Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/268080094
CITATIONS
READS
203
4 AUTHORS, INCLUDING:
Evi Aprianti
Payam Shafigh
University of Malaya
University of Malaya
3 PUBLICATIONS 7 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
SEE PROFILE
Review
h i g h l i g h t s
Potential uses of agricultural wastes as cementitious material were reviewed.
Ashes from agricultural wastes have high silica content.
The use of RHA is limited due to the porosity nature of RHA particles.
POFA has good potential to be used as cementitious material in cement based materials.
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 25 July 2014
Accepted 8 October 2014
Keywords:
Supplementary cementitious material
Pozzolans
Concrete
Compressive strength
Agricultural waste
a b s t r a c t
Concrete is heavily used as a construction material in modern society. With the growth in urbanization
and industrialization, the demand for concrete is increasing day by-days. Therefore, raw materials and
natural resources are required in large quantities for concrete production worldwide. At the same time,
a considerable quantity of agricultural waste and other types of solid material disposal are posing serious
environmental issues. To minimize and reduce the negative impact of the concrete industry through the
explosive usage of raw materials, the use of agricultural wastes as supplementary cementitious materials,
the source of which are both reliable and suitable for alternative preventive solutions promotes the environmental sustainability of the industry. This paper reviews the possible use of agricultural wastes as a
supplementary cementitious material in the production of concrete. It aims to exhibit the idea of utilizing
these wastes by elaborating upon their engineering, physical and chemical properties. This provides a
summary of the existing knowledge about the successful use of agricultural wastes such as rice husk
ash, palm oil fuel ash, sugar cane bagasse ash, wood waste ash, bamboo leaf ash, and corn cob ash in
the concrete industry.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1.
2.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Supplementary cementitious material (SCM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.
Agricultural wastes as SCM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1.
Rice husk ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.2.
Palm oil fuel ash (POFA). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.3.
Bagasse ash (BA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.4.
Wood waste ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.5.
Bamboo Leaf ash (BLA). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.6.
Corn cob ash (CCA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
177
177
178
178
180
183
184
184
185
177
3.
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
1. Introduction
Today, concrete has become the most commonly used building
material in the construction industry. The other important characteristics of concrete, besides its strength, are its ability to be easily
moulded into any form, it is an engineered material that can
meet almost any desired specication, and it also adaptable,
incombustible, affordable and easily obtained. The great advantage
of concrete is its excellent mechanical and physical characteristics,
if properly designed and manufactured. Currently, concrete is
extensively used with more than 10 billion tons produced annually
in modern industrial society [1]. It has been estimated that by
2050, the rate of the worlds population will grow substantially
from 1.5 to 9 billion, and, thus, will cause an increase in the
demand for energy, housing, food and clothing as well as for concrete, which is forecast to increase to approximately 18 billion tons
annually by 2050 [2].
Unfortunately, a considerable quantity of concrete is being produced, the effect of which is contrary to its benets. In the last
100 years, the concrete industry has had an enormous effect on
the environmental appearances. In addition, CO2 emissions are
caused during the manufacturing process with a large volume of
raw materials required to produce the billions of tons of concrete
worldwide each year. The cement industry alone is estimated to
be responsible for about 7% of all the CO2 generated worldwide
[3]. It has been found that every ton of Portland cement produced
releases approximately one ton of CO2 into the atmosphere. In
addition, during the production of cement and concrete, issues like
carbon dioxide emissions, along with the use of energy and aggregate consumption in great amounts, the demolition waste of concrete, and ller requirements, contribute to the common
environmental impact that concrete has making it a non-friendly
that is unsuitable for sustainable development.
Several studies have focused on nding alternatives that can be
used as replacement to cement, such as, the disposable and less
valuable wastes from industry and agriculture, whose potential
benets can be realized through recycling, reuse and renewing
programmes. Hence, researchers have been investigating the effectiveness, efciency and availability of waste materials that are pozzolanic in nature as a cement replacement. The required materials
should be a by-product from an-original source that is rich in silicon (Si) and aluminium (Al). The framework for utilizing industrial
waste material for building applications has a successful history,
which includes y ash, slag, and silica fume. Consequently, land
lled waste materials that are normally disposed of and land lled
are now deemed to be valuable for enhancing the desired properties of concrete.
Previous studies showed that some agro-waste materials could
be used as a cement replacement in cement based materials. The
utilization of agricultural waste can provide the break-through
needed to make the industry more environmentally friendly and
sustainable. The purpose of this paper is to clearly describe and
briey introduce waste materials from agricultural commodities
that have been well managed and successfully used as supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) for the manufacture of concrete.
The relationships among concrete made using these types of waste
materials, environmentally friendly concrete, and green building
rating systems are also discussed. Mutual recognition of these
materials, and their usage in concrete by both civil engineers and
agricultural engineers, would pave the way for other potential uses
of solid waste materials in the construction industry, as well as certain other industries. It will also lead to a more environmentally
sustainable concrete industry.
2. Supplementary cementitious material (SCM)
A substantial quantity of waste materials are produced globally
as by-products from different sectors, such as industrial, agricultural, and wastes from rural and urban society. These waste materials, if not deposited safely, it may be hazardous. The type and
amount of sewage produced increases with the growth in population. These wastes remain in the environment for a longer duration
since they are unused. The waste disposal crisis has arisen due to
the formation of decomposed waste materials. The solution to this
crisis lies in the recycling of wastes into useful products. Research
into the innovative uses of waste materials is continuously advancing. Waste and by-product materials, such as y ash, silica fume,
ground granulated blast slag, rice husk ash, and palm oil fuel ash
have been successfully used in concrete for decades [48]. The successful usage as a partial or whole replacement of Portland cement,
contributes to the resolution of the landll problem and reduction
in the cost of building materials, provides a satisfactory solution to
the environmental issues and problems associated with waste
management, saves energy, and helps to protect the environment
from pollution. Agricultural wastes, such as rice husk ash, wheat
straw ash, and sugarcane bagasse ash, hazel nutshell ash which
constitute pozzolanic materials can be used as a replacement for
cement.
Today, supplementary cementing materials are widely used as
pozzolanic materials (create extra strength by pozzolanic reaction)
in high-strength concrete, reduce permeability and improve the
durability of the concrete. Many types of pozzolans are used globally, and are commonly used as an addition or replacement for
Portland cement in concrete. It is well known that pozzolanic concrete contributes to the compressive strength in two ways: as the
ller effect and the pozzolanic reaction. Thus, the pozzolanic material will reduce the demand or usage of cement at that time. A pozzolan comprises siliceous materials, and when combined with
calcium hydroxide, exhibits cementitious properties depending
on the constituents of the pozzolan. On the other hand, the high
early strength concrete can be produced by the highly reactive silica in pozzolans. The basis of the pozzolanic reaction is a simple
acid-based reaction between calcium hydroxide, also known as
Portlandite (Ca(OH)2) and silicic acid (Si(OH)4). This reaction is represented as follows:
2
~
CH SH ! CSHCSH
As the density of CSH is lower than that of Portlandite and pure
silica, a consequence of this reaction is a swelling of the reaction
products. This reaction, which is also known as alkalisilica reaction may occur over time in concrete between the alkaline cement
pore water and poorly-crystalline silica aggregates.
178
179
Husk produced
(20% of total) (Mt)
China
India
Indonesia
Bangladesh
Vietnam
West Africa
Brazil
Pakistan
Egypt
Malaysia
Europe
Australia
Others
200.0
160.0
90.0
45.0
40.0
13.4
12.3
9.0
6.1
3.0
2.9
1.2
168.5
40.0
32.0
18.0
9.0
6.0
2.7
2.5
1.8
0.3
0.6
0.6
0.3
33.7
7.2
5.8
3.2
1.6
1.1
0.1
0.4
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
6.1
177.6
123.0
48.7
39.0
31.3
10.7
10.5
5.8
5.7
2.7
1.7
0.9
121.9
11.2
23.1
43.2
13.3
21.8
20.1
14.6
35.5
6.6
10.0
41.4
25.0
27.7
Total (world)
Area (ha) in 2013
741.4
164 million hectares
579.5
21.9
It was found that the secondary CSH gel was obtained from a
reaction between the silica (SiO2) and Ca(OH)2, as stipulated in the
chemical equilibrium above (Eq. (1)). According to Sugita et al.
[21], the formation of CSH gel in RHA-concrete was possibly
caused by the reaction between the SiO2 present in the RHA and
the Ca(OH)2 in the hydrating cement. They proposed that the C
SH gel was chemical structure of the Ca1.5SiO3.5xH2O.
In the combustion process, the matrix of celluloselignin from
the raw rice husk burns up and remains only as a porous silica skeleton. The RHA is considered as a good super-pozzolan material in
the production of concrete due to its high silica content. Thus,
180
Fig. 1. (a) Raw rice husk and (b) rice husk ash (RHA) [15].
Table 2
The chemical and physical properties of Portland cement and some cementitious materials [5,8,11,18,27,34,35,69,74,75].
Chemical composition (%)
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
CaO
MgO
SO3
Na2O
K2O
LOI
20.422.0
3.75.3
2.34.2
61.565.4
1.24.8
2.23.0
0.10.2
0.31.1
0.42.3
21.9
4.9
3.3
62.3
2.3
2.1
1.2
0.3
1.1
80.795.9
0.40.4
0.22.9
1.11.5
0.30.9
0.71.2
0.91.2
0.82.1
2.86.6
59.666.9
2.56.4
1.95.7
4.96.4
3.04.5
0.31.3
0.20.8
5.07.5
6.610.0
65.467.3
6.09.1
3.85.6
10.312.9
1.82.3
1.01.1
0.40.5
4.25.7
0.91.5
Physical properties
Median particle size (lm)
Specic gravity
Blaine neness (m2/kg)
3.03.3
336.5399.0
2.903.2
305.0
5.010.0
2.02.2
350.0376.8
10.5
1.92.4
493.0
29.045.0
2.53.6
270.0385.0
181
Fig. 2. SEM of RHA particles ground for (a) 15 min grinding process, (b) 60 min
grinding process, (c) 120 min grinding process and (d) after sieving analysis [15].
the burning of solid wastes, such as palm oil husk or bre and palm
kernel shell, as fuel in a palm oil mill boiler. Fig. 6a shows the residue from the palm oil industry, and, after analysis using a 300 lm
sieve, becomes ash, as presented in Fig. 6b. The manufactured process of POFA varies from the initial preparation to the incineration
process. Noorvand et al. [73] examined the initial preparation of
POFA after the combustion process by dried samples in an oven
at 105 5 C for 24 h. Tangchirapat et al. [30] prepared the ash
using the combustion process at a temperature of about 700
1000 C and sieve No. 16 (1.18 mm opening) to remove foreign
materials during the incineration process. They found three different types of POFA based on specic gravity original size (OP), medium size (MP) and small size (SP).The specic gravity was 1.89,
2.36, and 2.43 for OP, MP, and SP, respectively. It can be concluded
that the grinding process not only improves the neness of POFA,
but also the specic gravity. Another preparation method was
2.1.2.3. Pozzolanic reaction of POFA. The formation of calciumsilicatehydrate or CSH is gained from the reaction between SiO2
and Al2O3 in a pozzolanic material with Ca(OH)2 in a cement paste.
The Ca(OH)2 is used as an indicator in pozzolanic reaction. Chindaprasirt et al. [72] reported that the increasing portion of the pozzolanic replacement and neness will cause a reduction in the
Ca(OH)2 content, while improving the sulphate resistance in concrete. They found that high neness POFA has a faster pozzolanic
reaction than coarse POFA (without sieving). Hence, POFA can
improve the compressive strength of concrete due to its high neness which is denser and more homogeneous. In addition, the use
of POFA as a binder satises the chemical requirement in ASTM
C618 as a pozzolanic material by having a loss on ignition (LOI)
of less than 10%. Hence, it could be benecial in the manufacture
of concrete. Many researchers [26,3032] have found solutions
for making use of this by-product to be a valuable waste. In
2011, Jaturapitakkul et al. [38] investigated the compressive
strength of mortar due to the pozzolanic reaction of POFA for
1040% of cement replacement by weight of binder. The compressive strength of mortar due to the pozzolanic reaction of POFA varied from 0.1 MPa to 4.5 MPa at 7 days and 2.5 MPa to 22.5 MPa at
90 days. This result conrms that the pozzolanic reaction of POFA
is small at an early age and increases in signicance at a later
age. It also shows that the pozzolanic reaction of POFA increases
with arising particle neness, cement replacement rate and age
of concrete. Furthermore, POFA (median particle size of approximately 10 lm) has been utilized in the production of HPC, in which
the highest compressive strength was found to be in the range 60
86 MPa, which was obtained at the POFA replacement level 20% at
28 days with a total binder 550560 kg/m3 [30,3334]. According
to Jaturapitakkul et al. [31], the increased neness of POFA will
reduce the expansion and loss in the compressive strength of concrete. They suggested that POFA could be used as a pozzolanic
182
Fig. 4. (a) Raw rice husk from Selangor, Malaysia (b) RHA before grinding and (c) RHA after grinding [20].
Table 3
Selected mix proportion of RHA concrete according to the compressive strength [8,13,16,26,27,70,71].
Mix No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Unit = kg/m3.
Cement
376
393
481
420
550
1067
889
300
400
277
RHA (%)
5
10
10
15
15
15
15
20
25
30
1.0
0.5
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.0
1.1
0.9
0.9
1.1
Water
210
165
162
189
162
628
628
250
250
210
Aggregate
Fine
Coarse
844
723
690
815
710
1,997
2,176
94
150
844
951
1018
1050
995
180
4283
4268
1456
1400
951
Ref.
35.4
40.0
47.8
46.9
53.0
50.0
42.8
33.5
42.9
26.6
183
POFA tends to reduce the water demand of the high-strength concrete [42]. Overall, the results described and presented show that
POFA possesses great potential pozzolanic cementing materials
with possibly superior engineering properties in proper mixing
and curing systems. It could also lead to the greater utilization of
waste material from the agricultural side. Subsequently, by minimizing the volume of waste, which is disposed of landll, will protect the environment as well as reduce the emission of GAGs
(greenhouse gases CO2). Furthermore, the use of POFA contributes
to a sustainable industry and may contribute to a reduction in the
construction-cost.
Fig. 6. (a) Palm oil residue and (b) palm oil fuel ash [33].
184
Table 4
The selected mix proportion of high strength concrete [30,34,36,4143].
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
495.0
440.0
385.0
400.0
400.0
540.4
214.0
171.0
128.0
504.0
448.0
392.0
270.0
240.0
210.0
POFA
kg/m3
55.0
110.0
165.0
100.0
100.0
145.3
213.0
256.0
299.0
56.0
112.0
168.0
30.0
60.0
90.0
10
20
30
20
20
25
50
60
70
10
20
30
10
20
30
Sand
Coarse aggregate
Water
SP (l)
753
745
738
711
711
1057
787
787
787
757
749
742
804
801
799
959
950
940
1067
1067
1340
961
961
961
971
962
952
1024
1021
1018
176
176
176
145
145
168
205
205
205
153
151
148
216
210
219
6.8
8.6
11.6
11.5
11.5
50.4
8.5
11.8
16.9
SUGAR CANE
BAGASSE
Slump (mm)
0.32
0.32
0.32
0.28
0.28
0.23
0.29
0.29
0.29
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.72
0.70
0.73
250
240
250
169
115
90
80
200
185
185
80
60
75
28 days
90 days
60
61
59
37
49
175
41
36
28
89
94
87
39
32
28
68
70
66
52
53
182
91
93
91
40
39
34
Ref.
[30]
[41]
[42]
[36]
[34]
[43]
Table 5
The chemical and physical properties of bagasse ash (BA) [49,5256].
SUGAR
INDUSTRY
MILLING PROCESS
W/c
RAW SUGAR
COGENERATION/
COMBUSTION
PROCESS
BAGASSE ASH
60.065.3
4.79.1
3.15.5
1.12.9
4.010.5
0.30.9
1.42.0
0.10.2
Physical properties
Particle size distribution, (lm)
Specic gravity
Specic surface area (cm2/g)
Loss on ignition (% by mass)
66.9107.9
1.92.4
274.0943.0
15.319.6
185
Fig. 8. (a) Appearance of bamboo leaf and (b) bamboo leaf ash (BLA) [62].
Table 6
Chemical composition of the bamboo leaf ash [62].
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
MgO
CaO
Na2O
K2O
SO3
P2O5
MnO
ZnO
LOI
0.99
5.06
0.08
1.33
1.07
0.56
0.20
0.07
8.04
1.22
0.71
3. Conclusion
Recent interest focused on sustainable development and the
recognition of eco-concrete with the population growth around
the world. Researchers are becoming increasingly concerned about
concept of a green economy, which is important to the environment and society. Since Portland cement, the main principal binder
used in concrete, is the product of an industry that is not only
energy-intensive, but is also responsible for the huge emissions
of CO2, often referred to as green-house gas. The production of
cement signicantly contributes to global warming, which leads
to climate change. The utilization of agricultural waste can be
the break-through needed to make the industry more environmentally friendly and sustainable. Many types of agricultural waste can
be used as a partial replacement of cement, such as rice husk ash,
palm oil fuel ash, bamboo leaf ash, corn cob ash, wood waste ash,
and sugar cane bagasse ash. Therefore, the enhancement of the
existing knowledge and investigation of other useful agricultural
waste to be used as supplementary cementitious material (SCM)
in concrete mixture will be a valuable contribution and a viable
solution for sustainable construction as well as to produce greening in respect of the environment.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the nancial support from
University of Malaya under the University Malaya Research Fund
Assistance (BKP), Grant No. BK055-2014.
References
[1] Meyer C. The greening of the concrete industry. Cement Concr Compos
2009;31:199206.
[2] Mehta PK, Monteiro PJM. Concrete: microstructure, properties, and materials.
3rd ed. New York: McGraw Hill; 2006.
[3] Malhotra VM. Role of supplementary cementing materials in reducing
greenhouse gas emissions. In: Gjorv OE, Sakai K, editors. Concrete
technology for a sustainable development in the 21st century. London: E&FN
Spon; 2000. p. 22635.
[4] Park SB, Tia M. An experimental study on the water-purication properties of
porous concrete. Cem Concr Res 2004;34:17784.
[5] Nurdeen MA, Megat Johari MA, Saiyid Hashim SF. Flexural performance of
green engineered cementitious composites containing high volume of palm oil
fuel ash. Constr Build Mater 2012;37:51825.
186
[40] Shagh P, Jumaat MZ, Mahmud H. Oil palm shell as a lightweight aggregate for
production high strength lightweight concrete. Constr Build Mater
2011;25:184853.
[41] Bamaga SO, Hussin MW, Ismail MA. Palm oil fuel ash: promising
supplementary cementing materials. J Civil Eng 2013;17(7):170813.
[42] Aldahdooh MAA, Bunnori MN, MegatJohari MA. Development of green ultrahigh performance ber reinforced concrete containing ultrane palm oil fuel
ash. Constr Build Mater 2013;48:37989.
[43] Tangchirapat W, Jaturapitakkul C. Strength, drying shrinkage and water
permeability of concrete incorporating ground palm oil fuel ash. Cement
Concr Compos 2010;32:76774.
[44] ASTM C618. Standard specication for coal y ash or calcined natural pozzolan
for use in concrete. West Conshohocken (PA, USA): ASTM International; 2012.
[45] Hussin MW, Ishida T. A study on basic properties of hardened concrete
containing palm oil fuel ash as partial cement replacement material. In:
proceedings of the Annual meeting in materials and construction.
Architectural Institute of Japan: Tokyo. Summaries of technical; 1999. p.
17980.
[46] Shagh P, Jumaat MZ, Mahmud HB. Mix design and mechanical properties of
oil palm shell lightweight aggregate concrete a review. Int J Phys Sci
2010;5(14):212734.
[47] Shagh P, Jumaat MZ, Mahmud HB, Hamid NAA. Lightweight concrete made
from crushed oil palm shell: tensile strength and effect of initial curing on
compressive strength. Constr Build Mater 2012;27(1):2528.
[48] Chusilp N, Jaturapitakkul C, Kiattikomol K. Utilization of bagasse ash as a
pozzolanic material in concrete. Constr Build Mater 2009;23:33528.
[49] Montakarntiwong K, Chusilp N, Tangchirapat W, Jaturapitakkul C. Strength
and heat evolution of concrete containing bagasse ash from thermal power
plants in sugar industry. Mater Des 2013;49:41420.
[50] Rukzon S, Chindaprasirt P. Utilization of bagasse ash in high-strength
concrete: technical Report. Mater Des 2012;34:4550.
[51] Cordeiro GC, Toledo RDF, Tavares LM, Fairbairn EMR. Experimental
characterization of binary and ternary blended-cement concretes containing
ultrane rice husk and sugar cane bagasse ashes. Constr Build Mater
2012;29:6416.
[52] Cordeiro GC, Toledo RDF, Fairbairn EMR. Effect of calcinations temperature on
the pozzolanic activity of sugar cane bagasse ash. Constr Build Mater
2009;23:33013.
[53] Raanashotinunt C, Thairit P, Tangchirapat W, Jaturapitakkul C. Use of calcium
carbide residue and bagassa ash mixtures as a new cementitious material in
concrete: technical report. Mater Des 2013;46:10611.
[54] Sua-iam G, Makul N. Use of increasing amounts of bagasse ash waste to
produce self-compacting concrete by adding limestone powder waste. J
Cleaner Prod 2013;57:30819.
[55] Somna R, Jaturapitakkul C, Made AM. Effect of groud y ash and ground
bagasse ash on the durability of recycled aggregate concrete. Cement Concr
Compos 2012;34:84854.
[56] Ganesan K, Rajagopal K, Thangavel K. Evaluation of bagasse ash as
supplementary
cementitious
material.
Cement
Concr
Compos
2007;29:51524.
[57] Chusilp N, Jaturapitakkul C, Kiattikomol K. Effects of LOI of ground bagasse ash
on the compressive strength and sulfate resistance of mortars. Constr Build
Mater 2009;23:352331.
[58] Siddique R. Utilization of wood ash in concrete manufacturing: a review.
Resour Conserv Recycl 2012;67:2733.
[59] Campbell AG. Recycling and disposing of wood ash. TAPPI J 1990;3(1):1413.
[60] Ramos T, Matos AM, Coutinho JS. Review mortar with wood waste ash:
mechanical strength, carbonation resistance and ASR expansion. Constr Build
Mater 2013;49:34351.
[61] Ban CC, Ramli M. Review the implementation of wood waste ash as a partial
cement replacement material in the production of structural grade concrete
and mortar: an overview. Resour Conserv Recycl 2011;55:66985.
[62] Cocina EV, Morales EV, Santos SF, Savastano Jr H, Frias M. Pozzolanic behavior
of bamboo leaf ash: characterization and determination of the kinetic
parameters. Cement Concr Compos 2011;33:6873.
[63] Dwivedi VN, Singh NP, Dasa SS, Singh NB. A new pozzolanic material for
cement industry: bamboo leaf ash. Int J Phys Sci 2006;1(3):10611.
[64] Singh NB, Dasa SS, Singh NP, Dwivedi VN. Hydration of bamboo leaf ash
blended Portland cement. Ind J Eng Mater Sci 2007;14(1):6976.
[65] FAO. Records <http://www.fao.org/nr/water/cropinfo_maize.html/>; retrieved
June 1st, 2014.
[66] Adesanya DA, Raheem AA. A study of the workability and compressive
strength characteristics of corn cob ash blended cement concrete. Constr Build
Mater 2009;23:3117.
[67] Adesanya DA. Evaluation of blended cement mortar, concrete and stabilized
earth made from ordinary Portland cement and corn cob ash. Constr Build
Mater 1996;10(6):4516.
[68] Adesanya DA, Raheem AA. A study of the permeability and acid attack of
corncob ash blended cements. Constr Build Mater 2010;24:4039.
[69] Adesanya DA, Raheem AA. Development of corn cob ash blended cement.
Constr Build Mater 2009;23:34752.
[70] Rahman ME, Muntohar AS, Pakrashi V, Nagaratnam BH, Sujan D. Self
compacting concrete from uncontrolled burning of rice husk and blended
ne aggregate. Mater Des 2014;55:4105.
187