxidation concerns,
they are typically used in temperatures under 1,200 degrees (F). However, this allows them to be
applied to hot forging dies, which operate at lower temperatures.
Ceramic coating increases the operational lifespan for these dies, allowing them to produce a
greater number of parts before wearing down. Ceramic materials, such as magnesium zirconate
and zirconia, exhibiting a high level of hardness, thermal resistance, and elevated melting points
are being used as heat barrier coatings for industrial parts.
Coating process
Detonation Gun: The detonation gun process is most effective for particular ceramic materials,
such a tungsten carbide, that are required for producing highly dense coatings on a metal
surface. It creates an explosion of oxygen and acetylene gas at around 6,000 degrees (F),
melting the ceramic and firing it at high speed toward the target substrate.
Oxygen Acetylene Powder: This method involves heating ceramic powder under a 5000
degree (F) flame, and using compressed gas to spray the coating onto the substrate. It creates
porous coating layers with relatively low adhesion strength.
4 Organic coating
A coating (such as paint, lacquer, enamel, or film) in which the principal ingredients are derived f
rom animal or vegetable matter orfrom some compound of carbon.
Organic coated steel products are used in all sectors of industry. In building and construction,
profiles are used for wall cladding and roofing, and also for applications such as suspended
ceilings, lighting etc.
6

In general industry, these products have a variety of applications, including metal furniture,
HVAC (Heating, Ventilating, Air Conditioning) and many others. And of course in the domestic
appliance market, the advantages of organic coated steel products are well known.
They are successfully used for white goods (refrigerators, washing machines etc) and small
kitchen appliances (microwave ovens etc). Brown goods (computer casings, VCR & DVD casings
etc) are another successful application.
Organic coated steel is generally composed of a steel substrate (cold rolled or with a zinc-based
metallic coating) with a surface treatment layer, a paint primer coating and a topcoat. For certain
applications, a colaminated polymer film may be added, and a temporary protective film, if
required.
5 Diamond Coating
composite Diamond Coatingis a unique, coating with ultra-fine diamond particles contained
within hard electroless nickel metal. The uniformity of the dispersion of diamond particles
within Composite Diamond Coating makes the coating consistent and regenerative in use. This
proprietary process offers a practical and economical opportunity to provide the properties of
diamond to the surface of parts. Surface Technology, Inc. of Trenton, NJ has developed and
produced this coating for over twenty-five years, and scientifically controls the process so
that Composite Diamond Coating can be customized to meet the needs of different applications.
Exceptional wear resistance

Excellent hardness

Enhanced corrosion resistance

Perfect conformity to complex geometries including non-line-sight applications

Increased thermal transfer

Applicability to all common metals and alloys

Coverage of entire surfaces or selected critical areas

Surface Modification of Materials

Introduction
Surface modification is the act of modifying the surface of a material by bringing physical,
chemical or biological characteristics different from the ones originally found on the surface
of a material.
Schematic

Necessity of Surface treatment

Improves hardness & durability
Controls Friction
Reduces Adhesion
7

Types
Mechanical surface treatment and coating
Mechanical Surface Treatment and Coating
Classifiation

1. Shot peening
2. Water-jet peening
3. Laser peening
4. Explosive hardening

1. Mechanical plating
Mechanical Surface Treatments
Mechanical surface treatments creates a plastically deformed strain hardened layer of the
material itself.
1. Shot peening
SHOT PEENING is a method of cold working in which compressive stresses are induced in the
exposed surface layers of metallic parts by the impingement of a stream of shot, directed at the
metal surface at high velocity under controlled conditions. The surface get plastically deformed.
Makes the
1. Shot peening
SHOT PEENING is a method of cold working in which compressive stresses are induced in the
exposed surface layers of metallic parts by the impingement of a stream of shot, directed at the
metal surface at high velocity under controlled conditions. The surface get plastically deformed.
Makes the surface harder. It differs from blast cleaning in primary
4|Page
purpose and in the extent to which it is controlled to yield accurate and reproducible results.
Although shot peening cleans the surface being peened, this function is incidental. The major
purpose of shot peening is to increase fatigue strength. The process has other useful
applications, such as relieving tensile stresses that contribute to stress-corrosion cracking,
forming and straightening of metal parts, and testing the adhesion of silver plate on steel.
Peening Action
When individual particles of shot in a high-velocity stream contact a metal surface, they produce
slight, rounded depressions in the surface, stretching it radially and causing plastic flow of
surface metal at the instant of contact. The effect usually extends to about 0.13 to 0.25 mm
(0.005 to 0.010 in.) but may extend as much as 0.50 mm (0.02 in.) below the surface. The metal
beneath this layer is not plastically deformed. In the stress distribution that results, the surface
metal has induced or residual compressive stress parallel to the surface, while metal beneath
has reaction-induced tensile stress. The surface compressive stress may be several times greater
than the subsurface tensile stress. This compressive stress offsets any service-imposed tensile
stress, such as that encountered in bending, and improves fatigue life of parts in service
markedly
Dry Peening with Glass Beads.
The methods used for dry peening with glass beads are comparable to the methods that use dry
metallic shot. Separation of broken or damaged beads, as well as dust and other contamination,

is accomplished by a centrifugal cyclone air separator, with final classification performed by a

vibrating screen.
Wet Peening with Glass Beads.
Wet glass peening is performed with glass beads, usually mixed in water and contained in a
suitable hopper. In the automatic machine shown in Fig. 9, a mixer pump maintains a slurry of
beads in
water, and a feed pump forces the flow of slurry to the nozzle. The movement of slurry through
the nozzle is accelerated by compressed air. The nozzles are 5 | P a g e
2. Water-jet peening (Cavitation peening)
It uses a jet of water at high pressures, e.g. 400 MPa. Water Jet Peening (WJP) is a mitigation
technique for Stress Corrosion Cracking experienced in nuclear reactors caused by superposition
of tensile stress, material, and environment. The WJP process offers a solution to this problem by
improving the residual stressP a g e
by generating cavitation at the boundary between high speed water flow from WJP nozzle and
the surrounding water. This creates plastic deformation using shock pressure from the collapse of
the cavitation bubbles to change surface condition to alleviate this stress.
Water jet peening is a peening method using cavitation impacts in the same way as shot peening
to improve fatigue strength and/or to introduce compressive residual stress. The peening method
using cavitation impact is called cavitation shotless peening (CSP), as shots are not required
(see Fig. 1). In the case of cavitation shotless peening, cavitation is generated by cavitating
jet.Cavitation is phase change phenomena from liquid-phase to gas-phase. It is similar to boiling,
but, in the case of cavitation, liquid-phase becomes gas-phase by decrease of static pressure
until saturated vapor pressure due to increase of flow velocity (see Fig. 2). When the static
pressure is increased by decrease of the flow velocity, the cavitation bubble is collapsed. At the
cavitation bubble collapse, a part of the bubble is deformed and a micro-jet is produced (see Fig.
3). As the speed of the micro-jet is about 1,500 m/s, the micro-jet

Micro structure of Peened Surface

Cavitation S Peening introduces compressive residual stress with a considerable less surface
roughness compared to that from shot peening (see Figs. 9 and 10). Individual pit induced by
Cavitation S Peening does not have sharp tip up around the pit, compared to a pit induced by
ball indentation at nearly constant volume and depth (see Fig. 11). It is very shallow compared to
the pit at constant depth of plastic deformation area (see Fig. 12). 8 | P a g e
3. Laser peening
The surface of the work piece is subjected to laser shocks.
As a result of which compressive stress is induced in the component, thus improving the
fatigue life.
Laser intensity - 100-300 J/cm2
Pulse duration - 30 seconds
4. Explosive hardening
A layer of explosive coated on the surface is blasted. The shockwaves thus produced causes
work hardening of metal surface by plastic deformation. The thickness of the explosive and the
times of the explotion are very important parametes of the hardening treatment.

FORMING AND SHAPING OF GLASESS

Glass is processed by melting it and then shaping it, either in molds and various
devices or by blowing. Shapes produced by include flat sheet and plate, rods, tubing, glass fibers
and discrete products such as bottles and headlights. The strength of glass can be improved by
thermal and chemical treatments, which induce compressive surface residual stresses, or by
laminating it with a thin sheet of tough plastic.
Glass products can generally be categorized as follows;
1. Flat sheet or plate, ranging in thickness from about 0.8 mm to 10 mm (0.3 in. .
such as window glass, glass doors, and table tops;
2. Rods and tubing, used for chemicals, neon lights, and decorative artifacts;
3. Discrete products, such as bottles, vases, headlights, and television tubes;
4. Glass fibers, to reinforce composite materials and for fiber optics.

to

0.4

in.)

Flat sheet glass can be made by drawing or rolling from the molten state or by a floating method:
all three methods are continuous processes.
The drawing process for making flat sheet or plate involves a machine in which the molten
glass passes through a pair of rolls which appear similar to an old-fashioned clothes wringer. The
solidifying glass is squeezed between these rolls, formed into a sheet, and then moved forward
over a set of smaller rolls.
In the rolling process the molten glass is squeezed between rollers, forming a sheet. The
surfaces of glass may be embossed with a pattern by a texture on the roller surfaces; in this way,
the glass surface becomes a replica of the roll surface. Glass sheet produced by drawing or
rolling has a rough surface appearance. In the making of plate glass, both surfaces have to be
subsequently ground parallel and then polished.
In the float method, molten glass from the furnace is fed into a bath in which the glass,
under a controlled atmosphere, floats on a bath of molten tin. The glass then moves over rollers
into another chamber (lehr) where it solidifies. Float glass Glass tubing is manufactured by the
process shown in Figure. Molten glass is wrapped around a rotating hollow cylindrical or coneshaped mandrel, and drawn out by a set of rolls. Air is blown through the mandrel to prevent the
10

glass tube from collapsing. These machines may be horizontal, vertical, or slanted downward.
Glass rods are made in a similar manner, but air is not blown through the mandrel; the drawn
product becomes a solid rod.
has a smooth (fire-polished) surface and needs no further grinding or polishing
Continuous glass fibers are drawn through multiple orifices (200 to 400 holes) in heated platinum
plates, at speeds as high as 500 m/s (1700 ft/s). Fibers as small as 2 m (80 in.) in diameter can
be produced by this method. In order to protect their surfaces, fibers are subsequently coated
with chemicals. Short glass fibers, used as a thermal insulating material (glass wool) or for
acoustic insulation, are made by a centrifugal spraying process in which molten glass is fed
into a rotating head.
Discrete Glass Products
Several processes are used in making discrete glass objects, as described below,
The blowing process is used to make hollow thin-walled glass items, such as bottles and
flasks; it is similar to blow molding of thermoplastics. The steps involved in the production of an
ordinary glass bottle by the blowing process are shown in figure. Blows air expands a hollow gob
of heated glass against the walls of the mold. The molds are usually coated with a parting agent,
such as oil or emulsion, to prevent the glass from sticking to the mold.
The surface finish of products made by the blowing process is acceptable for most
applications. It is difficult to control the wall thickness of the product, but the process is used for
its high production rate. Incandescent light bulbs are made in automatic blowing machines, at
rate of over 1000 bulbs per minute.
In pressing, a job of molten glass is placed into a mold and pressed into shape with the use of
plunger. The mold may be made in one piece (fig) or it may be split (fig). After being pressed, the
solidifying glass acquires the shape of the mold-plunger cavity. Because of the confined
environment, the product has higher dimensional accuracy than can be obtained with blowing.
Pressing cannot, however, be used on thin-walled items, nor can it be used for products (such as
bottles) from which the plunger cannot be retracted
TECHNIQUES FOR STRENGTHENING AND TREATING GLASS
Glass can be strengthened by the process described in this section. Glass products may
also be subjected to heat treatment (annealing) and to other finishing operations.
a) Thermal tempering. Also called physical tempering or chill tempering, this process cools the
surfaces of the hot glasses rapidly (fig). As a result, the surfaces shrink and at first, tensile
stresses develop on the surfaces. As the bulk of the glass begins to cool, it contracts. The already
solidified surfaces are forced to contract, and so they develop residual compressive surface
stresses while the interior develops tensile stresses. Compressive surface stresses improve the
strength of glass. In the same way that they do in other materials.
The higher the coefficient of thermal expansion of the glass and the lower its thermal
conductivity, the higher will be the level of residual stresses developed and hence, the stronger
the glass becomes. Thermal tempering takes a relatively short time (minutes) and can be applied
to most glasses. Because of large amount of energy stored in residual stresses, tempered glass
shatters into a large number of pieces when broken.
b) Chemical Tempering. In this process the glass is heated in a bath of molten KNO 3, K2SO4,
NaNO3, depending on the type of glass. Ion exchange takes place, with larger atoms replacing
the smaller atoms in surface of glass. This condition is similar to that created by forcing a wedge
between two bricks in a wall.
11

The time required for chemical tempering is about 1 hour longer than that for thermal tempering.
It may be performed at various temperatures. At low temperatures, part distortion is minimal,
and complex shapers can therefore be treated; at elevated temperatures, there may be some
distortion of the part, but the product can then be used at higher temperatures without loss of
strength.
c) Laminated Glass. This product results from another strengthening method, called laminate
strengthening; it consist of two pieces of flat glass with a thin sheet of tough plastic between
them. When laminated glass is broken, its pieces are held together by the plastic sheet. This
phenomenon can be observed in a shattered automobile windshield.
Finishing Operations. As in metal products, residual stresses can developed in glass products
if they are not cooled at a sufficiently slow rate. In order to ensure that the product is free from
these stresses, it is annealed by a process similar to the stress-relief annealing of metals. The
glass is heated to a certain temperature and then cooled gradually. Depending on the size, the
thickness, and the type of the glass, annealing times may range from a few minutes to as long as
the 10 months as in the case of a 600-mm (24-in.) mirror of a telescope.
In addition to annealing, glass products may be subjected to further operations such as
cutting, drilling, grinding, and polishing. Sharp edges and corners can be smothered by grinding,
an effect seen in glass tops for desk and shelves, or by holding a torch against the edges ( fire
polishing); this method rounds them by localized softening and by surface tension.

Materials used in Marine & Aerospace Industry

Introduction
We have been talking about various marine diesel engine components and types of ships and
have seen a variety of ship types and marine components. Yet there is an underlying similarity
between them in terms of materials used for construction. The basic ship construction materials
used for construction are the same like most other construction projects and include but not
limited to Iron, Steel, Aluminium, plastics and so forth. Even these diverse materials have some
common factors in terms of their properties which make them useful for the task. We will learn
about the definition of a few types of mechanical properties of such materials in this article.
Naval aircraft are built to meet certain specified requirements. These requirements must be
selected so they can be built into one aircraft. It is not possible for one aircraft to possess all
characteristics; just as it isn't possible for an aircraft to have the comfort of a passenger
transport and the maneuverability of a fighter. The type and class of the aircraft determine how
strong it must be built. A Navy fighter must be fast, manoeuvrable, and equipped for attack and
defence. To meet these requirements, the aircraft is highly powered and has a very strong
structure.
STEEL
More on shipbuilding materials
The diversity of materials used in shipbuilding is conditioned by diversity of
requirements to operating characteristics of mechanisms and structural components of the
vessel. All these materials are classified as follows:
12


o
o
o
o

o
o
o
o
o

o
o
o
o
o

Hull metallic and non-metallic materials for shipbuilding

Standard, high-strength and firm ship steel
Titanium and aluminium alloys
Metal- and polymer-based composite materials
Protective coatings
Materials for ship and general machine-building
High-alloy steel
Titanium alloys
Aluminium alloys
Copper alloys
Non-metallic materials
Materials for fabrication of nuclear and heat engines
Hull radiation-resistant plates
Corrosion resistant steels and alloys
High-nickel alloys
Titanium alloys
Polymers and composition materials
Functional materials etc
Shipbuilding Materials
Shipbuilding steel is the most common material. It is to meet rather strict requirements:
strength, flexibility, high manufacturability, Weldability, cost, reparability, etc. Steels used in the
domestic shipbuilding industry differ in high cold-resistance, good welding characteristics and
increased fracture strength. Special cold-resistant welding consumables were worked up for new
steel grades.
Last years, new class of high-strength corrosion-resistant nitrogen-alloyed steel grades were
elaborated. Owing to difference in interaction of atoms of carbon and nitrogen with atoms of iron,
steel acquires unique physicochemical and operating properties (high strength, flexibility,
absolute corrosion resistance, non-magnetic behavior). Nitrogen steels differ in good welding
characteristics and manufacturability, both in metallurgical production and shipbuilding.
Structural aluminium alloys with increased corrosion resistance as well as aluminumbased composite materials became common use in construction of high-speed sea and river
vessels, as well as airfoil boats, hydrofoil ships and aerostatic crafts.
Owing to their properties, titanium alloys became common use in marine facilities.
Distinctive characteristic of their usage is wide spectrum of operational environment with long
service life. In addition to it, the diversity of types of half-finished items used in ship structures
manufacture is very important.
Zinc is rather corrosion-resistant material both in air and in water. Rolled zinc is used
in inboard planking of ship rooms. Also, thick plates of rolled zinc are used in manufacture of
protectors. Zinc coating becomes common use in corrosion prevention for metal surfaces of ship
systems.
Environmental safety of new ships is ensured with usage of non-metallic materials with
low emission of chemical compounds into water and air. So, various kinds of fibreglass plastics
are used in construction of hulls of some vessels (trawlers, sweepers, high-speed airfoil and
hydrofoil ships, and yachts). The main property of the fiberglass plastics is their chemical and
13

biological stability. Strength and technological properties, improvement of working conditions,

and reduction of costs of workroom air ventilation are their advantages.
New polymeric and metal-polymeric composition materials give possibility to
produce non-composite or partly rigid hull structures of sandwich-constructions with high-tensile
steel or fiberglass outside layer and polymeric or low-tensile composite interlayer. Such hulls
become common use in building of modern high-speed vessels.

Engineering Materials
In the shipbuilding industry and essentially in engineering, copper alloys are very
common. It is conditioned by their high corrosion resistance, adequate strength under various
loads, high antifriction properties, heat and electro conductivity as well as resistance to fouling.
Copper, copper-nickel alloys, aluminum, tin and silicon bronze and brass are used for
manufacture of source water pipelines, ship fittings, pumps, propellers, heat exchangers, shaft
liners, etc.
Aluminum alloys are used as cast in manufacture of various critical parts and, particularly,
pistons and casings for internal combustion engines.

Paint and Lacquer Materials

The ship owner specifies ship construction paint systems (schemes) in accordance with
maintenance documentation of the vessel and technological normative documents of paint and
lacquer materials.
Weld-through primers are used for steel protection throughout the period of storage; such
primers meet not only basic requirements to paint and lacquer materials but ensure welding
without coating removal or degradation of welding seam strength properties.
Paint and lacquer materials used in painting ship constructions are to meet requirements
of relevant standards, technical regulations (specifications) and have an authorization for the
use.
Heat-insulation materials
In connection with strengthening of fire safety regulations and ecological safety of the
vessels under construction, multi-purpose heat insulating and sound proof materials and
coatings for ship rooms become more common use:

foams with gaseous inclusions interconnecting with each other and environment;
14

foam plastics used for heat insulation of refrigerators, pipes, etc;

Honeycombs used to fill sandwich panels in external heat insulation.
Composites
A composite material is a combination of two or more chemically distinct and insoluble
phases; its properties and structural performance are superior to those of the constituents acting
independently.
Composites are now one of the most important classes of engineered materials.
Composites are used not only for their structural properties but also for their electrical,
thermal, tribologic and environmental application. Modern composite materials are actually
optimized to achieve a particular balance of properties for a given range of application.
Many composite materials are composed of just two phases. One is termed the matrix
which is continuous and surrounds the other phase often called the dispersed
Phase.
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITES:
Composite materials are usually classified by the type of reinforcement used. This
reinforcement is embedded into a matrix that holds it together. The reinforcement is used to
strengthen the composite.
For example, in GFRP, the matrix material is polymer and the reinforcement is glass fibre.
Common composite types include random-fibre or short-fibre reinforcement, continuous-fibre or
long fibre reinforcement, particulate reinforcement, flake reinforcement, and filler reinforcement.
MARINE APPLICATION
The first marine application of fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) composite material was in
the construction of boats shortly after World War II. Boat builders began to use FRP composites
instead of timber, which was traditionally used in small maritime craft, because wood was
becoming increasingly scarce and expensive, timber was as losing favour with many boat
builders and owners because wooden boats were easily degraded by seawater and marine
organisms and therefore required ongoing maintenance and repairs that can be expensive. The
earliest attempts to fabricate boat hull with FRP composites was in 1947 when twelve small surf
boats were made for the UNITED STATES NAVY. Most maritime craft are built using glass
reinforced polyester (GRP) composites; although sandwiched composites and advanced FRP
materials containing carbon are aramid fibres with vinyl ester or epoxy resin matrices They are
commonly used for high performance structural applications.
GRP or FRP
Glass fibre Reinforced Plastics, GRP, also known as FRP, RTRP (Reinforced Thermosetting
Resin Plastic), RTP (Reinforced Thermo set Plastic) is one of the most important components of
our products. GRP material is used for its high mechanical strength, light weight, corrosion and
temperature resistant properties, thermal insulation, smooth internal surface, easy to form
complex shapes, ease of repair and its cost effectiveness.
Basically, GRP consists of thermosetting resins and glass fibre. With regard to composing
these ingredients and choosing the right resins, best winding techniques and glass fibre
components to guarantee the quality and the benefits of the materials, Plastic on Composites is
the right choice for your partner.
Making a thermosetting product involves a chemical reaction in which molecules are
formed and warmth is released. Once the new network of molecules exists, it creates its final
shape. This network of molecules ensures fire resistance when the material is heated.
15

Thermosetting materials are polyester, epoxy and polyurethane resins. Plastic on Composites
applies different types of thermosetting depending on the medium and conditions in which the
final product will be installed.
Glass fibre is used to improve the mechanical strength, resistance to damage from the
outside and to maintain a fixed shape. GRP is used in the industry (as applied by Plastic on
Composites. Glass fibre comes in a wide variety of shapes; mats, roving, chopped strands, glass
veil and bands. Plastic on Composites selects the correct composition of glass fibre and is able to
apply, work and laminate this material to guaranteed products with the highest mechanical
strength.
If necessary, Plastic on Composites uses other fibres in the products, such as carbon.
Used resins in GRP
Initially, polyester resins were mainly used as a base material for the reinforcement
layers. Following the impressive development of resins by resin manufacturers, the resins can
now also be used for corrosion applications as a chemical barrier layer on the inside of a product.
The main resins used by Plastic on Composites are:

Orthopthalic Resin

Isopthalic Resin

Isopthalic Neo Pentyl Glycol Resin

Bisphenolic Resin

Therephtalic resin

Vinyl ester Resin

Fire Retardant Resin

Aluminum
The U.S. Navy has been using aluminum to help build ships for more than 100 years and
continues to rely on aluminum almost exclusively for the fastest and lightest ships in its
fleet, including Littoral Combat Ships, Joint High Speed Vessels and future Ship to Shore
connectors. All of these ships use aluminum alloys as a primary structural material.
Aluminium has been widely used by most marine countries for commercial and
naval vessels since the mid 1950s, and numerous current U.S. Navy ship classes use
substantial amounts of aluminum. However, long-standing misperceptions about
aluminum ships continue to persist, even though continuous progress and technology
advancements have mitigated many of the past problems with aluminum This paper
explains how new technologies and advancements are making aluminum an increasing
popular choice for military ships of all sizes and discusses how historical concerns about
aluminum ships are being resolved.

16

ADVANTAGES OF ALUMINUM SHIPS

As a strong and lightweight material, aluminum has proven to add value to naval ships.
Aluminum ships can go faster speeds, carry bigger payloads and travel longer ranges while
enjoying increased stability and better fuel efficiency.
GROWTH OF ALUMINUM SHIPBUILDING EXPERTISE
Shipyards & Repair Facilities: There are more than 430 shipyards around the world with the
capability to build and repair aluminum ships, including 44 shipyards and repair facilities in the
United States. The worlds leading shipyards and naval ship builders fabricate with both steel and
aluminum and have specialized expertise with aluminum. Many of the worlds largest
shipbuilders that are historically associated with steel shipbuilding also work with aluminum,
including Newport News, Ingalls Shipbuilding, Bath Iron Works and BAE Systems Ship Repair.
Concerns about not being able to find an experienced shipbuilder or repair facility are not valid.
ADDRESSING CONCERNS ABOUT ALUMINIUM SHIPS
Corrosion Issues:
Aluminium performs better in marine environments than steel and is easy to protect from
corrosion. While steel rusts quickly in saltwater, aluminum has excellent corrosion resistance in
marine environments for both fresh water and saltwater. Corrosion issues that occur when
aluminum comes in direct contact with steel can be easily prevented by using a non-conductive
barrier to isolate the steel from the aluminum.
One of the advantages of aluminum ships is that only the underside of the ship needs
painting. Unlike steel, the inside of the structure can be left unpainted. It will react with air to
form aluminum oxidea hard, protective coating that protects the underlying aluminum. With
the thousands of naval craft in service around the world, significant corrosion problems are the
exception not the rule.
Burning & Fire Retardance:
Some critics believe that aluminum will burn, thereby making it a less desirable material
for military ships. But aluminum as used in marine structural applications does not burn and is
not toxic. According to a Department of Navy report, media-reports of aluminum ship damage in
every case was caused by either fuel fires or massive explosions, and in some instances included
ships with steel superstructures improperly reported as aluminium.
Aluminum Solutions Provide Benefits to Naval Applications

While there may have been a time when legitimate concerns existed about the use of
aluminum in naval ships, those concerns have largely been eliminated through technology
advancements. Aluminum has proven itself as a lightweight, durable and affordable material that
allows naval ships to travel faster and farther.
A research paper (The Benefits and Cost Impact of Aluminum Naval Ship Structure, by
Lamb, Beavers, Ingram and Schmieman) explains why aluminum ships are experiencing
resurgence: Lessons learned from the past and advancements in technology are helping to
overcome many of the past problems with aluminum ships. The recent growing investments in
aluminum related research and development by the U.S. Navy, shipyards, the American Bureau
17

of Shipping (ABS), and materials suppliers such as Alcoa and other related organizations will
serve to provide further cost and performance improvements.

Aluminum is a proven structural material for marine applications. The attributes of aluminum can
help the Navy achieve its modern fleet needs.

Materials used in Air Craft Construction

INTRODUCTION
Naval aircraft are built to meet certain specified requirements. These requirements must
be selected so they can be built into one aircraft. It is not possible for one aircraft to possess all
characteristics; just as it isn't possible for an aircraft to have the comfort of a passenger
transport and the maneuverability of a fighter. The type and class of the aircraft determine how
strong it must be built. A Navy fighter must be fast, maneuverable, and equipped for attack and
defense. To meet these requirements, the aircraft is highly powered and has a very strong
structure.
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
An aircraft must be constructed of materials that are both light and strong. Early aircraft
were made of wood. Lightweight metal alloys with a strength greater than wood were developed
and used on later aircraft. Materials currently used in aircraft construction are classified as either
metallic materials or nonmetallic materials.
METALLIC MATERIALS
The most common metals used in aircraft construction are aluminum, magnesium,
titanium, steel, and their alloys.
Alloys
An alloy is composed of two or more metals. The metal present in the alloy in the largest
amount is called the base metal. All other metals added to the base metal are called alloying
elements. Adding the alloying elements may result in a change in the properties of the base
metal. For example, pure aluminum is relatively soft and weak. However, adding small amounts
or copper, manganese, and magnesium will increase aluminum's strength many times. Heat
treatment can increase or decrease an alloy's strength and hardness. Alloys are important to the
aircraft industry. They provide materials with properties that pure metals do not possess.
Aluminum
Aluminium alloys are widely used in modern aircraft construction. Aluminum alloys are
valuable because they have a high strength-to-weight ratio. Aluminum alloys are corrosion
resistant and comparatively easy to fabricate. The outstanding characteristic of aluminum is its
lightweight.
Magnesium
Magnesium is the world's lightest structural metal. It is a silvery-white material that
weighs two-thirds as much as aluminum. Magnesium is used to make helicopters. Magnesium's
low resistance to corrosion has limited its use in conventional aircraft.
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Titanium
Titanium is a lightweight, strong, corrosion resistant metal. Recent developments make
titanium ideal for applications where aluminum alloys are too weak and stainless steel is too
heavy. Additionally, titanium is unaffected by long exposure to seawater and marine atmosphere.
Steel Alloys
Alloy steels used in aircraft construction have great strength, more so than other fields of
engineering would require. These materials must withstand the forces that occur on today's
modern aircraft. These steels contain small percentages of carbon, nickel, chromium, vanadium,
and molybdenum. High-tensile steels will stand stress of 50 to 150 tons per square inch without
failing. Such steels are made into tubes, rods, and wires.
Another type of steel used extensively is stainless steel. Stainless steel resists corrosion
and is particularly valuable for use in or near water.
NONMETALLIC MATERIALS
In addition to metals, various types of plastic materials are found in aircraft construction. Some
of these plastics include transparent plastic, reinforced plastic, composite, and carbon-fiber
materials.
Transparent Plastic
Transparent plastic is used in canopies, windshields, and other transparent enclosures.
You need to handle transparent plastic surfaces carefully because they are relatively soft and
scratch easily. At approximately 225F, transparent plastic becomes soft and pliable.
Reinforced Plastic
Reinforced plastic is used in the construction of radomes, wingtips, stabilizer tips,
antenna covers, and flight controls. Reinforced plastic has a high strength-to-weight ratio and is
resistant to mildew and rot. Because it is easy to fabricate, it is equally suitable for other parts of
the aircraft. structure made of glass cloth. Reinforced plastic is fabricated into a variety of cell
sizes.
Composite and Carbon Fiber Materials
High-performance aircraft require an extra high strength-to-weight ratio material.
Fabrication of composite materials satisfies this special requirement. Composite materials are
constructed by using several layers of bonding materials (graphite epoxy or boron epoxy).
These materials are mechanically fastened to conventional substructures. Another type
of composite construction consists of thin graphite epoxy skins bonded to an aluminum
honeycomb core. Carbon fiber is extremely strong, thin fiber made by heating synthetic fibers,
such as rayon, until charred, and then layering in cross sections.

MAGNESIUM

19

The Benefits of Using Magnesium Alloys in Aerospace alloys combine weight saving
with high mechanical strength to provide a versatile material for use in many current aircraft
components leading to improved fuel efficiency and range. Weight reduction initiatives are being
driven by higher fuel costs, greater efficiency and reductions in CO2 emissions for environmental
reasons. The weight advantage over aluminum is becoming increasingly important, along with
the ease with which to produce complex critical structures and reduce cost. Magnesium is an
attractive alternative in the field of advanced materials for aircraft systems of today and the
future.
Lightest Structural Metal
With a density of 1.8g cm3, by volume magnesium is 30% lighter than aluminium and
75% lighter than steel.
High Specific Stiffness
For bars with equivalent weight and width, magnesium is 18 times stiffer than steel and
double that of aluminium. In practice it is not always possible to increase section thickness to
these extents. But with only small increases in cross section it is still possible to redesign parts
that offer 20-25% weight savings over aluminium equivalents and 65-70% weight savings when
substituting steel designs.
Versatile
Magnesium alloys can be shaped into sheet and plate by rolling, cast using sand and
die casting processes, extruded into both solid and hollow profiles, and processed as powder and
granules. These can be further shaped using forging, pressing, folding, or simply machining from
solid.
Highly Machinable
Magnesium alloys are the easiest of all structural metals to machine. Advantages
include:
Low power consumption (45% less than aluminium)
Fast machining rate (55%)
Excellent surface finish
Reduced tool wear
Well broken chips
High Strength
Alloys are available that have comparable properties with other structural metals - with
the added advantage of superior performance at elevated temperatures (good creep resistance
and tensile strength).
Castability

20

Excellent uniform properties on both thin and thick sections. EMI/RFI Shielding Has
inherent screening properties, useful for electronic enclosures, and has good thermal
conductivity for heat dissipation.
Vibration Damping
Magnesium alloys have excellent vibration damping properties.
Corrosion Resistance
Modern alloys have good corrosion resistance. For more severe environments there are
a range of surface passivation and top coat treatments commercially available.
Application and Features of Titanium for the Aerospace Industry
In the field of aerospace, titanium has been applied for many years. Commercially pure
titanium and titanium alloy as represented by Ti-6Al-4V are mainly used for the airframe and the
engine parts respectively. The demand expansion of titanium has been expected due to realize
low fuel consumption of aircraft. On the other hand, various qualifications and high quality
management are required in order to entry in the aerospace industry.
Commercially pure titanium and titanium alloys for industrial use (hereinafter
referred to as titanium) are widely used for aircraft as a material having light weight (density
being 60% that of steel), high strength, and excellent corrosion resistance. Recently, the
application ratio of CFRP (Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic) to airframes and engine parts has
been growing to improve aircraft fuel consumption. Similarly, demand for titanium is also
growing as it has excellent compatibility with CFRP with respect to corrosiveness and coefficient
of thermal expansion issues. The amount of titanium used in the low fuel consumption aircraft
A350XWB manufactured by Airbus S.A.S., where a large amount of CFRP is used, has grown to
more than twice the amount used in conventional aircraft.
Current Status of Titanium Applications for Aircraft
Titanium for airframes
Starting with fabric and wooden materials, airframe materials have evolved into the
current CFRP by way of aluminium alloys. Additionally, steel-based materials were used for
portions where high strength was required (frames and joints), and have now been replaced by
titanium alloys to save weight. Designing joints in an airframe where heterogeneous materials
are used must take into consideration the prevention of potential difference corrosion (galvanic
corrosion), and the elimination of strain caused by a difference in coefficients of thermal
expansion. In recent years, as CFRP has come to the forefront, titanium alloys with physical
characteristics similar to those of CFRP have become more commonly used.
Titanium for engines
Turbo fan engines are widely employed by commercial aircraft to improve combustion efficiency,
and thereby improve fuel consumption. Fuel combustion in the rear section of the engine runs
the gas turbine and fan blades in the fore section. Propulsion thrust is generated by the reaction
force of the rearward flow of air taken in from the front by the blades, and the rearward
discharge of combustion gases. Turbo fan engines of this type consist of four sections. They are,
in order from the front: the fan, compressor, combustion chamber, and turbine. A titanium alloy
21

is mainly used for the fan and the compressor in the fore half section, where the temperature is
relatively low (600C or lower). For the turbine and the combustion chamber in the rear half
section where temperatures are higher, a nickel based alloy or iron-based alloy is used. 2.3
Properties required for titanium material in aircraft Airframe maintenance costs can be effectively
reduced through the use of materials excellent in fatigue strength, crack propagation resistance,
fracture toughness, and corrosion resistance. Furthermore, titanium alloys are widely used due to
their aforementioned compatibility with CFRP. Examples of applications of titanium alloys for
airframes with respect to location and material are shown in Table 1. In that table, numerical
figures shown in Material denote the general content of major elements. For example, Ti-6Al-4V
represents an alloy containing aluminium (Al) of 6wt% and Vanadium (V) of 4wt%.
For aircraft engines, titanium alloys stronger than pure titanium are used for their light
weight, high strength (high specific strength) and heat resistance properties. Aluminium alloys
with high specific strength are rarely used in aircraft engines because their strength drops
sharply at temperatures of about 200C and above. Although the specific strength of titanium
alloys deteriorates as the temperature rises, their specific strength is superior to that of Ni-based
alloy in the temperature range between 500-600C.
Since the temperature around fan blades is relatively low, Ti- 6Al-4V alloy having a
higher specific strength and excellent fatigue strength is commonly used. For engines of medium
and small size aircraft, forged solid fan blades are employed, while on the other hand, for large
engines with larger fan blades, hollow fan blades devised for saving weight are employed. The
fan disc fixes fan blades together and is considered to be the most important safety related part.
For this reason, materials having a high strength and high toughness are required, and therefore,
titanium alloys such as Ti- 6Al-4V and Ti-17 (Ti-5Al-2Sn-2Zr-4Cr-4Mo) are used.
Temperatures in high-pressure compressors become higher than in low-pressure
compressors, and a high strength material with high heat resistance is therefore required. As for
compressor blades, Ti- 6Al-4V alloy is used for low-pressure compressors, while Ti-8Al- 1Mo-1V
and Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-6Mo, which have excellent strength and fatigue characteristics and toughness
at high temperatures, are used for high-pressure compressors. For compressor discs, excellent
low-cycle fatigue and creep characteristics are required, in addition to high strength and
toughness at high temperatures; therefore, Ti- 6Al-2Sn-4Zr-2Mo-0.1Si and Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-6Mo
titanium alloys, which offer excellent heat resistance, are used.
Examples of titanium material for aircraft
Major titanium materials used in airframes and engines are introduced hereunder.
Commercially pure titanium
There are four grades of commercially pure titanium, categorized by strength, so the
most appropriate material can be selected according to the required strength and workability.
They are used for non-structural applications, such as water supply systems for galleys and
sanitary, and for ducts and piping, many of which require corrosion resistance and good
formability.
Ti-6Al-4V alloy
Ti-6Al-4V alloy is designed for a good balance of characteristics, including: strength,
ductility, fracture toughness, high temperature strength, creep characteristics, Weldability,
22

workability, and thermal processability (higher strength is easily obtained by heat treatment).
This alloy is therefore used for many airframe and engine parts. Furthermore, there are many
actual applications of this alloy in aircraft where high reliability is required, and further, the
availability of abundant data promotes its application. In airframes, it is used for general
structural material, bolts, seat rails and the like. In engines, due to the relatively low allowable
temperature of about 300C, the alloy is used for fan blades, fan case and the like in the intake
section where temperatures are relatively low. Major relevant standards are JIS H 4600 (TAP
6400H) and ASTM G5. The yield strength of annealed material is 825 MPa or higher, tensile
strength is 895 MPa or higher, and elongation is 10% or higher at room temperature.
Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-2Mo alloy
Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-2Mo alloy is a heat resistant alloy developed in the latter half of 1960s.
Its heat resistant temperature is approximately 450C. In the latter half of the 1970s, Ti-6Al-2Sn4Zr-2Mo- 0.1Si was developed to improve oxidation resistance and creep property with the
addition of Si of 0.06~0.2wt%, and the heat resistant temperature was improved to
approximately 500C.
Therefore, this alloy is commonly used for compressor discs where 500C is the upper
service temperature limit. In order to obtain a good balance between fatigue property and creep
property, Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr- 2Mo-0.1Si alloy is, in many cases, processed to a Bi-Modal structure
with the area ratio of equiaxed grain being controlled to within 10-25%.4) The major relevant
standards are AMS 4919, 4975, and 4976.
The yield strength of annealed material of the alloy is 860 MPa or higher, tensile
strength is 930 MPa or higher, and elongation is 10% or higher at room temperature.3) As the
alloy has less phase than Ti-6Al-4V alloy, ageing treatment is not effective. Therefore, the alloy
is normally used after solution heat treatment (at a temperature at least 35C below the
transformation temperature), followed by stabilizing annealing (for about 8 hours at 590C).
Ti-8Al-1Mo-1V alloy
Ti-8Al-1Mo-1V alloy was developed in the 1960s. Its heat resistant temperature is
approximately 400C. Since its heat resistant temperature is higher than that of Ti-6Al-4V alloy, it
is used for compressor blades and the like, rather than fan blades. The major relevant standards
are AMS 4915, 4916, 4972, and 4973. The yield strength of the annealed material is 930 MPa or
higher, tensile strength is 1,000 MPa or higher, and elongation is 10% or higher at room
temperature.3) Similar to Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-2Mo-0.1Si, this alloy has less phase and is therefore
used after solution heat treatment and stabilizing annealing.
Ti-5Al-2Sn-2Zr-4Cr-4Mo (Ti-17) alloy
Ti-5Al-2Sn-2Zr-4Cr-4Mo alloy (occasionally referred to as Ti- 17 alloy) was developed
in the USA in the 1970s as an alloy having high strength and excellent fracture toughness. Its
heat resistant temperature is approximately 350C. In commercial aircraft engines, the fan and
shaft are built as one piece to reduce engine weight. The yield strength and tensile strength at
room temperature are about 1,150 MPa and about 1,250 MPa respectively, higher than those of
Ti-6Al-4V alloy by about 200 MPa. The alloy also exhibits excellent crack propagation
characteristics, and is appropriate for damage tolerance design. The major relevant standard is
AMS 4955. The yield strength of the STA (Solution Treatment and Aging) material is 1,055-1,193
MPa, tensile strength is 1,124-1,265 MPa, and elongation is 5% or higher at room temperature.
23

Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-6Mo alloy
Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-6Mo is a titanium alloy developed around 1966. Its heat resistant
temperature is about 450C. This alloy has high strength and excellent creep characteristics. The
major relevant standard is AMS 4981. The yield strength of the STA material is 1,105 MPa or
higher, tensile strength is 1,170 MPa or higher, and elongation is 10% or higher at room
temperature.
Ti-15V-3Cr-3Sn-3Al alloy
Ti-15V-3Cr-3Sn-3Al alloy was developed around 1980. This solution heat-treated
material has excellent cold workability and, in the form of a thin sheet, a strength higher than
that of pure titanium JIS H 4600 (TP550H) can be obtained. For airframes, welded pipes and ducts
made by welding thin sheets are used. The major relevant standard is AMS 4914. Yield strength
of the solution heat-treated material is 690-835 MPa, tensile strength is 745-945 MPa, elongation
is 12% or higher, the yield strength of STA material is 965-1,170 MPa, tensile strength is 1,000
MPa or higher, and elongation is 7% or higher.
Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al alloy
Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al alloy has excellent hardenability, high strength, and high fatigue
strength. It is mainly used for landing gear (part of the main landing gear for take-off and
landing). Major relevant standards are AMS 4983, 4984, 4986, and 4987. The yield strength of
the STA material is 1,105 MPa or higher, tensile strength is 1,240 MPa or higher, and elongation
is 4% or higher at room temperature.

Thermal spraying(Metallising)

The process of coating metal surfaces with various metals, alloys, carbides, etc. by a spray
gun.
Oxyfuel flame, electric arc and plasma arc can be used.
Coating material is in the form of wire, rod or powder.
The coating has a layered structure and may have a porosity of 20%.

Applications:
o Air craft engine components
o Storage tank
o Components which require resistance to wear & corrosion.
Repair of a worn turbine-engine shaft by thermal spraying
The shaft of the helical gear for a turbine engine had two worn regions on its nitride surfaces.
The case hardened depth was 0.3 mm. Even though the helical gears were in good condition, the
part was considered scrap because of the absence of proper repair method.
The worn regions were first machined undersize, grit blasted and coated with tungsten carbide
(12% cobalt content) using the high velocity oxyfuel gas (HVOF) thermal spraying technique. The
part was then finish-machined to the dimensions of the original new shaft. The total cost of repair
was a fraction of the projected cost of the projected cost of replacing the part.
Types
24

Thermal wire spraying

Oxyfuel melts the wire and deposits on the surface.

Bond is of medium strength.
Inexpensive

Thermal metal-powder spraying

Uses powder instead of wire.

8300 degree celsius

Very good bond strength
Low oxide content

Plasma

Detonation gun
Controlled explosion using oxyfuel mixture

High velocity oxyfuel gas spraying

Performance similar to detonation gun
Less expensive
Wire arc

Arc is formed between two consumable wire electrodes

Least expensive
II,Vapor deposition

Involves chemical reaction between metal and gas containing material to be coated

Few micro metres thick coatings

Control of coating composition, thickness and porosity is important

Work piece material may be metal, plastic, glass or paper

Applications:
o coating of cutting tools, drills, reamers, dies, etc.
25

Types
1. Physical vapor deposition (PVD)

a) Vacuum evaporation
o Metal is evaporated at a high temperature in vacuum and deposited on the
substrate.
o Uniform thickness obtained
Arc evaporation
o Coating material (cathode) is evaporated by several arc evaporators using
highly localised electric arcs. Produces highly reactive plasma consisting of
ionized vapour of the coating material. The vapour condenses and coats on
the substrate (anode).
Applications
Functional: oxidation-resistant coatings for high temp. applications,
electronics and optics.
o Decorative: hardware appliances and jewellery.
b) Sputtering
o

An electric field ionises an inert gas and the positive ions bombard the
coating material (cathode) and cause sputtering (ejecting) of its atoms. These
atoms then condense on the workpiece, which is heated to improve bonding.

Reactive sputtering
o Inert gas is replaced by a reactive gas such as oxygen. In which case atoms
are oxidised and oxides are deposited. Carbides and nitrides are also
deposited by this method.
o Very thin polymer coatings can be deposited on metals and polymeric
substrates with a reactive gas causing polymerisation of the plasma.
Radio-Frequency (RF) sputtering
Used for non conducting materials such as electrical insulators and semi
conductor devices.
c) Ion plating
o It is a combined process of sputtering and vacuum evaporation. An electric
field causes a glow discharge generating plasma. The vaporised atoms in this
process are only partially ionised.
o

d) Dual ion-beam assisted deposition

26

Hybrid coating technique that combines physical vapour deposition with

simultaneous ion-beam bombardment. This results in good adhesion on
metals, ceramics and polymers.
Applications
o

Ceramic bearings and dental instruments

2. Chemical vapor deposition (CVD)

o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
III.
o
o
o
o

A thermo chemical process in which the tools are placed on a graphite tray and heated to
950- 1050 degree C at atmospheric pressure in an inert atmosphere to coat cutting tools
with titanium nitride.
Titanium tetra chloride (a vapor), hydrogen, and nitrogen are then introduced into the
chamber. The chemical reaction forms titanium nitride in the tool surface.
For coating titanium carbide methane is substituted for gas.
Usually thicker coatings than those obtained using PVD.
Cycle for CVD is long, consisting of 3 hours of heating, 4 hours of coating and 6-8 hours of
cooling to room temp.
The thickness of coating depends on time, temperature and flow rates of gas used.
Although bond strength may vary, any material can be used for coating and any material
can serve as substrate,
Also used to produce diamond coating without using binders.
Medium temperature CVD (recent development) results in higher resistance to crack
propagation than CVD coating.
Ion implantation
Ions are introduced into surface of the workpiece by accelerating in a vacuum to such an
extent that they penetrate the substrate to a depth of a few micro metres.
It modifies surface properties by increasing surface hardness and improving resistance to
friction, wear and corrosion.
The process is accurately controlled and the surface can be masked to prevent ion
implantation in unwanted locations.
Effective on materials such as Aluminium, Titanium, stainless steel, carbides, chromium
coatings etc.

27

Applications
o
o

Used in cutting and forming tools, dies and moulds and metal prostheses such as artificial
hips and knees.
Used in semi conductors (doping.)

Glasses: Structure, Properties, and Applications

Glass
Glass is an amorphous solid with the structure of a liquid. In other words it has been super
cooled, that is cooled at a rate too high for crystals to form. Generally we define glass as an
inorganic product of fusion that has cooled to a rigid condition without crystallizing. Glass has no
distinct melting or freezing point; thus its behavior is similar to that of amorphous polymers. At
present, there are some 750 different types of commercially available glasses. The uses of glass
range from windows, bottles and cookware to glasses with special mechanical, electrical, hightemperature, chemical resistant, corrosion-resistant, and optical characteristics. Special glasses
are used in fiber optics for communication, with little loss in signal power, and in glass fibers with
very high strength for reinforced plastics.
All classes contain at least 50% silica, which is known as a glass former. The composition and
properties of glasses, except strength, can be modified greatly by the addition of oxides of
aluminum, sodium, calcium, barium, boron, magnesium, titanium, lithium, lead and potassium.
Depending on their function, these oxides are known as intermediates or modifiers. Glasses are
generally resistant to chemical attack and are ranked by their resistance to acid, alkali, or water
corrosion.

Glass structure
Glass is an amorphous or non-crystalline solid that is brittle in nature and the structure is
obtained by melt-quenching process. The glass structure (Figure 1(b)) is also obtained by using
sol-gel and vapor deposition technique. Glass is weak in tension because of its non-crystalline
molecular structure. When load is applied beyond the strength limit, glass breaks without any
prior warning, unlike steel and aluminium where plastic deformation occurs. Therefore, the
atomic structure of the glass is different from the structure of the crystalline materials (Figure
1(a)).
The main constituent of glass is silica sand. Almost, all glass contains at least 50% silica. The
structure of the glass is formed by bonding silicon and oxygen ions. Network modifiers (or
intermediates) and network formers such as sodium (Figure 1(c)), may interrupt the continuity or
contribute to the network structure of glass.
There are two main differences between crystalline and amorphous solids; crystalline solids are
formed by repeating geometric arrangement of atoms whereas; amorphous solids have random
atomic arrangement.
The second difference is their phase transformation behavior (Figure 2) when they are heated.
For example, the transformation phases of crystalline and amorphous solids can be understand
by examining silica (SiO2) which can exist in either state. When silica is in crystal form and is
28

heated at a temperature Tm (freezing or melting point), it becomes liquid. It is observed that at

melting point the specific volume of crystalline solids changes abruptly which causes sharp
changes in physical properties. Whereas the amorphous structure of silica softens gradually
(start softening at temperature Tg) when those are heated because there is a wide temperature
range between the solid and liquid state. The temperature Tg is the glass transition temperature
of the solids

Types of glasses
Almost all commercial glasses are categorized by type (Table 11.9):
1. Soda-lime glass (the most common type);
2. Lead-alkali glass;
3. Borosilicate glass;
4. Aluminosilicate glass;
5. 96% silica glass;
6. Fused silica.
Soda-lime glass (the most common type)
Soda-lime glass, also called soda-lime-silica glass, is the most prevalent type of glass, used for
windowpanes and glass containers (bottles and jars) for beverages, food, and some commodity
items.

29

Soda-lime glass is relatively inexpensive, chemically stable, reasonably hard, and extremely
workable. Because it can be re softened and re melted numerous times, it is ideal for glass
recycling.
Soda-lime
glass
is
prepared
by
melting
the raw
materials,
such
as sodium
carbonate (soda), lime, dolomite, silicon dioxide (silica), aluminium oxide (alumina), and small
quantities of fining agents (e.g., sodium sulfate, sodium chloride) in a glass furnace at
temperatures locally up to 1675C.
Lead-alkali glass;
Lead
glass is
a
variety
of glass in
which lead replaces
the calcium content
of
a
typical potash glass. Lead glass contains typically 1840 weight% lead(II) oxide (PbO), while
modern lead crystal, historically also known as flint glass due to the original silica source,
contains a minimum of 24% PbO

Bowl made from lead glass

Lead crystal beads

Originally discovered by Englishman George Ravenscroft in 1674, the technique of adding lead
oxide (in quantities of between 10 and 30%) improved the appearance of the glass and made it
easier to melt using sea-coal as a furnace fuel. This technique also increased "working period"
making the glass easier to manipulate.
The term lead crystal is, by technicality, not an accurate term to describe lead glass, as glass,
an amorphous solid, lacks a crystalline structure. The use of the term lead crystal remains
popular for historical and commercial reasons. It is retained from the Venetian word cristallo to
describe the rock crystal imitated by Murano glassmakers. This naming convention has been
maintained to the present day to describe decorative hollow-ware.
Borosilicate glass;
Borosilicate glass is a type of glass with silica and boron trioxide as the main glass-forming
constituents. Borosilicate glasses are known for having very low coefficients of thermal
expansion (~3 106 /C at 20 C), making them resistant to thermal shock, more so than any
other common glass. Such glasmades is less subject to thermal stress and is commonly used for
the construction of reagent bottles. Borosilicate glass is sold under such trade names
as Simax,Borcam, Borosil, Suprax, Kimax, Heatex, Pyrex, Endural, Schott, or Refmex, Kimble.

Guitar slide made of borosilicate glass

Aluminosilicate glass;

Borosilicate beakers

A small, but important type of glass, alumino silicate, contains 20% aluminium oxide (aluminaAl2O3) often including calcium oxide, magnesium oxide and boric oxide in relatively small
30

amounts, but with only very small amounts of soda or potash. It is able to withstand high
temperatures and thermal shock and is typically used in combustion tubes, gauge glasses for
high-pressure steam boilers, and in halogen-tungsten lamps capable of operating at temperature
as high as 750C
96% silica glass;
Fused quartz or fused silica is glass consisting of silica in amorphous (non - crystalline) form. It
differs from traditional glasses in containing no other ingredients, which are typically added to
glass to lower the melt temperature. Fused silica, therefore, has high working and melting
temperatures. The optical and thermal properties of fused quartz are superior to those of other
types of glass due to its purity. For these reasons, it finds use in situations such as
semiconductor fabrication and laboratory equipment.
Fused silica.
Fused silica is a non crystalline (glass) form of silicon dioxide (quartz, sand). Typical of glasses, it
lacks long range order in its atomic structure. Its highly cross linked three dimensional structure
gives rise to its high use temperature and low thermal expansion coefficient.
Other Classification of glasses
Glasses are also classified as colored, opaque (white and translucent), multiform (variety of
shapes), optical, photo chromatic (darkens when exposed to light, as in some types of
sunglasses), photosensitive (changes from clear to opal), fibrous (drawn into long fibers, as in
fiberglass), and foam or cellular glass (containing bubbles, hence a good thermal insulator).
Glasses are also referred to as hard or soft, usually in the sense of a thermal property rather than
a mechanical property, as in hardness; thus, a soft glass softens at a lower temperature than
does a hard glass. Soda-lime and lead-alkali glasses are considered soft, and the rest of the types
of glass are considered hard.
Glass properties
The behaviour of glass is linearly elastic and brittle. The stress-strain curve for the glass is shown
in Figure 3. In compression, the glass is very strong and its compressive strength can reach up to
10,000 MPa. But in tension, when stress level exceeds 100 MPa, glass fails easily. The failure of
glass is due to the stress concentration at surface flaws as no plastic flow is possible in glass. For
the most commercial glasses, Youngs modulus of elasticity (E) ranges from 55-90 GPa and the
Poisson's ratio () ranges from 0.16-0.28. The fiber glass which is drawn from the molten glass
has tensile strength ranges from 0.2-7 GPa. The glass fiber is stronger than the steel and most of
the time used as a reinforcing material to form reinforced plastics. The other important
properties of glass are low thermal conductivity, high dielectric strength, resistance to corrosion
on attack by water and acid.

31

Mechanical properties
For all practical purposes, we regard the behavior of glass, as for most ceramics, a perfectly
elastic and brittle. The range or modulus of elasticity for most commercial glasses is 55 - 90 GPa
(8-13 million psi), and the Poissons ratio of glasses ranges from 0.16-0.28. The hardness of
glasses, as a measure of resistance to scratching, ranges from 5 - 7 on the Mohs scale,
equivalent to a range of approximately 350-500 HK.
Glass in bulk form has a strength of less than 140MPa / 20 ksi. The relative strength of bulk glass
is attributed to the presence of small flaws and micro cracks and on the surface of the glass,
some or all of which may be introduced during normal handling of the glass by inadvertent
abrading. These defects reduce the strength of glass by two to three orders of magnitude,
compared with its ideal (defect free) strength. Glasses can he strengthened by thermal or
chemical treatments to obtain high strength and toughness.
The strength of glass can theoretically reach as high as 35 GPa (5 million psi). When molten glass
is freshly drawn into fibers (fiberglass), its tensile strength range, from 0.2 GPa to 7 GPa (30 ksi
to 1000 ksi), with an average value of about 2 GPa (300 ksi). Thus, glass fibers are stronger than
steel and are used to reinforce plastics in applications such as boats, automobile bodies,
furniture, and sports equipment. The strength of glass is usually measured by bending it. The
surface of the glass is first thoroughly abraded (roughened) to ensure that the test gives a
reliable strength level in actual service under adverse conditions. The phenomenon of static
fatigue observed in ceramics is also exhibited by glasses. If a glass item must withstand a load
for 1000 hours or longer, the maximum stress that can be applied to it is approximately one third
the maximum stress that the same item can withstand during the first second of loading.
Physical properties
Glasses have low thermal conductivity and high electrical resistivity and dielectric strength. Their
thermal expansion coefficient is lower than those for metals and plastics and may even approach
zero. Titanium-silicate glass (a clear, synthetic high-silica glass), for example, has a near-zero
coefficient of thermal expansion. Fused silica, a clear, synthetic amorphous silicon dioxide of very
high purity, also has a near-zero coefficient of expansion. Optical properties of glasses, such as
reflection, absorption, transmission, and refraction, can be modified by varying their composition
and treatment.

32

Here are some of the physical properties of a glass:

Glass Is a Type of Solid Material
Glass is a solid substance and in solid objects, the molecule bonds are tighter compared to a
liquid material.1 There is a less movement among them in this case. It only means that glass is a
type of solid material that will not change its shape unless it being heated to a certain high
temperature. When heated glass is supple but if you will apply too much pressure, it will also
break.
Durable
Glass is durable due to the strong bonds between the molecules in it. Its strength and its
durability mainly depend on its thickness.The thinner the sheets of the glass, the easier it is to
break them. It is also hard to scratch it since it requires a sharp object in order to do this. It can
hold a liquid without breaking.
Static
Glass does not react with other materials and will not be a reactive to other materials and will
not be decomposed by most acids. With this type of property, it makes glass appropriate for
laboratories use and for storage of acidic food and beverage. Hydrofluoric acid and concentrated
acid are the only acids that glass will react with.
Absorbs Heat
Glass absorbs and transmits heat which means that if you heat a glass then the temperature of
the contents inside of it will react. The heat applied will make the molecules in the glass to
vibrate faster that pass thru one molecule to another. The energy and friction being applied to
the glass will cause the glass of bottle to heat up and this energy is being passed on to the
contents of the glass bottle.
Optical Properties
Glass is a transparent substance which means you see through it. Glass bottles can be colored. It
is good in refracting light and separates the colors of the spectrum. With this glass property, it
only means that you can see the inside of the bottle. Great thing about glass bottles is that it
does not deteriorate, corrode, fade and it is considered one of the safest packaging materials.
Glass ceramics
Although glasses are amorphous, glass ceramics (such as Pyroceram, a trade name) have a high
crystalline component to their microstructure. Glass ceramics contain large proportions of
several oxides, and hence their properties are a combination of those for glass and ceramics.
Most glass ceramics are stronger than glass. These products are first shaped and then heat
treated, with devitrification (recrystallization) of the glass occurring. Unlike most glasses, which
are clear, glass ceramics are generally white or gray in color.
A glass-ceramic cooktop

33

The hardness of glass ceramics ranges approximately from 520 HK to 650HK. They have a nearzero coefficient of thermal expansion: hence, they have good thermal shock resistance and high
strength, because of the absence of the porosity usually found in conventional ceramics. The
properties of glass ceramics can be improved b modifying their composition and by heattreatment techniques. First developed fm 1957, glass ceramics are suitable for cookware, heat
exchangers for gas-turbine engines, radomes(housings for radar antenna), and electrical and
electronics applications.
Forming and Shaping of Glass
Glass products can generally be categorized as

Flat sheet or plate ranging in thickness from about 0.8mm to 10 mm (0.03 in to 0.4 in),
such as window glass, glass doors, and glass tabletops.

Rods and tubing used for chemicals, neon lights and decorative artifacts.

Discrete products such as bottles, vases, headlights, and television tubes.

Glass

fibers

to

reinforce

composite

materials

and

for

fiber

optics.

All glass forming and shaping processes begin with molten glass, which has the appearance of
red-hot viscous syrup, supplied from a melting furnace or tank.
Traditionally, flat-sheet glass has been made by drawing or rolling from the molten state and,
more recently, by the Float method, all of which are continuous processes. In the drawing
process, the molten glass passes through a pair of rolls, similar to an old-fashioned clothes
wringer. The solidifying glass is squeezed between the rolls, forming a sheet, which is then
moved forward over a set of smaller rolls. In the rolling process, the molten glass is squeezed
between rollers, forming a sheet. The surfaces of the glass can be embossed with a pattern by
shaping the surfaces of the rollers accordingly. Glass sheet produced by drawing and rolling has a
rough surface appearance. In making plate glass, both surfaces have to he ground parallel and
polished.
In the Float method (Fig. 11.28), developed in the 1950s, molten glass from the furnace is fed
into a bath of molten tin, under controlled atmosphere; the glass floats on the tin bath. The glass
then moves over rollers into another chamber (called a lehr) and solidifies. Float glass has a
smooth (fire-polished) surface and needs no further grinding or polishing.
FIGURE 11.28 The float method of forming sheet glass. Source: Corning glass works
Glass tubing is manufactured by the process shown in Fig. 11.29. In this process, molten glass is
wrapped around a rotating hollow cylindrical or cone-shaped mandrel and is drawn out by a set
of rolls. Air is blown through the mandrel to keep the glass tube from collapsing.
FIGURE 11.29 manufacturing process for glass tubing. Air is blown through the mandrel to keep
the tube from collapsing. Source: Corning Glass Works.
34

The machines used in this process may be horizontal vertical, or slanted downward. Glass rods
are made in a similar manner, but air is not blown through the mandrel; thus, the drawn product
becomes a solid rod.
Continuous fibers are drawn through multiple (200 - 400). Orifices in heated platinum plates at
speeds as high as 500m/s(1700 ft/s), Fibers are small as 2m (80 m) in diameter can be
produced by this method. In order to protect their surface5 the fibers are subsequently coated
with chemicals. Short glass fibers, used as thermal insulating material (glass wool) or for acoustic
insulation, are made by centrifugal spraying process in which molten glass is fed into a rotating
head
Making discrete glass products
Several processes are used for making discrete glass objects. These processes includes blowing,
pressing, centrifugal casting, and sagging.
Blowing: The blowing process is used to make hollow thin-walled glass items, such as bottles and
flasks, and is similar to blow molding of thermoplastics. Figure 11.30 shows the steps involved in
the production of an ordinary glass bottle by the blowing process. In this process blown air
expands a hollow gob of heated glass against the walls of a mold. The mold is usually coated
with a parting agent, such as oil or emulsion to prevent the part from sticking to it. The surface
finish of products made by the blowing process is acceptable for most applications. Although it is
difficult to control the wall thickness of the product, this process is used for high rates of
production. Light bulbs are made in automatic blowing machines, at a rate of over 1000 bulbs
per minute.
FIGURE 11.30 Stages in manufacturing a common glass bottle. Source F H. Norton.
Pressing: In pressing, a gob of molten glass is placed in a mold and is pressed into shape with the
use of a plunger. The mold may be made in one piece (Fig. 11.31), or it may be a split mold (Fig.
11.32). After pressing, the solidifying glass acquires the shape of the cavity between the mold
and the plunger. Because of the confined environment the product has greater dimensional
accuracy than can be obtained with blowing. However, pressing cannot be used on thin-walled
items or for parts such as bottles from which the plunger cannot be retracted.

FIGURE 11.31 Manufacturing a glass item by pressing in a mold. Source: Corning Glass Works.
FIGURE 11.32 Pressing glass in a split mold. Source: Shand. E. B.. Glass Engineering Handbook.
New York, Mc Graw hill,1938.

35

Pressed glass standing dish

Centrifugal casting: Also known as spinning in the glass industry, the centrifugal casting process
is similar to that for metals. In this process, the centrifugal force pushes the molten glass against
the mold wall, where it solidifies. Typical products include picture tubes for televisions and missile
nose cones.
Sagging: Shallow dish-shaped or lightly embossed glass parts can be made by the sagging
process. In this process a sheet of glass is placed over the mold and is heated. The glass sags its
own weight and takes the shape of the mold. The process is similar to thermoforming with
thermoplastics, but without pressure or a vacuum. Typical applications include dishes, lenses for
sunglasses, mirrors for telescopes, and lighting panels.
Techniques for treating glass
As produced by the methods described in this chapter, glass can be strengthened by thermal
tempering, chemical tempering, and laminating. Glass products may also be subjected to
annealing and other finishing operations. These treatment techniques are described as follows.
a) In thermal tempering (also called physical tempering or chill tempering), the surfaces of
the hot glass arc cooled rapidly (Fig. 11.33). As a result, the surfaces shrink, and because
the bulk is still hot, tensile stresses develop on the surfaces. As the hulk of the glass
begins to cool, it contracts. The solidified surfaces are now forced to contract, thus
developing residual compressive surface stresses and interior tensile stresses.
Compressive surface stresses improve the strength of the glass, as they do in other
materials. Note that the higher the coefficient of thermal expansion of the glass and the
lower its thermal conductivity, the higher is the level of residual stresses developed and,
hence, the stronger the glass becomes. Thermal tempering takes a relatively short time
(measured in minutes) and can be applied to most glasses. Because of the large amount
of energy stored from residual stresses, tempered glass shauters into a large number of
pieces when broken..
b) In chemical tempering, the glass is heated in a bath of molten KNO3, K2SO4, or NaNO3,
depending on the type of glass. Ion exchange takes place, with larger atoms replacing the
smaller atoms on the surface of the glass. As a result, residual compressive stresses
develop on the surface. This condition is similar to that created by forcing a wedge
between two bricks in a wall. The rime required for chemical tempering is longer (about
one hour) than for thermal tempering. Chemical tempering may be performed at various
temperatures. At low temperatures, distortion of the part is minimal, and complex shapes
can be treated. At elevated temperatures, there may he some distortion of the part, but
the product can be used at higher temperatures without loss of strength.
c) Another strengthening method is to make laminated glass, which is two pieces of flat glass
with a thin sheet of tough plastic between them; the process is also called laminate
strengthening. When laminated glass is broken, its pieces are held together hr the plastic
sheer. You probably has seen this phenomenon in a shattered automobile windshield.
Finishing operations: As in metal products, residual stresses can develop in glass products if the
products are nor cooled slowly enough. In order to ensure that the product is free from these
36

stresses, it is annealed by a process similar to stress-relief annealing of metals. In this process

the glass is heated to a certain temperature and cooled gradually. Depending on the size,
thickness, and type of glass, annealing times may range from a few minutes to as long as 10
months, as in the case of a 600-mm (24-in.) mirror for a telescope. In addition to annealing, glass
products may be subjected to further operations, such as cutting, drilling, grinding, and
polishing. Sharp edges and corners can be smoothened by grinding, as in glass tops for desks
and shelves, or by holding a torch against the edges (fire polishing), which rounds them by
localized softening and surface tension

Metal Drawing Through Dies Of Circular Contours:/ M J Justin Pachen.

Introduction
Metal drawing is a manufacturing process that forms metal work stock by reducing its
cross section. This is accomplished by forcing the work through a mold, (die), of smaller cross
sectional area than the work. This process is very similar to metal extrusion, the difference being
in the application of force. In extrusion the work is pushed through the die opening, where in
drawing it is pulled through. The basic concept of metal drawing is illustrated in the following
figure.
Drawing operations involve pulling metal through a die by means of a tensile force applied to
the exit side of the die.
The plastic flow is caused by compression force, arising from the reaction of the metal with the
die.
Starting materials: hot rolled stock (ferrous) and extruded (nonferrous).
Material should have high ductility and good tensile strength.
Bar wire and tube drawing are usually carried out at room temperature, except for large
deformation, which leads to considerable rise in temperature during drawing.
The metal usually has a circular symmetry(but not always, depending on requirements).
Principle
Metal drawingis a manufacturing process that forms metal work stock by reducing its cross
section. This is accomplished by forcing the work through a mold, (die), of smaller cross sectional
area than the work
Similar to extrusion, the die angle, amount of area reduction and geometry of cross sections are
all essential considerations. Friction and its effects on metal flow should be controlled.
. As in extrusion, the greater the reduction in cross sectional area the greater the force required
to form the work. When the force needed to pull a work piece through a mold exceeds the yield
strength of the work, it will begin to yield. Yielding of the work in this manner is not desirable in
metal drawing manufacture.
Many of the same manufacturing factors of metal extrusion are also present in metal
drawing. Similar to extrusion, the die angle, amount of area reduction and geometry of cross
sections are all essential considerations. Friction and its effects on metal flow should be
controlled. There is a fundamental difference between metal extrusion and metal drawing
practice, based on the fundamental difference between the two processes. Metal extrusion can
37

provide tremendous reductions in cross sectional area by pushing the material through the mold.
In metal drawing the amount of cross sectional reduction is much more limited, by the fact that
the metal is pulled through. As in extrusion, the greater the reduction in cross sectional area the
greater the force required to form the work. When the force needed to pull a work piece through
a mold exceeds the yield strength of the work, it will begin to yield. Yielding of the work in this
manner is not desirable in metal drawing manufacture.
In theory the highest possible amount of area reduction, based on preventing yielding of
the work, is usually about 63%. In industrial manufacturing practice, area reductions generally
range from 15% to 45%. In order to obtain greater reductions in cross sectional area, the work
may be drawn through two or more drawing die in series. Metal drawing often involves round
profiles. The term draft is used to denote the reduction in diameter of drawn round cross
sections. In addition to the specific cross sectional reduction, the work material and the speed at
which the product is drawn are also critical operational factors when `
Metal Drawing Process
The metal drawing process in manufacturing industry is usually performed cold. Cold
working will impart the drawn product with accurate tolerances, favorable grain structure,
improved material properties and good surface finish. Preparation of the work, prior to drawing,
is an important part of the operation. The work is sometimes annealed first, to recover the
material from existing stresses. Next the work surfaces are cleaned. Common industrial practice
for cleaning metal stock includes shot blasting or submersion in some, (typically acidic), solution.
The work is then washed to remove any solution, it may also be dried at a low temperature. After
the cleaning phase the stock may be conditioned, this can involve the application of a variety of
different chemical solutions to the surface of the work. Specific chemicals used depend on the
manufacturing situation and the work material. The main reason for these conditioning agents is
to help the work surface hold the lubrication necessary for the process.
Once prepared, the work piece is pointed at one end, allowing that end to be inserted
through the die. This end is then mechanically gripped so that the rest of the work can be pulled
through. At certain points in the process, the drawn product may require straightening.
Straightening rolls can be employed as part of the manufacturing process. Metal drawing can be
either a discrete or continuous operation and can be very economically efficient for certain
applications. In commercial industry, this process provides stock material for machining
operations and for the manufacture of such items as fences, coat hangers, nails, screws and
bolts. Metal wire drawing plays a huge roll in the manufacturing industry in the production of
cable and electrical wire.
Types Of Drawing

Roll Drawing
Wire Drawing
Tube Drawin

Rod Drawing

Reducing the diameter through plastic deformation while the volume remains the same.

Same principals for drawing bars, rods, and wire but equipment is different in sizes
depending on products.
38

Rods which can not be coiled, are produced on draw benches.Rod is swaged
Insert though the Die,Clamped to the jaws of the draw head,The drawheadismoved by a
hydraulic mechanism
Machine Capacity-1 MN draw bench
30 m of run out
1

150-1500 mm. s

draw speed

Wire Drawing
Wire drawing involves reducing the
diameter of a rod or wire by passing through a series of drawing dies or plates.
The subsequent drawing die must have smaller bore diameter than the previous drawing die.
Wire Drawing Process
Hot rolled rod,Pickling, ,descaling,Lubricating,Drawing,.Remove scale causing

Wire drawing involves reducing the diameter of a rod or wire by passing through a series
of drawing dies or plates.

The subsequent drawing die must have smaller bore diameter than the previous drawing
die.

Wire Drawing Dies

Wire Drawing Equipment

The wire is first passed through the overhead loop and pulley, brought down and then
inserted through the die of the second drum and drawn through this die for further
reduction.

Thus, the wire is drawn through all the wire drawing drums of the set in a continuous
manner to get the required finished diameter of the wire. Speed of each draw block has to
be synchronised to avoid slippage between the wire and the block.

The drawing speed:-

~ up to 10m.s-1for ferrous drawing

~ up to 30m.s-1for nonferrous drawing.

Stepped-cone multiple-pass wiredrawing

More economical design.

Use a single electrical motorto drive a series of stepped cones.

The diameter of each cone is designed to produce a peripheral speed equivalent to a

certain size reduction.

Tube Drawing

39

Tube drawing involves reducing the cross section and wall thickness through a draw die.

The cross section can be circular, square hexagonal or in any shapes.

Tube-Drawing Processes

Following the hot forming process, tubes are cold drawn using dies, plugs or mandrels to

the required shape, size, tolerances and mechanical strength.

provides good surface finishes.
increase mechanical properties by strain hardening.
can produce tubes with thinner walls or smaller diameters than can be obtained from

other hot forming methods.

can produce more irregular shapes

Classification of Tube Drawing Processes

There are three basic types of tube-drawing processes

Sinking
Plug drawing
o Fixed plug
o Floating plug
Mandrel drawing.

Tube Sinking

The tube, while passing through the die, shrinks in outerradius from the original radius Ro

to a final radius Roof.

No internal tooling (internal wall is not supported), the wallthen thicken slightly.
Uneven internal surface.
The final thickness of the tube depends on original diameterof the tube, the die diameter

and friction between tube and die.

Lower limiting deformation.

Fixed Plug Drawing

Use cylindrical / conical plug to control size/shape of insidediameter.

Use higher drawing loads than floating plug drawing.
Greater dimensional accuracy than tube sinking.
Increased friction from the plug limit the reduction in area(seldom > 30%).
can draw and coil long lengths of tubing.

Floating Plug Drawing

A tapered plug is placed inside the tube.

As the tube is drawn the plug and the die act together toreduce both the outside/inside

diameters of the tube.

Improved reduction in area than tube sinking (~ 45%).
Lower drawing load than fixed plug drawing.
Long lengths of tubing is possible.
Tool design and lubrication can be very critical.
40

Moving Mandrel Drawing

Draw force is transmitted to the metal by the pull on the exitsection and by the friction

forces acting along the tube mandrelinterface.

minimised friction.
Vmandrel = Vtube
The mandrel also imparts a smooth inside finish surface ofthe tube.
Mandrel removal disturbs dimensional tolerance.

Drawing Die Materials

Polycrystalline Diamond (PCD) used for wire drawing dies for fine wires. Longer die life,
high resistance to wear, cracking or bearing.

Cemented carbides are the most widely used for drawing dies due to their superior
strength, toughness, and wear resistance.

Cemented carbide is composed of carbides of Ti , Ni, Mo, Ta...

Residual Stresses in Rod, Wire and Tubes

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Analysis of Friction and Stress

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The surface area of contact between the wire and the die is given by

Draw Stress with Friction

= Flow Stress

Ab & Aa = Area of Inlet & Exit respectively

B = Friction
B = cot ,

Where,

= Co-efficient of Friction

= Die Angle
DrawingForce , Pd = Drawing Stress X Area at Entry
The Effect of Die Angle on the Total Energy Required to Cause Deformation

Ideal work of plastic deformation Up independent of

die angle .

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increases Work to overcome friction Uf decreases

increases Redundant work increases Ur

The summation of Up, Uf and Ur gives the total energy UT.

This has a minimum at some optimum die angle *.

The reduction and the friction increases increases

Development of Limit on Draw ability

As the material is being deformed through the die, strain hardening occurs and if the material is
severely
Strain-Hardened -> Necking -> Fracture
The drawing limit is reached when

Lubrication In Metal Drawing

Lubrication is an important factor when manufacturing by metal drawing, its application

can help control the forces and metal flow. Lubrication will also extend the life of the mold,
reduce temperature and improve surface finish. Different soaps and oils may be used as
lubricants. With difficult to draw metals, polymers or soft materials may also be used as
lubricants. There are two basic methods of applying lubrication often employed in metal
drawing manufacture.
Wet Drawing In wet drawing the dies and the work are completely submersed in
lubrication. Lubricant in this case is typically some kind of oil containing chemical
additives.
Dry Drawing Dry drawing applies lubrication to the material by use of a stuffing box. The
stuffing box is located in front of the mold and contains lubricant. In this case, it may be
some kind of soap. Work passes through the box and picks up lubrication before entering
the mold.

Defects in Cold Drawn Products

Defects in the starting rod (seams, slivers and pipe).
43

 Defects from the deformation process, i.e., centre burst or chevron cracking (cupping).

This defect will occur for low die angles at low reductions.

For a given reduction and die angle, the critical reduction to prevent fracture increases
with the friction.

Applications

Redrawing, Mesh weaving,Soft pipe manufacturing,Steel rope, Filter elements,

Making of spring,Coils....
TITANIUM AND NICKEL BASED ALLOYS FOR GAS TURBINE APPLICATIONS

INTRODUCTION
Gas turbines have been widely utilized in aircraft engines as well as for land based applications importantly for
power generation. Advancements in gas turbine materials have always played a prime role higher the
capability of the materials to withstand elevated temperature service, more the engine efficiency; materials with
high elevated temperature strength to weight ratio help in weight reduction. A wide spectrum of high
performance materials - Titanium alloys and Nickel alloys - is used for construction of gas turbines. Nickel
alloys are selected for gas turbine applications based on their ability to resist extremely high temperatures,
corrosion and constant wear, and for their magnetic properties. Titanium alloys possess a combination of
mechanical properties and corrosion resistance which makes them very attractive for gas turbine applications.
Nickel and Nickel Alloys
Nickel (Ni) is a silver-white metal and a major alloying element that imparts strength, toughness, and corrosion
resistance. It is used extensively in stainless steels and in nickel-based alloys (also called superalloys). Nickel
alloys are used in high-temperature applications (such as jet engine components, rockets, and nuclear power
plants), in food-handling and chemical-processing equipment, in coins, and in marine applications.
Because nickel is magnetic, nickel alloys also are used in electromagnetic applications, such as solenoids. The
principal use of nickel as a metal is in the electroplating of parts for their appearance and for the improvement
of their corrosion and Wear resistance.
Nickel alloys have high strength and corrosion resistance at elevated temperatures. Alloying elements in nickel
are chromium, cobalt, and molybdenum. The behavior of nickel alloys in machining, forming, casting, and
Welding can be modified by various other alloying elements.
A variety of nickel alloys, with a wide range of strengths at different temperatures have been developed.
Monel is a nickel-copper alloy.
44

 Inconel is a nickel-chromium alloy with a tensile strength of up to 1400 MPa.

Hastelloy (also a nickel-Molybdenum-chromium alloy) has good corrosion resistance and high strength at
elevated temperatures.
Nichrome (an alloy of nickel, chromium, and iron) has high electrical resistance and a high resistance to
oxidation and is used for electrical heating elements.
Invar and Kovar (alloys of iron and nickel) have relatively low sensitivity to temperature
Production. The main sources of nickel are sulfide and oxide ores, all of which have low concentrations of
nickel. Nickel metal is produced by preliminary sedimentary and thermal processes, followed by electrolysis;
this sequence yields 99.95% pure nickel. Although nickel also is present in the ocean bed in significant
amounts, under sea mining is not yet economical.
Nickel Alloys for Turbine Applications
There exists an extensive variety of Nickel based alloys which are widely used in Gas Turbine applications in
aerospace. These Nickel alloys for aerospace use are selected based on their ability to resist extremely high
temperatures, corrosion and constant wear, and for their magnetic properties. Nickel alloys are structurally some
of the toughest materials available, as well as being good conductors of electricity.
The following is a breakdown of some of the most advantageous properties which make Nickel alloys so vital
for aerospace applications:
IMMENSE STRENGTH AT EXTREMELY HIGH TEMPERATURES
Waspaloy (Nickel 58%, chromium 19%, cobalt 13%, molybdenum 4%, titanium 3%, aluminium 1.4%) is a
great example of one of the Nickel alloys for aerospace which provides strength and reliability at high
temperatures, as this alloy remains structurally sound at temperatures as high as 1600F/870C. As a result of
Wasaploys great temperature resistance, it has great application for use in aircraft where burning jet fuel can
cause parts to become immensely hot for extended periods of time.
RESISTANCE TO OXIDATION AND CORROSION
Nickel based alloys like INCONEL Alloy X-750 have superb resistance in extremely stressful environments,
such as those found in pressure vessels, rocket engines, gas turbines, and other aircraft structures. Being
precipitation hardened with other resilient and versatile metals such as aluminum and titanium, Alloy X-750 can
withstand very high levels of oxidation and corrosion which are often commonplace in numerous parts of an
aircraft.
LOW-EXPANSION AT SEVERE TEMPERATURES

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Invar 36 / Nilo 36 / Alloy 36 is a Nickel and Iron based alloy (containing Nickel - 36%, Cobalt - 0.5%, Carbon
- 0.05%, Silicon 0.40%, Sulfur 0.015%, Chromium 0.25%) which is used in aerospace engineering. Its
main advantage is its extremely low levels of expansion at cryogenic temperatures of 500F and above,
allowing this alloy to consistently retain its shape and strength. Its application within the field of aerospace
includes the formation of composites; thermostat rods; measuring devices; laser components; and tanks and
piping for liquefied gas storage.

CREEP RESISTANCE UNDER HIGH STRESS CONDITIONS

Nickel alloys for aerospace applications such as NIMONIC Alloy 80A have exceptional creep resistance
properties. This alloys ability to retain its fortitude under high degrees of stress and at temperatures of up to
850C/ 1562F make it extremely useful for the construction of aircraft exhaust valves and turbine rotors.
With the many advantages associated with Nickel based alloys, it is evident that without the use of these
versatile metals, aircraft would have trouble finding a replacement alloy which provide them with the same
range of applications which are essential for the high level of efficiency and reliability that are enjoyed today.

Titanium and Titanium Alloys

Titanium is expensive, its high strength-to-weight ratio (Titanium is 30% stronger than steel, but is nearly 50%
lighter ) and corrosion resistance at room and elevated temperatures make it attractive for many applications,
including aircraft; jet engines; racing cars; golf clubs; chemical, petrochemical, and marine components;
submarine hulls; armor plate; and medical applications, such as orthopedic implants. Titanium alloys have been
developed for service at 550C for long periods of time and at up to 750C for shorter periods. Unalloyed
titanium, known as commercially pure titanium, has excellent corrosion resistance for applications where
strength considerations are secondary. Aluminum, vanadium, molybdenum, manganese, and other alloying
elements impart properties such as improved workability, strength, and hardenability.The properties and
manufacturing characteristics of titanium alloys are extremely sensitive to small variations in both alloying and
residual elements. Therefore, control of composition and processing are important, especially the prevention of
surface contamination by hydrogen, oxygen, or nitrogen during processing; these elements cause embrittlement
of titanium and, consequently, reduce toughness and ductility.
The body-centered cubic structure of titanium (beta-titanium) is above 880C and is ductile, whereas its
hexagonal close-packed structure (alpha-titanium) is somewhat brittle and is very sensitive to stress corrosion. A
variety of other structures (alpha, near-alpha, alpha-beta, and beta) can be obtained by alloying and heat
treating, so that the properties can be optimized for specific applications. Titanium aluminide intermetallics
46

(TiAl and Ti3Al) have higher stiffness and lower density than conventional titanium alloys and can withstand
higher temperatures.
Production. Ores containing titanium first are reduced to titanium carbide in an arc furnace, then converted to
titanium chloride in a chlorine atmosphere. This compound is reduced further to titanium metal by distillation
and leaching (dissolving). This sequence forms sponge titanium, which is then pressed into billets, melted, and
poured into ingots to be processed later into various shapes. The complexity of these multistep thermo chemical
operations (the Kroll process developed in the 1940-1950s) adds considerably to the cost of titanium. New
developments in electrochemical extraction processes are taking place to reduce the number of steps involved
and the energy consumption, thereby reducing the cost of producing titanium.
Compressor parts for aircraft engines
Titanium, due to its high strength to weight ratio, has been a dominant material in compressor stages in
aeroengines. High temperature titanium alloys have found extensive application in aeroengines.
Ti-6Al-4V is used for static and rotating components in gas turbine engines. Castings are used to manufacture
the more complex static components. Forgings are typically used for the rotating components. For example, the
alloy is used for fan disc and low pressure compressor discs and blades. The alloy is used in the cooler
compressor stages up to a maximum temperature of about 315 oC.
Ti-8Al-1Mo-1V is used for fan blades in military engines (Bayer, 1996). The alloys 685 (Ti-6Al-5Zr-0.5Mo0.25Si) and 829 (Ti-5.5Al-3.5Sn-3Zr-1Nb-0.25Mo-0.3Si) are used in many current European aeroengines such
as RB2111, 535E4 in fully beta heat treated condition to maximize creep resistance. Alloy 834 (Ti-5.8Al-4Sn3.5Zr-0.7Nb-0.5Mo-0.35Si-0.06C), alloy was aimed at replacing the Alloys 685 and 829 preferred in European
jet engines. Alloy 834 is used as a compressor disc material in the last two stages of the medium-pressure
compressor, and the first four stages of the high pressure compressor in jet engine.
Material used in Gas Turbine Blades:
Turbine Blades are subjected to significant rotational and gas bending stresses at extremely high temperature, as
well as severe thermo mechanical loading cycles as a consequence of normal start-up and shutdown operation
and unexpected trips. The most difficult and challenging point is the one located at the turbine inlet, because,
there are several difficulties associated to it like, Extreme temperature (1400 0C-15000C),high pressure, high
rotational speed, vibration, small circulation area and so on.
The development in the 1940s of nickel superalloys such as Nimonic and Inconel was largely driven by the
need for high-performing materials for jet engine turbine blades. These alloys are oxidation- and corrosionresistant materials that are well suited for service in extreme environments with high pressures and
temperatures. They all have nickel as the predominant element and chromium as the second. Nickel is chosen
because it has a face-centre cubic (FCC) crystal structure, which imparts attractive properties such as toughness,
ductility, low rates of thermally activated creep, and stability at elevated temperatures. Platinum group metals
have similar properties but are much more expensive and dense.
Material used in Turbine Wheels

47

The main functions of a turbine disc are to locate the rotor blades within the hot gas path and to transmit the
power generated to the drive shaft. To avoid excessive wear, vibration and poor efficiency this must be achieved
with great accuracy, whilst withstanding the thermal, vibrational and centrifugal stresses imposed during
operation, as well as axial loadings arising from the blade set. Creep and low cycle fatigue resistance are the
principal properties controlling turbine disc life and to meet the operational parameters requires high integrity
advanced materials having a balance of key properties
High stiffness and tensile strength to ensure accurate blade location and resistance to over speed burst failure.
High fatigue strength and resistance to crack propagation to prevent crack initiation and subsequent growth
during repeated engine cycling.
Creep strength to avoid distortion and growth at high temperature regions of the disc.
Resistance to high temperature oxidation and hot corrosion attack and the ability to withstand fretting damage
at mechanical fixings.
Various alloys used for turbine wheel with their short description are as follows
Alloy 718 Nickel-Based Alloy: This nickel based, precipitation hardened alloy is the newest being developed
for the next generation of frame type gas turbine machines. This alloy has been used for wheels in aircraft
turbines for more than 20 years. Alloys 718 contains a high concentrations of alloying elements and is therefore
difficult to produce very large ingot sizes needed for the large frame type turbine wheel and spacer forgings.
Alloy 706 Nickel-based Alloy: This nickel based,precipitation hardened aloy is being used in the large frame
type units. It offers a very significant increase in stress rupture and tensile yield strength compared to the other
wheel alloys. This alloy is similar to Alloy 718,but contains somewhat lower concentrations of alloying
elements, and is therefore easier to produce in the very large ingots sizes needed for the large frame type gas
turbines.
Material used in Compressor Blades:
Compressor blading is variously made by forgings, extrusion or machining. All production blades until recently
have been made from Type AISI-403 or AISI-403+Cb (both 12Cr) stainless steels. During the 1980s, a new
compressor blade material, GTD-450 a precipitation hardened, martensitic stainless steel was introduced into
production for advanced and uprated machines. Those materials provides increased tensile strength without
sacrificing stress corrosion resistance. Substantial increase in the high-cycle fatigue and corrosion fatigue
strength are also achieved with this material, compared to Type AISI- 403.Superior corrosion resistance is also
achieved due to high concentrations of chromium and molybdenum in compressors blades. Compressor
corrosion is usually caused by moisture and salt ingested by the turbine to avoid this coating of compressor
blades is also highly recommended. In the short to medium term the continued use of improved low-alloy and
ferritic stainless steels will be adequate. This situation will continue until significant increases in compressor
temperatures are needed because of much higher-pressure ratios and rotor speeds. In such a situation it is
assumed that aero-derivative technology such as titanium alloys, nickel alloys and composites will be
employed. This would, however, present a significant increase in cost and manufacturing complexity (forgings,
machining, joining, component lifing) as well as operational difficulties (component handling, overhaul, repair,
cleaning) and may introduce additional problems associated with thermal mismatch and fretting fatigue from
adjoining ferritic alloys. Consideration has also been given towards lightweight materials such as aluminium
matrix composites, polymer composite blading and vanes, as well as intermetallic TiAl-based alloys to provide
reduced rotor and overall engine mass, and lower disc stresses to enable higher rotational speeds. In addition,
design and materials concepts have evaluated the application of integrally bladed discs (bliscs) based on steel,
titanium or nickel alloy technology using friction welding. Issues associated with rotor corrosion are largely
operator dependent, being influenced by the specific nature of the fuel, compressor washing and cleaning
practices. These are currently addressed by use of protective coatings.
Material Used in Combustors
48

The combustor experiences the highest gas temperatures in a gas turbine and is subject to a combination of
creep, pressure loading, high cycle and thermal fatigue. The materials used presently are generally wrought,
sheetformed nickel-based superalloys. These provide good thermomechanical fatigue, creep and oxidation
resistance for static parts and are formable to fairly complex shapes such as combustor barrels and transition
ducts. Equally of importance is their weldability, enabling design flexibility and the potential for successive
repair and overhaul operations, which is crucial to reducing life cycle costs. The high thermal loadings imposed
often mean that large portions of the combustor hardware need to be protected using thermal barrier coatings.
The current thermal barrier coatings technology for metallic combustor applications is based exclusively on
multi-layered systems comprising of a MCrAlY bondcoat and a ceramic topcoat applied using plasma spray
deposition techniques. Application of this technology generally aims to limit peak metal temperatures to 900 to
950C. Future developments are aimed at applying thicker coatings to enable higher flame temperatures and/or
reduce metal temperatures further. Other programmes are aimed at increasing the phase stability and resistance
to sintering of the ceramic topcoat at temperatures above 1250C and to the inclusion of diagnostic sensor
layers within the coating that enable the plant and component condition to be actively monitored. Future
combustor designs are aimed at replacement of conventional wrought nickel-based products with:
More capable Ni-based alloys. Oxide dispersion strengthened metallic systems Ceramic matrix
composites.

Design Considerations for Ceramics and Glass

CERAMICS ARE INORGANIC COMPOUNDS OXIDES - NITRIDES CARBIDES
Ceramics have more complex crystal structures than metals.
Ceramic and glass products require careful selection of composition, processing methods,
finishing operations, and methods of assembly with other components
Properties of Engineering Ceramics
Ceramics are typically,
hard and brittle
high melting point materials with low electrical
thermal conductivity
good chemical and thermal stability
high compressive strengths
Mechanical Properties
Ceramics and glasses are BRITTLE.
They fail in the elastic region.
They fail by crack growth.
They are better in COMPRESSION than TENSION.
Cracks open up in tension, but close in compression
Mechanical properties depend upon the POROSITY.

49