Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
A Manual
of Operation and Maintenance
Procedures
_.....,
L W U A
0 & M Manual
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Republic of the Philippines
LOCAL WATER UTILITIES ADMINISTRATION
...
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PREFACE
The problems of supplying adequate and safe water for public use do not end with
the design and construction of supply facilities. They must be properly operated and maintained to obtain the maximum efficiency built into their various parts, and full benefits from
the money invested.
This manual has been developed by the Local Water Utilities Administration to serve
as a guide to proper operation and maintenance of water systems supplying water for domestic use throughout the Philippines.
It brings together a body of information for the benefit of all water district officers
and the personnel directly responsible for operations and maintenance of the system and its
ability to deliver potable water to the consumers.
It is a generalized text in that it does not relate to any specific water supply district
or to any specific make or manu.facture of equipment""or material. It is intended to amplify
and complement an operation and maintenance manual prepared for a specific district,
and does not eliminate the need for such a manual.
To facilitate its convenience and use, the manual is divided into fourteen sections,
each one covering a major aspect of a public water supply system. These sections are identified in a table of contents at the front of the manual. A table of contents, or index, is
placed at the beginning of each major section. Thus, the manual could be separated into its
sections for use in those departments of the district which are most pertinent, yet be available to all.
No operation and maintenance manual should ever be consider.ed~mplete. As new
ideas, methods, materials or equipment are developed, the manual should be modified to
reflect these changes.
I
1
TABLEOF
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
."-- 10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
~
I
CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SUBSECTION
NO.
1.1
SUBJECT
PAGE
1-1
1.2
1-2
1.3
WATER SOURCES
1-7
1.4
1-10
1.5
1-13
1.6
RECORD KEEPING
-
....;t;
1-16
. .. -- _...,.
1.1
Purity
Most people are unaware of, or unconcerned about the degree to which
their well-being is in the hands of the employees of the water utility. Unfortunately, this is sometimes true of individuals within the utility organization
as well. It should not be forgotten, for even a moment, that the first responsibility of every employee of the water utility is to do his part to insur~ that
only SAFE POTABLE WATER will be provided to the public.
1.1 .2
Reliability
The second responsibility of the water utility is to insure that the water
supply is RELIABLE. Every problem that threatens interruption of supply
should be treated as an emergency of the same seriousness as a house on
fire.
There are many reasons for the importance of reliability of supply mostly concerned with public relations -but the main one is related to water
safety. When water service is interrupted, continued withdrawal of water from
water mains in low areas results in creation of a vacuum in other areas, which
can suck pollutants into the pipelines through loose joints and minor leaks.
1. 1.3
Water Costs
Most people expect water to be cheap; probably because it is so plentiful
m nature. For that reason, the public will not usually
_..,tolerate high water
rates. In general, consumers consider the water as a natural, God-given product, when in reality, the cost is based on service performed by the water
utility wherein the water is collected, treated as necessary to guarantee
potability, and delivered to the consumer's premises. An informative public
relations program can ease the pain of a rate increase. In any case, it is the
responsibility of the utility to fumisb water at the lowest cost possible without
relaxing its standards of potability and reliability. Many costs are beyond the
control of the water utilities; for example, office expenses and costs of equipment, chemicals and electric power, to name a few. The main controls that the
utility has over the cost of water are proper design of facilities, efficiency
of operation, and proper maintenance to ensure that costly repairs or replacement of equipment are not required any sooner, than absolutely necessary.
1-1
\
1.1.4
The utility that does not plan long in advance finds sooner or later, that
it cannot provide safety, reliability nor economy of water supply.
The utility management must anticipate population growth and changing
water consumption habits, and make provisions for orderly expansion of its
facilities in advance of critical needs. The long-range plan must be flexible
enough to provide for unexpected development, yet as accurate as possible so
that financing can be arranged in advance of need.
1.2
All long-range plans for water supply expansion are based on estimates
of future water needs. These, in turn, are dependent on estimates of future
population growth. Also, the locations of planned future pipelines, reservoirs
and pumping stations are based on expected land use, or how the cities will
spread out as population grows.
1.2.1... Population Growth
1-2
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1.2.2
Land Use
In long-range water supply planning, it is necessary not only to estimate
future populations, but to try to forsee how the land will be used. This will
determine the location of future pipelines, reservoirs and pump stations.
As in the case of population estimates, it is not possible to know for certain
how land will be used in the future (except in the rare cases where the city
enacts zoning laws that specify how land may be used). It is possible, however,
to predict fairly closely the number of hectares of various kinds of residential,
commercial and government areas that will be required to meet the needs of
a given population. For example, if the population of a city is presently 10,000
people and the total land area occupied by commercial establishments is 10
hectares, one hectare of commercial land is needed to serve each 1,000 people.
Therefore, if the population at some future date is 20,000, twenty hectares
will be devoted to commercial use. There are a great number of similar rules
used in predicting future land use, though not all are as simple as the one just
mentioned.
There are also predictable relationships between the locations of commercial, industrial, residential and governmental areas. For example, industrial
development usually takes place along main highways and, to some extent,
along railway tracks. Then, low cost housing usually surrounds the industrial
areas.
The usual approach to projecting land use begins with a map showing
present land use patterns. The total number of hectares of each type of land
use are calculated on the basis of population estimates; then outlined on a
land use map on the basis of the previously mentioned relationships.
Water distribution systems are, by their nature, extremely flc::~g~l~J.'his is
true mainly because water can t1ow in any combination of directions and velocities in the pipelines, depending on reservoir levels and water demands. This
allows actual future land use to vary considerably from the projections without
the necessity of altering the planned distribution facilities. The thoughtful
planner, recognizing the limitations of predictions of population and land use
will avoid the inclusion of inflexible elements in the overall plan.
1.2.3
Water Demands
The amount of water required each year by a person, a commercial establishment, a government office, or an industrial concern is fairly easy to estimate, given. sufficient information on types of housing, daily habits of people
I
(i.e., hours cutomarily devoted to work, sleep, washing, sh~pping, etc.)
and types of industries. Also, watc;r lost through leakage, waste, evaporation,
illegal connections and the like (Unaccounted-for-Water) can be closely esti-
1-4
/mated, given the condition of the existing water system and the extent of
planned improvements. The total of all water requirements for one year is
known as Gross Annual Demand, or sometimes simply Gross Demand.
(a)
Demand Fluctuations
Unfortunately, Gross Demand is not evenly spread out during the year.
Water use fluctuates from day-to-day and hour-to-hour, depending on
weather conditions, degree of industrialization, seasonal changes, wateruse habits, and other factors peculiar to the area and the system under
consideration. In the Philippines, the maximum amount of water required
in a single day (Maximum Day Demand) is about 125% of the average
daily demand, while the most required in a single hour (Peak Hour Demand)
is about 200% of the average . Typically, the day of maximum demand
will be the hottest day of the year. The hour of maximum demand will
usually be early evening (when people are bathing, cooking, watering
yards, etc.) on the hottest day of the year.
1-
(b)
Unaccounted-for-Water
Fire Flows
1-5
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Evaporation
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The total amount of water in and around the earth is constant. Water is neither
manufactured nor destroyed, but is constantly recycled by nature. The cycle that it
endlessly goes through is called the hydrologic cycle.
Water vapor is continually added to the atmosphere by evaporation from the seas,
lakes, and other water surfaces. Vegetation draws water from the group, extracts
nutrients from it, converts it to vapor and releases it to the atmosphere from leaf
surfaces (this is called transpiration). As water vapor moves upward to cooler levels in
the atmosphere, it condenses to form clouds. Sooner or later, particles of dust in the
atmosphere attract water vapor until they become too heavy to remain suspended in
the air, and fall to earth as rain, snow, hail or sleet. As the rain falls through lower
levels of the atmosphere, a small amount evaporates before hitting the ground. Rain
which falls on the earth does one of three things: (1) soaks into the earth (percolation),
(2) runs off into rivers, lakes or seas (runoff) or ( 3) evaporates from the earth's surface.
1.3.1
Ground Water
The term ground water refers to water that is stored (or is moving) beneath
the earth's surface. Many people are under the mistaken impression that water
is captured in large underground rivers and lakes. While there are, of course,
bodies of water stored in limestone caverns in a few locations around the world,
they are so rare as to be of little or no interest to persons concerned with water
supply. Most ground water is stored in underground layers of sand and gravel,
or in the crack's and crevices of certain types of rocks (for example, limestone
and sandstone). When an underground layer of sand or fractured rock contains
water, the layer is called an aquifer.
Ground water may be free or confined. Free ground water refers to the
condition where a layer of waterbearing sand, or aquife~,...extends downward
from just below the top soil. Confined ground water occurs when water bearing
sand lies below an impervious layer of clay, shale or rock. ln most cases, confmed ground water will be under artesian pressure because it flows from a
higher elevation and, being trapped by the impervious layer above, carmot rise
upward through the ground.
When a well is drilled into a confined aquifer, the water level inside the
well will be higher than the top of the aquifer, and may even flow over the top
of the well casing (i.e., a flowing well). It should be noted that the term artesian
well refers to any well where the water rises inside the casing by artesian
pressure, whether it flows over the top or not. Since ground water generally
travels great distances through sand from the point rwhere it falls on the ground
as rain, until it is intercepted by a well, it is naturally filtered. In general,
by the time water P.ercolates downward for ten or fifteen meters below the
ground surface, mos~ microbes (bacteria, virus, etc.) are filtered out. For that
1-7
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reason, deep wells are usually constructed with the upper 15 meters sealed off
to exclude shallow water and surface water.
As rain falls through the atmosphere, it collects gases from the air. Then,
as it travels over and through the earth's surface, it dissolves and collects
minerals, gases and certain kinds of organic compounds. These are not filtered
out by percolation. If any of these gases or minerals are accumulated in e:l$.cessive amounts, they must be partially removed before well water is pumped
into the water system.
The term water quality refers to the physical, chemical and biological
makeup of the water. Water quality is good if there are no unpleasant tastes
or odors, bacteriological contamination, toxic materials, or quantities of mine
rals that pose problems to the public health or convenience. (For example, excessive iron is not hazardous to health but causes problems or stained clothing,
porcelain, etc.)
1.3.2
Surface Water
The most common sources of surface water pollution are human and
industrial wastes which are discharged into rivers and lakes. A less frequent,
but no less dangerous source of pollution is drainage into rivers from agricultural lands where the water carries chemical fertilizers anrl pesticides.
Surface water quality tends to change from day to day, season to season,
and year to year. Moreover , a factory, or farm ,located upstream of a treat
ment plant may suddenly begin~ discharging harmful wastes. Therefore, surface
1-8
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1-9
Other Sources
One source of water that may become valuable in the future is de-salted
sea water (de-salinization). This source is being used to a limited extent in
some areas where no other alternatives exist. Obtaining water by this method
is extremely expensive (perhaps 50 times the cost of treating surface water).
It is not likely that desalinization will ever be much less costly than at present, but as costs of producing water from other sources become greater in the
future, it may become more practical, especially to meet "peaking" demands.
The other potential source of water is reclamation of waste water. Although
it is now possible to treat sewage to the extent that it would be entirely safe
and undistinguishable in taste from other treated water, this is not generally
acceptable to the public. Nonetheless, reclaimed water is presently supplementing water supplies in many areas of the world in an indirect way. If reclaimed
water is used in manufacturing and agriculture, the potable water that would
otherwise be used for these purposes is "released" for domestic use.
_......
Confusion sometimes results from the use of the terms "Water Distribution
System" and "Water Distribution Network". The term water distribution system refers
to all facilities required to get water from the source to the customer, including reservoirs, pipelines and booster pumps. The term distribution network, on the other hand,
refers to the pipelines which distribute water throughout the system. Moreover, a
distinction is made between distribution mains and transmission mains. The former
are used to distribute water to the customer, while the latter are used to transport
water from a remote treatment plant to the distribution system.
1.4.1
Reservoirs
I
1-10
Distribution Network
1.4.3
Pumping Equipment
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TIME
OF
DAY
1-12
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12.
A water utility is a business like any other. As such, it cannot lose money
and still remian in business. Usually, the water utility has only one source of funds:
the revenues it collects from its customers as payment for water consumed. These
revenues must be sufficient to pay all the utility's expenses, including:
*Annual payments on loans previously taken out to finance new construction.
*Costs of replacing worn out or damaged equipment.
*Costs of materials, tools and services required for operation and maintenance
of the water system, such as electric power, fuels, spare parts, lubricant, etc.
*Administrative costs such as employee's salaries, rent, office supplies, outside
services, and the like.
If the utility is to remain solvent financially, it must maintain accurate records
of operating costs, water production and customer consumption, in order to ensure
that water rates are always adequate to meet all costs.
Water meters enable the utility to precisely determine water production and
cor.sumption. Water production is monitored by bulk metering through main-line
meters installed on the discharge piping of each well, spring, .!r_:_at_!?_j;nt plant, or pumping station. Consumption is determined by adding up water used by all the utility's
customers, from records of monthly seruice meter readings.
l\.1etering of production and consumption serves important functions as described
in the following paragraphs.
The use of service meters allows the utility to charge its customers fairly
for water consumed. That is, those who use more water pay a proportionately higher share of the cost of supplying it.
1-13
1.5.2
Control of Waste:
It is a nearly universal fact that customers who pay for every liter of water
used, on the basis of monthly meter readings, waste less water than those who
pay a fixed monthly cost (flat rate) or who pay for water se~ice through
general taxes.
Whenever a utility changes over from unmetered to metered service,
water consumption usually drops sharply, sometimes by as much as half.
1.5.3
The total amount of water billed for each month can be compared with
production for the month, to determine the amount of unaccounted-forwater.
1.5.4
Detection of Leaks:
If pressure drops in a localized area of the distribution system with no
noticeable increase in metered consumption, it is an indication that a pipeline leak may have developed (or possibly a large, newly installed, illegal
connection). However, it may also indicate a closed valve or deterioration
of pipe.
1.5.5
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1-14
RETICULAR SYSTEM
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General
1.6.1.1
Control unaccounted-for-water.
Closely predict future needs of spare parts, fuels, lubricants,
chemicals and the like, so that they can be budgeted in advance.
* Evaluate performance of equipment of various manufacturers
or designs when undertaking purchase of replacements.
* Adjust operation and maintenance procedures and schedules
based on observed realistic needs.
* Set water rates that are neither too high nor too low, based on
trends in administrative, operational, and maintenance costs.
* Provide, on short notice, any statistical information required by
its governing board.
1.6.1.2
1-16
1.6.2
Accounting Records
Accounting records should contain all information on revenues and costs,
broken down in such detail that any operation of the utility can be quickly
analyzed economically.
It is important from the standpoint of operation and maintenance that
costs be quickly availableon such items as:
1.6.3
1.6.3.2
,.......
1-17
1.6.4
Check Lists
System Mapping
1-18
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SUBSECTION
SUBJECT
PAGE
2.1
INTRODUCTION
2-1
2.2
2-1
2.3
2-3
2.4
2-5
2.5
2.6
2-8
2.7
2-15
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2-8
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2.1
INTRODUCTION
The first and foremost responsibility of the water utility is to provide its customers
with safe potable water. This means that the water must not contain anything that is
hannful to the health of the public and must be free of any 1.mpleasant taste, odor or
color. Although much discussion of public health centers around prevention of water
bornes disease, other factors affect public health indirectly to the extent that they
influence hygiene (for example if the public water supply provides water that is entirely
safe but has an unpleasant taste, people will be encouraged to obtain more palatable
drinking water from other, unsafe sources).
Water is considered the "universal solvent" because, given enough time, it will
dissolve anything. As rain falls, it collects and dissolves gas from the air. Then, as it
travels over and through the soil, it collects minerals, organic compounds and microorganisms. By the time the water fmally arrives at the point where it is to be collected
and used by people, it has acquired its own unique combination of ingredients. The
extent to which a given water contains objectionable or hannful ingredients is known
as water quality. For convenience, water quality is broken down into three categories:
*Chemical quality (minerals, gases, acidity)
*Physical quality (taste, odor, color, temperature)
* Biological quality (usually called Bacteriological quality even though it covers
not only bacteria, but all types of micro-organisms.)
From a quality standpoint, water falls into the following classifications:
* Pure - This ic; not normally found in nature. Due to the absence of normal
dissolved material this water would not be satisfying to drink.
* Wholesome - This is ,t he most desirable quality level.
* Potable - This would be suitable for drinking even if there may be one or more
aspects of the water that is undesirable.
* Polluted - This water has received substances in sufficient quantities to render it
objectionable for use, such as a taste or odor, or color, but it would not
necessarily constitute a health hazard.
* Contaminated - This water has been adulterated by the introduction of toxic
substances, bacteria, or other harmful agents that make it hazardous and
unfit for human consumption.
2.2 CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL QUALITY
2.2.1
General
I
Water may contain minerals that are poisonous to humans even when
present in minute q~antities, such as arsenic, lead; and chromium. Fortunately
these toxic minerals are rarely found in water in quantities great enough to
2-1
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Excessive iron and/or manganese (stains clothing, porcelain, equipment, etc. and imparts a musty, metallic taste to the water.)
Hydrogen sulfide (rotten egg taste and odor).
Alkalinity (scale deposits in piping and cooking utensils).
Acidity (corrosive to metal).
Hardness (excessive soap needed for washing and scale deposits in
piping, and cooking utentils.)
Chlorides(salty taste).
Magnesium (laxative effect).
Nitrates (laxative effect) .
Some chemicals occasionally found in water are not dangerous in themselves, (unless the concentrations are above the acceptable health standards)
but their presence may indicate that industrial or domestic wastes are fmding
their way into the water. These include nitrities, nitrates, and carbon dioxide.
Finally, surface waters Ul)ually contain suspended particals and colloids
or organic material. The resulting murky appearance is known as turoi.dity .
When turbid water evaporates, a silty residue is left behind. Obviously turbid
water is not desirable for drinking "'r washing fabrics. In addition, turbidity
particles may include or harbor bacteria, resulting in lowered bacterial quality
and disinfection efficiency.
If a given water supply cannot be protected or treated to maintain acceptable dissolved mineral concentrations as delineated by public health standards,
it should be abandoned.
2.2.2
2-2
2.2.2.1
Minerals and Gases. Where the constituents of water can be extractted and weighed, they are measured in milligrams per liter of water
(mg/1} or, parts per million parts of water by weight (ppm). These
units are the same (i.e., 1 mg/1 - 1 ppm}; however the metric unit,
mg/1, is becoming more and more widely used .
.>
2.2.2.2
2.2.2.3
2.2.2.4
2.2.2.5
General
The term pollution, is used when any undesirable substance - not necessarily harmful - are added to water. Contamination is the introduction of harmful chemicals or micro-organisms. Therefore, pollution of water can take
place without contaminating it (though, in fact, that is almost never true.)
I
2-3
2.3.2
2.3.2.2
Viruses
* Poliomyelitis
* Infectious Hepatitis
{b) Bacteria
* Typhoid Fever
* Bacillary Dysentery
*Gastroenteritis
*Cholera
{c) Protozoa
* Amoebic Dysentery
* Schistosomiasis.
2.3.2.3
.
-
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2-4
,
I
2.3.3
General
. - __....
2.4.2
Aside from the interconnection of water mains with other types of pipelines as previously mentioned, the typical cross connection consists of an
unbroken link between the water supply system and a body of polluted water
outside the system. Most cross connections only function when the water main
pressure is low. For example, if a water main is undersized and any large draft
occurs (say, an open fire hydrant, a major pipeline break or high water demand) ,
pressure in the main drops enough to create a vacuum at or above ground level.
Then, wherever a cross connection exists, polluted water will be sucked into
the water main.
2-5
2.4.3
2.4.3.2
2.4.3.3
2.4.3.4
*
*
*
*
*
2-6
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2.5.2
~2.5.3
General
A water sample must be truly representative of the water to be tested.
Therefore, the frequency and location of sampling is very important. Also, the
operator must be very careful to avoid adding any bacteria or chemicals tc
water while, or after, collecting samples. Sample collec_!ipg ..te&hniques may
vary, depending on the kind of test to be made. A carelessly collected sample
can make the highest quality water, or the best of treatment processes appear
bad.
2.6.2
Sampling Locations
In general, samples for analysis of chemical and physical quality are
collected at the water source and immediately following any treatment facilities.
Samples for bacteriological testing are taken at widespread, scattered
points in the distribution network and at reservoirs. It is also a good idea to
collect samples at surface water sources 'in order to detect any massive new
contamination upstream.
I
2-8
2.6.3
Frequency of Sampling
The Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water include certain
minimum standards for water quality, and frequency of water sampling of
potable water supplies.
Under these standards, bacteriological samples should be collected and
analyzed as shown in Table 2-1. Bottles for bacteriological samples must be
washed, then receive 0.1 ml of a 10% solution of sodium thiosulfate to neutralize the residual chlorine in the sample water. The sample bottle is then loosely
capped and sterilized in either moist or dry heat (20 min. at 250F). The
sample bottles are not opened until the moment of collecting the sample then
immediately tightly capped and taken to the laboratory for bacteriological
examination. The sample bottles are only 3/4 filled with sample water so
they can be thoroughly shaken b efore being opened and used in the laboratory.
If a routine sample shows an excessive number of microorganisms, another
sample ("recheck sample") should be taken from the same location, after
determining and correcting the cause if possible.
Population Served
By Utility
20- 20,000
20,000 - 50,000
50,000 - 100,000
Over 100,000
Maximum Interval*
Between Successive
Samplings
One Month
Two Weeks
Four Days
One Day
_....,.
Minimum Number*
of Samples
I.
2.
ADD 4 DROPS OF
ORTHOTOLIDINE TO
ONE OF THE CELLS
3.
2-10
...........
-.
Sampling Techniques
2.6.4.1
General
Sampling Technique
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
cals.)
When sampling from a pump dischar.ge, faucet, fire hydrant
. etc., let it run for at least a minute then hold the bottle
opening under it, being careful not to touch the opening
against the tap.
Immediately check the temperature of the water and of
the air with a centigrade thermometer.
Check the chlorine residual.
Tightly cap the bottle with a non-metallic lid or cork.
Put a lable on the sample bottle showing the following:
*Type of sample (i.e. "Chemical and Physical Sample")
*Date and time of day
* Location (be exact; e.g., "Discharge of Well Pump
No.1")
*Name of person taking sample
* Air and water temperature
2-11
* Chlorine residual
(7) Send sample to laboratory within 24 hours.
(8) Schedule sample collecting so that samples can be delivered to laboratory before noon on Fridays. This is to
assure that the analysis can be done before the weekend
shut-down of the laboratory.
2.6.4.2
General
Sampling Technique
2-12
Representative water samples ore token regularly throughout the entired system.
Field personnel assist the laboratory by taking samples as required .
3
Flame the mouth of sample top
of faucet with Butane torch.
5
Determine residual chlorine.
This data will indicate when o
fresh representative sample is
flowing through the line.
NOTE :
The screw caps on the plastic bottles are not screwed down tightly
when the bottles are sterilized. If the cap should become separated
from the bottles in the field, please return empty bottles and cap to
laboratory for re-sterilization. Plastic bottles marked ''PL" have
not been sterilized, and they are to be use only for taking plankton
samples.
BACTERIOLOGICAL
2-13
SAMPLING
- -..~t:~.
........
2-14
L..
MONTH OF _________________________________________ 19 _ __
LOCATION _________________________________________________
NAME OF OPERATOR - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - D A T E__________
Subsection
2.6.1
2.6.2
2.6 .3
2.6.4
2.6.5
Work Item
Check One:
Yes
No
(c)
(d)
(a)
(b)
2-1 5
Subsection
2.6.6
Check One:
Yes
No
Work Item
(c)
(e)
(f)
g)
..... --
-.......-:...
REMARKS=-----------------------------------------------------
2-16
..- _......
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SUBJECT
SUBSECTION
3.1
PAGE
INTRODUCTION
3-1
3.2
WATER PRESSURE
3-2
3.3
3-5
3,4
3-5
3.5
3-8
3.6
MEASURING FLOWS
3-9
... -_....a;
3.7
WATER. HAMMER
3-19
3.8
CAVITATION
3-21
3.1
INTRODUCTION
Hydraulics - the study of liquid in motion and/or under pressure - is a complex
subject requiring years of study to master completely. However, if the utility operator
understands some of the basic principles of hydraulics of water, he will be better
equipped to understand the operation and maintenance of water supply facilities.
3.1.1
Units of Length
MM
CM
1.0
10.
1000.
3.1.1.2
=
=
=
=
0.01
1.0 = 0.001
= 1.0
1000.
M2
CM2
1.0
100.
1,000,000.
=
=
0.01
1.0
10,000.
=
=
0.0001
1.0
10,000.0
---
Hectare
=
=
Units of Volume
cc
1.0
1,000.
1,000,000.
3.1. 1.4
0.1
1.0
100.
KM
Units of Area
MM2
3.1.1 .3
1 (liters)
0.001
1.0
1,000.
Weight of Water
1.0 cc
1.0 I iter
1.0 M3
weighs
, weighs
weighs
1.0 gm
1000 gm or 1.0 kg.
1000 kg.
3-1
M3
0.0000001
0.001
1.0
0.0001
1.0
3.1. 1.5
Units of Flow
1/s
1.0
M3/Hr
1/Hr
3600.
3.6
0.001
1.0
0.417
1.0
0.278
0.0116
1000.
41.67
M3/Day
86.4
. 0.024
24.0
1.0
Definition
Pressure is the force exerted on each square centimeter of a surface by
the weight of water lying above it; the greater the depth of water, the greater
the pressure. Example: If a tank 1.0 M square is filled 1.0 M deep with water, it
contains 1.0 M3 or 1000}W'Of water. Since the area at the bottom of the tank
is 1.0 M2 or 10,000 CM2, the weight of water on each square centimeter
(i.e ., the pressure) is 1000 kg+ 10,000 cm2, or 0.10 kg/cm2. Hence 10 meters
of water column will exert a pressure at the bottom of the column of 1 kg/cm2,
which is a unit of pressure in the metric system.
3.2.2
Characteristics of Pressure
(a)
(b) Water pressure depends only on the vertical height of water. The static
water pressure at any point in a hydraulic system depends on and is equal
to the vertical difference between that point and the highest level open
to atmospheric pressure such as in an elevated tank, or the piezometric
level induced by a pump.
In a supply system however, conditions are seldom if ever static,
hence the actual or dynamic pressure, or head, is the static pressure minus
losses due to velocity of flow and friction, between the location of the
highest pressure in the system and any other point being checked.
3-2
--P=8.75
P=IOM
P= 8.75
= --
P= 10M
-===
:;J-::=_-
-=--
--
-~
..
V = 5 M/ SEC .
3-3
10M
1
0
<(
lJ...
(f)
(f)
_j
MAIN SECTION
( d2) THROAT
DIAMETER
THROAT SECTION
-VENTURI
,---..
""'""'
h=HEAD
_
DIFFERENTIAL
LOSS OF
ORIFICE
3-4
.
HEAD
( d 1 ) = Throat
Diameter
PROPELLER
3.2.3
"Head" vs "Pressure"
The terms "head" and "pressure mean basically the same thing. However, head is generally expressed in terms of an equivalent height of a water
column, in meters, while pressure is expressed in kg/cm 2 .
Suppose a pump produces a pressure of 5.0 kg/cm2 in a pipeline. The
same pressure could be by connecting the pipeline to a tank with its water surface
50 M above the pipeline (i.e., I/10 x 50= 5.0 kg/cm2). Therefore, the pump is
said to provide 50 M of head. ln fact, pumps are usually rated in terms of
meters of head, rather than in pressure units.
3.2.4
Measuring Pressure
Water is pushed through a pipe by pressure. The higher the pressure, the greater
the velocity and volume o~ water passing a point in a unit of times.
Velocity is usually expressed in meters per second. To atbuntlie velocity some of
the pressure is converted to velecity head which is expressed in meters of water column.
The amount of pressure converted to velocity head is about 1/20 of the velocity
(meters/second) multiplied by itself, (V2).
20
Pressure converted to velocity is not lost but is converted back to static pressure
as the water slows or stops.
3.4
When water flows through a pipe, part of the pressure or head which causes the
water to move is lost due to friction between wall of the ~ipe and the water moving
past it. The longer the pipe, the greater the total pressure los.t , hence the friction potential of a pipe line is usually ~efined as meters of head loss per kilometer of pipe line
length.
3-5
_.,..
3-6
--~HEAD
l_ VALVE
-
LENGTH
-GRADE ~,;- -
~;AD
LOSS IN
PIPELINE
8
A 8
l
LOSS lN PIPE A
LOSS IN PIPE 8
HEAD
LOSS
IN PIPE
LENGTH A B C
180 ....
200 ....
_,.
..
-~
- - - - - - -LIN
--
=r
HEAD
LOSS IN
LENGTH A 8
aoo
FLOW IN PIPE
3 -7
1111
PI:ELINE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
A 400 mm pipeline, 800 meters long carries a flow of 200 liters per
second.
Pressure gages installed at each end of the pipeline give an upstream
pressure of 3.4 kg/cm2 and a downstream pressure of 3.2 kg/cm2.
The elevation of the upstream gage is 4 meters higher than the downstream
gage,- equal to 0.4 kg/cm2 static pressure ..
If the pipe was level, the downstream gage would read 3.2 kg/cm2 - 0.4
kg/cm2 = 2.8 kg/cm2.
The actual head loss in the 800 meters of pipeline is 3.4 kg/cm2- 2.8
kg/cm 2 = 0.6 kg/cm2 equal to 6 meters of water column.
The table gives pressure loss in meters of water column in 1000 meters,
but the length of pipeline tested in 800 meters, or 0.8 of values as presented.
The head loss due to friction according to the table, therefore, is 6 meters,
x 1000 = 7.5 meters.
800
Using Table 3-2 f for 400 mm pipe and locating a flow rate of 200 liters
per second in the left hand column then looking to the right we find a
head loss value of 7.79 meters per 1000 meters of pipe length in the
column headed by "C" = 110.
Unlike velocity head which may be converted back to pressure, head loss due to
friction is lost forever.
that line.
Any restriction, such as a partially closed valve or change in pipe size will create
an abrupt change in the slope of the grade line.
3-8
General
3.6.2.1
Material Required
(a)
3.6.2.2
Procedure
(a)
Be certain that the weir box is placed perfectly level both lengthwise and crosswise. This can be checked by using a carpenter's
level.
(b) When tlow through the weir is steady, measure the depth of water
in the sight glass by means of a scale placed behind the glass tube.
Zero on the scale must be level with the bottom of the weir.
(c) Using Table 3-4, look up the flow ra~e given for the depth of flow
H, under the column corresponding to the width of the weir
openm~.
3-9
<{
(t:
1-
w
~
w
(t:
::::>
en
<{
w
~
~
0
...J
LL
--
310
.
-~
.I
STAFF GAGE
MET.
AL STRIp
<>;~-~~~'""''* oli11'T
, " "' "
'. .
'" ':\'''
,.
...
,...........
'
' ,..
'\
....
, '
" l
~...E~A
~ ..~1\~ ' "'.1 '.\ .,~
.
. .
. . .
,,,\'
~"11
, \1\J''
{;. / :;//~/' /
.~ "!: ~
~- ;/i'~"' ;, ..J'. ~
/:::::
/. /,/ . /
-:/ /-/./
1
"' ~'
'tl
_.
':W ';
''"':
"'"' ""'
,
'
\
.
'
:
'
~
.
d
~
~
:
.
.
:
:
-.......:-~~
. .,' v,...... ;.. :,....-:~~:::..------~~ ~/://
,.,"''"~
~~.
.
....
-o't'
,.::
'' "
..,.
/'< . -
/
.
7~~;/1
~z I
_.....-----
' /
.,<;.
'
'/
. '
.
'/f I
/~/
---~
/ ' /;/ ~ .
Y'. / /
.. .
;.
-:/: /
/, /
',
~~~E~O~~~~~TI:~R
-RECTANGUL
'---
WITH
6~R~UGH
THEISO~NTRACTED
FROMH~HWEIR
NOTC~NG SINCE ASTH~T
PASSES
E SIDES OF THE
ARE SOME
ENDS
WEIR DISTANCE
POOL.)
Table 3-4
WEIR DISCHARGE
FOR RECTANGULAR WEIR WITH TWO END CONTRACTIONS
DISCHARGE LIS
DISCHARGE LIS
H
(mm)
B=300 mm
B=750 mm
">,
H
(mm)
B=1.2 M
50
52
54
56
58
5.8
6 .2
6.6
7 .0
7 .4
15.0
16.3
17.1
18.1
19.0
24.1
26.3
27.6
29.1
30.6
100
102
104
106
108
60
62
66
68
7 .6
8.0
8.5
8.9
9.3
20.0
20.9
22.0
23.0
24.0
32.1
33.6
35.4
37.1
38.6
70
72
74
76
78
9 .7
10.2
10.6
11.0
11 .3
25.0
26.1
27.2
28.4
29.4
80
82
84
86
88
11 .7
12.2
12.6
13.1
13.6
90
92
94
96
98
100
64
B=300 mm B=750 mm
42.2
43.7
44.9
46.2
47.6
68.6
70.7
72.7
74.8
67.9
110
112
114
116
118
48.9
50.2
51.4
52.7
54.2
79.1
81.2
83.1
85.3
87.8
40.4
42.1
43.8
45.8
47.5
120
122
124
126
128
55.5
56.9
58.3
59.6
61.0
90.0
92.1
94.5
96.6
98.9
30.5
31.7
32.9
34.0
35.2
49.2
51.2
53.1
54..8
56.8
130
132
134
136
138
62.4
63.9
65.3
66.7
68.2
101.3
103.6
105.9
108.3
110.6
14.0
14.5
14.9
15.4
15.7
36.4
37.5
38.7
40.1
41.2
58.7
60.6
62.6
64.7
66.6
140
142
144
146
148
69.6
71 .6
72.4
74.0
75.4
112.9
115.3
117.6
120.1
122.5
16.3
42.4
68.6
150
76.9
125.0
3-12
16.3
B=1 .2M
.
- .. -
.....;..
A-Greater than
twice H
B-Twice H
C-At least twice H
H- Maximum Head
V NOTCH WEIR
upstream side
- - -...Jr...
----..-=-:--=---=--= HEAD
----=--=-
-----=
-- - --=-~- - -
-- -
3-13
-3------YARDSTICK
Calibrated in MM
Water Level----+-1
Clear Plastic - -Tubing, 3 MM 0
---H /1
... - __....
3-14
- - - -- --
- - --
- -- -
Table 3-5
DISCHARGE, L!SEC, FROM CIRCULAR ORIFICE
ORIFICE DIMENSIONS (MM)
(PIPE 1.0. x ORIFICE 1.0.)
Head
IIH''
(MM)
Head
"H,
(MM)
8.2
8.4
8.5
8.7
8.9
27.7
28.4
29.0
29.6
30.2
64.0
65.5
67.0
68.4
69.8
10
20
30
40
50
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.1
1.3
1.8
2.5
3.1
3.6
4.0
8.6
10.5
12.1
13.5
24.2
27.9
31.2
210
220
230
240
250
60
70
80
90
100
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
4.4
4.7
5.0
5.4
5.6
14.8
16.0
17.1
18.1
19.1
34.2
36.9
39.5
41.9
44.2
260
270
280
290
300
2.9
2.9
3.0
3.0
3.1
9.1
9.3
9.4
9.6
9.8
30.8
31.4
32.0
32.6
33.1
71.2
72.6
73.9
75.2
76.5
110
120
130
140
150
1.9
1.9
2.0
2.1
2.2
5.9
6.2
6.4
6.7
6.9
20.1
20.9
21 .8
22.6
23.4
46.3
48.4
50.3
52.2
54.1
310
320
330
340
350
3.1
3.2
3.2
3.3
3.3
9.9
10.1
10.2
10.4
10.5
33.7
34.2
34.2
35.3
35.8
77.7
79.0
80.2
81.4
82.6
160
170
180
190
200
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.4
2.5
7.1
7.4
7.6
7.8
8.0
24.2
24.9
25.7
26.4
27.0
55.9
57.6
59.2
60.9
62.4
360
370
380
390
400
3.4
3.4
3.5
3.5
3.5
10.7
10.8
11.0
11.1 ..
_. 11.3
36.3
36.8
37.3
37.8
38.2
83.8
84.9
86.1
87.2
88.3
3-15
-~
X.>;
~
;:.
"""
&1'-
. I .I
.I. .I
ll
.I .L .. I
.I .I .1. .I .I
..
....
.I .I .I .I .IE-
.........
- -~~~'
~
~
" '-~
~~~
~
' '
' ., .,
y-300 mm
. '\
'
3-16
Table 3-6
FREE DISCHARGE FROM HORIZONTAL PIPES
Q
Horiz.
Dist.
''X''
(MM)
= 1/sec.
25
l)'
40
50
75
100
150
200
250
300
0.6
1.5
2.4
5.4
9.6
21.6
38.4
60.G
350
0.7
1.8
2 .8
6 .3
11.2
25.2
44.8
70.0
400
0.8
2.1
3 .2
7 .2
12.8
28.8
51.2
80.0
450
0.9
2.3
3.6
8.1
14.4
32.4
57.5
90.0
500
1.0
2.6
4.0
9 .0
16.0
36.0
63.0
100.0
550
1.1
2.8
4.4
9 .9
17.6
39.6
70.3
600
1.2
3.1
4.8
10.8
19.2
43.2
76.7
650
1.3
3.3
5.2
11.7
20.8
46.8
83.1
700
1.4
3.6
5.6
12.6
22.4
50.4
89.5
750
1.5
3.8
6.0
13.5
24.0
54.0
95.9
800
1.6
4.1
6.4
14.4
25.6
850
1.7
4.4
6.8
15.3
27.2
61.2
900
1.8
4.6
7.2
16.2
28.8
64.7
950
1.9
4.9
7.6
17.1
30.4
68.3
1,000
2.0
5.1
8.0
18.0
32.0
71.9
317
.
57.6
.. . -
-~
102.3
3 .6.3
,-
Materials Required
Discharge pipe with threaded or flanged end. The.pipe should be
straight and level for at least ten diameters ahead of the orifice.
A three mm diameter tubing connection is made at the horizontal
centerline of the pipe, 30 em from the discharge end. The fitting
must be flush with the inside pipe wall. The pipe must be level.
(b) Orifice plate clamped or screwed onto the end of the pipe as
shown in the illustration. Alternatively, an orifice plate may be
permanently fixed on the end of the discharge pipe. There must be
no leakage around the orifice plate.
(c) Clear plastic piezometer tubing.
(d) Yardstick, calibrated in mm.
(a)
3.6.3.2
Procedure
(a)
Materials Required
(a)
3.6.4.2
Procedure
(a)
(b)
3-18
3.6.5
Volumetric Method
Small Flows
If the flow is expected to be less than about 5 1/sec., a standard oil drum
Moderate Frows
If the flow is expected to be less than about 20 1/sec., several oil drums
may be placed close together and fllled one after the other, being careful to
avoid loss of water during transfer of flow from one drum to the other. Each
drum should take at least 15 seconds to fill.
3.6.9
--
Large Flows
When flows are -too large for measuring with oil drums, flow must be
diverted into a reservoir and the rise in reservoir level measured together with
the elapsed time.
3.7 WATER HAMMER
3-19
I
H
.. -
.
-....:..:.
320
These systems however, must be designed for the specific condition by an engineer
with experience in solving this type of problem.
3.8 CAVITATION
3-21
Table3-7
FREE DISCHARGE FROM VERTICAL PIPE
0 = L/Sec.
Vert.
dist.
'H"
(MM)
50
75
50
1.7
3.9
6 .9
75
2.1
4.7
100
2.4
150
200
250
300
15.9
28.9
46.2
67.9
8.5
19.5
35.4
56.6
83.2
5.4
9.8
22.5
40.9
65.3
96.0
2.9
6.7
12.0
27.6
50.1
80.0
200
3.4
7.7
13.8
31.9
57.9
92.3
250
3.8
8.6
15.5
35.6
64.7
103.3
300
4.1 ..
9.4
17.0
39.0
70.9
350
4.5
10.2
18.3
42.1
76.5
400
4.8
10.9
19.6
45.0
81.8
_.., -
3-22
- .-..~~r
1.0.
of
Pipe
(MM)
Cross
Sectional
Area
(M2)
40
0.00126
1.26
50
0.00196
1.96
75
0.00442
4.42
100
0.00785
7.85
150
0.0177
1.77
200
0.0314
3.14
250
0 .0491
4 .91
300
0.0707
7.07
350
0.0962
9.62
400
0.126
12.6
450
0 .159
15.9
500
0.196
19.6
550
0 .238
23.8
600
0.283
700
0.385
38.5
750
0.442
44.2
800
0.503
50.3
900
0 .636
63.6
1000
0.785
78.5
_,.
3-23
.. -
28.3
-~
mm
li4s/sec
M/sec
C=140
C=130
C=120
C=110
C=100
C=90
C=80
C=70
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.31
0.36
0.41
0.46
0.51
0.096
0.347
0.735
1.25
1.89
2.65
3.53
4.52
5.62
6.84
0.110
0.398
0.844
1.44
2.17
3.04
4.05
5.19
6.45
7.84
0.128
0.462
0.978
1.67
2.52
3.53
4.70
6.02
7.48
9.09
0.150
0.542
1.15
1.96
2.96
4.15
5.52
7.07
8.79
10.7
0.179
0.647
1.37
2.34
3.53
4.95
6.58
8.43
10.5
12.7
0.218
0.787
1.67
2.84
4.29
6.02
8.00
10.2
12.7
15.5
0.271
0.978
2.07
3.53
5.34
7.48
9.95
12.7
15.9
19.3
0.347
1.25
2.65
4.52
6.84
9.58
12.7
16.3
20.3
24.7
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
0.61
0.71
0.81
0.92
1.02
9.58
12.7
16.3
20.3
24.7
11.0
14.6
18.7
23.3
28.3
12.7
17.0
21 .7
27.0
32.8
15.0
19.9
25.5
31 .7
38.6
17.9
23.8
30.4
37.9
46.0
21 .7
28.9
37.0
46.0
55.9
27.0
35.9
46.0
57.2
69.6
34.6
46.0
58.9
73.3
89.1
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
1.12
1.22
1.32
1.43
153
29.4
34.6
40.1
46.0
52.3
33.8
39.7
46.0
52.8
60.0
39.2
46.0
53.4
61.2
69.6
46.0
54.1
62.7
71.9
81.7
54.9
64.5
74.8
85.8
97.5
66.7
78.4
90.9
104
118
83.0
97.5
113
130
147
106
125
145
145
189
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.8
4.0
1.63
1.73
1.83
1.94
2.04
58.9
65.9
73.3
81.0
89.1
67.6
75.6
84.1
92.9
102
78.4
87.7
97.5
108
118
92.1
103
115
127
139
110
134
123
149
137
166
151 - - "l"B4
166
202
166
186
207
228
251
213
238
265
292
322
4.2
4.4
4.6
4.8
5.0
2.14
2.24
2.34
2.44
2.55
97.5
106
115
125
135
112
122
132
143
154
130
141
153
166
179
252
166
180
195
210
182
198
215
233
251
221
241
261
283
305
275
300
325
352
380
352
384
416
451
486
5.2
5.4
5.6
5.8
6.0
2.65
2.75
2.85
2.95
3.06
145
155
166
177
189
166
178
191
203
216
193
207
221
236
251
226
243
260
277
295
270
290
310
330
352
328
352
376
402
428
408
438
468
500
532
523
560
600
640
581
6.2
6.4
6.6
6.8
7.0
3.16
3.26
3.36
3.46
3.57
201
213
225
238
251
230
244
258
273
288
267
283
300
317
334
313
332
352
372
392
374
397 '
420
444
468
454
482
510
539
569
565
600
635
671
708
724
768
813
859
906
3-24
'
a
liters/sec
m/sec
C=140
C=130
C=120
C=110
C=100
C=90
C=80 C=70
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
0.07
0.13
0.20
0.26
0.33
0.117
0.423
0.895
1.53
2.31
0.134
0.485
1.03
1.75
2.64
0.156
0.562
1.19
2.03
3.07
0.183
0.660
1.40
2.38
3.60
0.218
0.788
1.67
2.84
4.30
0.265
0.958
2.03
3.46
5.23
0.330
1.19
2.52
4.30
6.50
0.423
1.52
3.23
5.51
8.32
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
0.39
0.46
0.52
0.59
0.65
3.23
4.30
5.51
6.85
8.32
3.71
4 .93
6.32
7.85
9.55
4.30
5.72
7.32
9.11
11.1
5.05
6.72
8.61
10.7
13.0
6.03
8.02
10.3
12.8
15.5
7.32
9.74
12.5
15.5
18.9
9 .11
12.1
15.5
19.3
23.5
11.7
15.5
19.9
24.7
30.0
2.3
2.6
2.9
3.1
3.4
0.75
0.85
0.95
1.01
1.11
10.8
13.5
16.6
18.7
22.2
12.4
15.5
19.0
21.5
25.5
14.3
18.0
22.0
24.9
29.6
16.9
21.1
25.9
29.3
34.8
20.1
25.2
30.9
34.9
41 .5
24.4
30.7
37.5
42.5
50.4
30.4
38.1
46.7
52.8
62.7
38.9
48.8
59.3
67.6
80.3
3.7
4.0
4.3
4.7
5.0
1.21
1.30
1.40
1.53
1.63
26.0
30.0
34.3
40.5
45.5
29.8
34.5
39.4
46.5
52.1
34.6
40.0
45.7
53.9
60.4
40.6
47.0
53.7
63.3
71.0
48.5
56.0
64.0
75.5
84.7
58.9
68.1
77.8
91.8
103
73.3
84.7
96.8
114
128
93.9
108
124
146
164
5.3
5.6
5.9
6.2
6.5
1.73
1.83
1.92
2.02
2.12
50.6
56.0
61.7
67.6
73.8
58.0
64.3
70.8
77.6
84.7
67.3
74.5
82.1
90.0
98.2
79.1
87.6
96.4
106
115
94.3
104
115
126
138 ..... - -
115
127
140
153
-467
143
158
174
191
208
183
202
223
244
266
6.8
7.1
7.4
7.7
8.0
2.22
2.31
2.41
2.51
2.61
80.3
86.9
93.9
101
108
92.1
99.7
108
116
124
107
116
125
134
144
125
136
147
158
169
150
162
175
188
202
182
197
213
229
246
226
145
265
285
306
290
314
339
365
391
8.4
8.8
9.2
9.6
10.0
2.74
2.87
3.00
3.13
3.26
119
129
140
152
164
136
148
161
174
188
158
172
187
202
218
186
202
220
238
256
221
241
262
283
306
269
293
318
344
372
335
365
396
428
462
428
467
507
549
592
10.4
10.8
11.2
11.6
12.0
3.39
3.52
3.65
3.78
3.91
176
189
202
216
230
202
217
232
248
264 '
235
251
269
287
306
276
295
316
337
359
329
353 1
377.
402
428
400
428
458
489
521
497
533
570
608
648
636
682
730
779
829
3-25
liters/sec
m/sec
C=140
C=130
C=120
C=110
C=100
C=90
C=80
C=70
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.11
0.14
0.16
0.18
0:20
0.263
0.368
0.490
0.628
0.781
0.302
0.423
0.562
0.720
0.895
0.350
0.490
0.652
0.835
10.4
0.411
0 .576
0.766
0.981
1.22
0.490
0.687
0.914
1.17
1.46
0.596
0.835
1.11
1.42
1.77
0.741
1.104
1.38
1.77
2.20
0.949
1.33
1.77
2.27
2.82
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
0.23
0.25
0.27
0.29
0.32
0.949
1.13
1.33
1.54
1.77
1.09
1.30
1.53
1.77
2.03
1.26
1.51
1.77
2.05
2.35
1.48
1.77
2.08
2.41
2.77
1.77
2.11
2.48
2.88
3.30
2.15
2.57
3.01
3.50
4 .01
2.67
3 .19
3.75
4.35
4.99
3.42
4.09
4.80
5.57
6.39
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
2.0
0.34
0.36
0.38
0.41
.45
2.01
2.27
2.53
2.82
3.42
2 .31
2.60
2.91
3.23
3.93
2.67
3.01
3.37
3.75
4.56
3.14
3.54
3.96
4.40
5.35
3.75
4.22
4.73
5.25
6.39
4.56
5.13
5.74
6.39
7.76
5.67
6.39
7.14
7.94
9.65
7.26
8.18
9.15
10.2
12.4
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
0.50
0.54
0.59
0.63
0.68
4.09
4.80
5.57
6.39
7.26
4.69
5.51
6.39
7.33
8.32
5.44
6.39
7.41
8.50
9.65
6.39
7.50
8.70
9.98
11.3
7.62
8.95
10.4
11.9
13.5
9 .26
10.9
12.6
14.5
16.4
11.5
13.5
15.7
18.0
20.5
14.7
17.3
20.1
23.0
26.2
3.3
3.6
3.9
4.2
4.5
0.75
0.81
0.88
0.95
1.02
8.66
10.2
11.8
13.5
15.4
9.93
11.7
13.5
15.5
17.6
11.5
13.5
15.7
18.0
20.5
13.5
15.9
18.4
21.1
24.0
16.1
19.0
22.0
25.2
28.7
19.6
23.1
26...2
30.7
34.8
24.4
28.7
33.3
38.1
43.3
31.2
36.7
42.6
48.8
55.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
1.13
1.24
1.36
1.47
1.58
18.7
22.3
26.2
30.4
34.8
21.4
25.6
30.0
34.8
40.0
24.9
29.7
34.8
40.4
46.4
29.2
34.8
40.9
47.5
54.5
34.8
41.6
48.8
56.6
65.0
42.4
50.5
59.4
68.9
79.0
52.7
62.8
73.8
85.6
98.2
67.5
80.5
94.5
110
125
7.5
8.0
8.5
9.0
10
1.70
1.81
1.92
2.04
2.26
39.6
44.6
49.9
55.5
67.5
45.4
51.2
57.3
63.7
77.4
52.7
59.4
66.4
73.8
89.7
61.9
69.7
78.0
86.7
105
7,~.8
83.2
93.1
103
126
89.7
101
113
126
153
112
126
141
156
190
143
161
180
200
243
11
12
13
14
15
2.49
2.72
2.94
3.17
3.40
80.5
94.5
110
126
143
92;3
108
126
144
164
107
126
,
146
167
190
126
148
171
197
223
150
176
204
235
267
182
214
249
285
324
227
267
309
355
403
290
341
396
454
516
3-26
liters/sec m/sec
mm
C=90
C=80
C=70
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
0.06
0.13
0.19
0.25
0.32
0.065
0.234
0.495
0.844
1.28
0.074
0.268
0.568
0.968
1.46
0.086
0.311
0.659
1.12
1.70
0.101
0.365
0.774
1.32
1.99
0.121
0.436
0.923
1.57
2.38
0.147
0.530
1.12
1.91
2.89
0.183
0.659
1.39
2.38
3.59
0.234
0.844
1.78
3.05
4.60
3.0
3.5
4.0
45
5.0
0.38
0.45
0.51
0.57
0.64
1.79
2.38
3.05
3.79
4.60
2.05
2.73
3.49
4.34
5.28
2.38
3.16
4.05
5.04
6.12
2.79
3.72
4.76
5.92
7.19
3.33
4.43
5.68
7.06
8.58
4.05
5.39
6.90
8.58
10.4
5.04
6.70
8.58
10.7
13.0
6.45
8.58
11.0
13.7
16.6
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
0.70
0.76
0.83
0.89
0.96
5.49
6.45
7.48
8.58
9.75
6.30
7.40
8.58
9.85
11.2
7.31
8.58
9.96
11.4
13.0
8.58
10.1
11.7
13.4
15.2
10.2
12.0
14.0
16.0
18.2
12.4
14.6
17.0
19.5
22.1
15.5
18.2
21.1
24.2
27.5
19.8
23.3
27.0
31.0
35.2
8.0
8.5
9.0
9.5
10.0
1.02
1.08
1.15
1.21
1.27
11.0
12.3
13.7
15.1
16.6
12.6
14.1
15.7
17.3
~9.1
14.6
16.4
18.2
20.1
22.1
17.2
19.2
21.4
23.6
26.0
20.5
22.9
25.5
28.2
31.0
24.9
27.9
31.0
34.2
37.7
31.0
34.7
38.5
42.6
46.8
39.7
44.4
49.3
54.5
60.0
11
12
13
14
15
1.40
1.53
1.66
1.78
1.91
19.8
23.3
27.0
31.0
35.2
22.7
26.7
31.0
35.5
40.4
26.4
31.0
35.9
41.2
46.8
31.0
36.4
42.2
48.4
55.0
37.0
43.4
50.4
57.8
65.6 . -
44.9
52.8
61.2
70.2
7!1:8
55.9
65.6
76.1
87.3
99.2
71.6
84.1
97.5
112
127
16
17
18
19
20
2.04
2.16
2.29
2.42
2.55
39.7
44.4
49.3
54.5
60.0
45.5
50.9
56.6
62.6
68.8
52.8
59.1
65.6
72.6
79.8
62.0
69.4
77.1
85.2
93.7
74.0
82.8
92.0
102
112
89.9
101
112
124
136
112
125
139
154
169
143
160
178
197
216
21
22
23
24
25
2.67
2.80
2.93
3.06
3.18
65.6
71.6
77.7
84.1
90.7
75.3
82.1
89.1
96.4
104
87.3
95.2
103
112
121
103
112
121
131
142
122
133
145
157
169
149
162
176
191
205
185
202
219
237
256
237
258
280
303
327
26
27
28
29
30
3.31
3.44
3.57
3.69
3.82
97.5
105
112
119
127
112
120
128
137
146
130
139
149
159
169
152
163
175
187
199
182
221
237
353
270
299
275
295
315
336
358
352
377
404
431
459
3-27
1~5
209 .
223
237
mm
liters/sec
m/sec
C=140
C=130
C=120
C=110
C=100
C=90
C=80
C=70
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
0.08
0.12
0.16
0.20
0.24
0.079
0.167
0.284
0.430
0.602
0.090
0 .191
0.326
0.493
0.691
0.105
0.222
0.378
0.572
0.801
0.123
0.261
0.444
0.672
0.942
0 .147
0.311
0.53p
0.801
1.12
0.179
0.378
0.644
0.974
1.37
0.222
0.470
0 .801
1.21
1.70
0.284
0.602
1.02
1.55
2.17
3.5
4.0
5
6
7
0.29
0.33
0.41
0.49
0.57
0.801
1.03
1.55
2.17
2.89
0.919
1.18
1.78
2.49
3.32
1.07
1.37
2.06
2.89
3.85
1.25
1.60
2.42
3.40
4.52
1.49
1.91
2.89
4.05
5.39
1.82
2.33
3.52
4.93
6.56
2.26
2.89
4.37
6.13
8.15
2.89
3.70
5.60
7.85
10.90
8
9
10
11
12
0.65
0.73
0.81
0.90
0.98
3.70
4.61
5.60
6.68
7.85
4.25
5.29
6.42
7.66
9.00
4.93
6.13
7.45
8.89
10.4
5.79
7.20
8.75
10.4
12.3
6.91
8.59
10.4
12.5
14.6
8.40
10.4
12.7
15.1
17.8
10.4
13.0
25.8
18.8
22.1
13.4
16.6
20.2
24.1
28.3
13
14
15
16
17
1.06
1.14
1.22
1.30
1.39
9.10
10.4
11.9
13.4
15.0
10.4
12.0
13.6
15.3
17.2
12.1
13.9
14.8
17.8
19.9
14.2
16.3
18.5
20.9
23.4
17.0
19.5
22.1
24.9
27.9
20.6
23.7
26.9
30.3
33.9
25.7
29.4
33.4
37.7
42.2
32.9
37.7
42.8
48.3
54.0
18
19
20
22
24
1.47
1.55
1.63
1.79
1.96
16.6
18.4
20.2
24.1
28.3
19.1
21.1
23.2
27.7
32.5
22.1
24.5
26.9
32.1
37.7
26.0
28.7
31.6
37.7
44.3
31.0
34.3
37.7
45.0
52.8
37.7
41.7
45.8
- . - -94.7
64.2
46.9
51.8
57.7
68.0
79.9
60.0
66.4
42.8
87.1
102
26
28
30
32
34
2.12
2.28
2.44
2.61
2.77
32.9
37.7
42.8
48.3
54.0
37.7
43.2
49.1
55.4
61.9
43.7
50.1
57.0
64.2
71.8
51.4
58.9
66.9
75.4
84.4
61.3
70.3
79.9
90.0
101
74.5
85.4
97.1
109
122
92.6
106
121
136
152
119
136
155
174
195
36
38
40
42
44
2.93
3.10
3.26
3.42
3.59
60.0
66.4
73.0
79.9
87.1
68.9
76.1
83.7
91.6
99.9
79.9
88.3
97.1
106
116
93.8
104
114
125
136
112
124
136
149
162
136
150
165
181
197
169
187
206
225
245
217
240
263
280
314
46
48
50
52
54
3.75
3.91
4.07
4.24
4.40
94.5
102
110
119
127
108
117
127
136
146
126
136
147
158
169
148
160
272
185
199
176
191
206
221
237
214
232
250
269
288
266
288
311
334
359
341
369
398
428
459
3-28
a
liters/sec
mm
M/sec
C=140
C=130
C=120
C=110
C=100
C=90
C=80
C=70
1
2
3
4
5
0.06
0.11
0.17
0.23
0.28
0.032
0.117
0.248
0.423
0.639
0.037
0.134
0 .285
0.485
0.733
0.043
0.156
0 .330
0.562
0.850
0.050
0.183
0.388
0.661
0 .999
0.060
0.218
0 .463
0.788
1.19
0.073
0.265
0.562
0.958
1.44
0.091
0 .330
0 .699
1.19
1.80
0.117
0.423
0.896
1.52
2.30
6
7
8
9
10
0.34
0.40
0.45
0.51
0 .57
0.895
1.19
1.52
1.89
2.30
1.02
1.36
1.75
2.17
2.64
1.19
1.58
2.03
2.52
3.06
1.40
1.86
2.38
2.96
3.60
2.67
2.22
2.84
3.53
4.30
2.03
2.70
3.45
4 .30
5.22
2.52
3.35
4 .30
5.34
6.50
3.23
4.30
5.50
6.84
8.32
12
14
16
18
20
0.68
0.79
0.91
1.02
1.13
3.23
4.30
5.51
6.85
8.32
3.70
4.93
6 .32
7.86 "
9.55
4 .30
5.72
7.33
9.11
11 .0
5.05
6.72
8.61
10.7
13.0
6.02
8.01
10.2
12.7
15.5
7.32
9.74
12.4
15.5
18.8
9.11
12.1
15.5
19.3
23.4
11.6
15.5
19.8
24.7
30.0
22
24
26
28
30
1.24
1.36
1.47
1.58
1.70
9.93
11.7
13.5
15.5
17.6
11.3
13.4
15.5
17.8
20.2
13.2
15.5
18.0
20.7
23.5
15.5
18.2
21.2
24.3
27.6
18.5
21.8
25.2
28.9
32.9
22.5
26.4
30.7
35.2
40.0
27.9
32.9
38.1
43.8
49.7
35.8
42.1
48.8
56.0
63.7
32
34
36
38
40
1.81
1.92
2.04
2.15
2.26
19.9
22.2
24.7
27.3
30.0
22.8
25.5
28.4
31.3
34.5
26.4
29.6
32.9
36.4
40.0
31.1
34.8
38.6
42.7
47.0
37.1
41 .5
46.1
51 .0
56.0
45.1
50.4
56.0
61 .9
68.1 -
56.0
62.7
69.7
77.0
84.7
71.7
80.3
89.2
98.6
108
42
44
46
48
50
2.38
2.49
2.60
2.72
2.83
32.9
35.8
83.9
42.1
45.4
37.7
41.1
44.7
48.3
52.1
43.8
47.7
51.8
56.0
60.4
51.4
56.0
60.8
65.8
71.0
61 .3
66.8
72.6
78.5
84.7
74.5
81.2
88.2
95.5
102
92.7
101
109
118
128
118
129
140
152
164
55
60
65
70
75
3 .11
3.40
3.68
3.96
4.24
54.2
63.7
73.8
84.7
96.2
62.2
73.0
84.7
97.2
110
72.1
84.7
98.2
113
128
84.7
99.5
115
132
150
101
118
138
158
179
122
144
167
192
218
152
179
208
239
271
195
229
267
306
347
80
85
90
95
100
4 .53
4 .81
5.09
5.38
5.66
108
121
135
149
164
124
139
155
171
188
144
161
179
198
218
170
190
211
233
256
202
226
252 I
278 .
306
246
275
305
338
372
306
342
380
420
462
392
438
487
538
592
3-29
.. - _......_
a
liters/sec
mm
m/sec
C=140
C=130
C=120
C=110
C=100
C=90
C=80
C=70
4
6
8
10
12
0.13
0.19
0.25
0.32
0.38
0.104
0.221
0.376
0.568
0.796
0.119
0.253
0.431
0.652
0.91~
0.138
0.293
0.500
0.756
1.06
0.163
0.345
0.587
0.888
1.24
0.194
0.411
0.701
1.06
1.48
0.236
0.500
0.852
1.29
1.80
0.293
0.622
1.05
1.60
2.24
0.376
0.796
1.35
2.05
2.87
14
16
18
20
22
0.45
0.51
0.57
0.64
0.70
1.06
1.36
1.69
2.05
2.45
1.22
1.56
1.94
2.35
2.81
1.41
1.80
2.24
2.73
3.25
1.66
2.12
2.64
3.20
3.82
1.98
2.53
3.15
3.82
4.56
2.40
3.07
3.82
4.65
5.54
2.99
3.82
4.6
5.78
6.90
3.82
4.90
6.09
7.40
8.83
25
28
31
34
37
0.80
0.89
0.99
1.08
1.18
3.10
3.82
4.62
5.48
6.41
3.56
4.39
5.30 .
6 .28
7.35
4.12
5.09
6.14
7.29
8.52
4.84
5.98
7.22
8.56
10.0
5.78
7.13
8.61
10.2
11.9
7.03
8.67
10.5
12.4
14.9
8.74
10.8
13.0
15.4
18.1
11.2
16.7
16.7
19.8
23.1
40
44
48
52
56
1.27
1.40
1.53
1.66
1.78
7.40
8.83
10.4
12.0
13.8
8.49
10.1
11 .9
13.8
15.8
9.85
11.7
13.8
16.0
18.4
11.6
13.8
16.2
18.8
21.6
13.8
16.5
19.3
22.4
25.7
16.8
20.0
23.5
27.3
31.3
20.9
24.9
29.2
33.9
38.9
26.7
31.9
37.4
43.4
49.8
60
65
70
75
80
1.91
2.07
2.23
2.39
2.55
15.7
18.2
20.9
23.7
26.7
18.0
20.9
23.9
27.2
30.6
20.9
24.2
27.8
31.5
35.5
24.5
28.4
32.6
37.1
41.8
29.2
33.9
38.9
44.2
49.8
35.5
41.2
47.3
53.7
60:6'
44.2
51.3
58.8
66.8
75.3
56.6
65.7
75.3
85.6
96.4
85
90
95
100
105
2.71
2.86
3.02
3.18
3.34
29.9
33.2
36.7
40.4
44.2
34.3
38.1
42.1
46.3
50.7
39.8
44.2
48.9
53.7
58.8
46.7
51.9
57.4
63.1
69.1
55.7
62.0
68.5
75.3
82.4
67.7
75.3
83.2
91.5
100
84.3
93.7
104
114
125
108
120
133
146
160
110
120
130
140
150
3.50
3.82
4.14
4 .46
4.77
48.2
56.6
65.7
75.3
85.6
55.3
64.9
75.3
86.4
98.2
64.1
75.3
87.3
100
114
75.3
88.5
103
118
134
89.8
106
122
140
160
109
128
149
171
194
136
160
185
212
241
174
204
237
272
309
160
170
180
190
200
5.09
5.41
5.73
6.05
6.37
96.4
108
120
133
146
111
124
138
152
167
128
144
160
176
194
151
169
187
207
228
180
201
224
247
272
219
245
372
300
330
272
304
338
374
411
348
389
433
479
526
3-30
'
a
liters/sec
m/sec
C=140
C=130
C=120
C=110
C=100
C=90
C=80
C=70
6
8
10
12
14
0.12
0.16
0.20
0.24
0.29
0.074
0.127
0.192
0.268
0.357
0.085
0.145
0.220
0.308
0.410
0.94
0.169
0.255
0.357
0.475
0.116
0.198
0.299
0.420
0.558
0.139
0.236
0.357
0.501
0.666
0.169
0.287
0.434
0.608
0.809
0.210
0.357
0.540
0.757
1.00
0.268
0.457
0.691
0.969
1.28
16
18
21
24
27
0.33
0.37
0.43
0.49
0.55
0.457
0.569
0.757
0.969
1.21
0.525
0.652
0.868
1.11
1.38
0.608
0.757
1.01
1.29
1.60
0.715
0.889
1.18
1.51
1.88
0.853
1.06
1.41
1.81
2.25
1.04
1.29
1.71
2.20
2.73
1.29
1.60
2.13
2.73
3.40
1.65
2.05
2.73
3.50
4.35
30
34
38
42
46
0.61
0.69
0.77
0.86
0.94
1.46
1.85
2.27
2.73
3.23
1.68
2.12
2.60
3.13
3.71
1.95
2.46
3.02
3.63
4.30
2.29
2.89
3.55
4.27
5.05
2.73
3.44
4.23
5.09
6.03
3.32
4.19
5.14
6.19
7.33
4.13
5.21
6.40
7.70
9.11
5.29
6.67
8.19
9.86
11.7
50
54
58
62
66
1.02
1.10
1.18
1.26
1.34
3.77
4.35
4.97
5.62
6.31
4.33
4.99
5.70
6.44
7.24
5.02
5.79
6.61
7.47
8.39
5.90
6.80
7.76
8.78
9.86
7.03
8.11
9.26
10.5
11.8
8.55
9.86
11.2
12.7
14.3
10.6
12.3
14.0
15.8
17.8
13.6
15.7
17.9
20.3
22.8
70
75
80
85
7.03
7.99
9.01
10.1
11 .2
8.07
9.17
10.3
11.6
12.8
9.36
10.6
12.0
13.4
14.9
11 .0
12.5
14.1
15.8
17.5
13.1
14.9
16.8
18.8 . . 20.9
15.9
18.1
20.4
90
1.43
1.53
1.63
1.73
1.83
25.4
19.8
22.5
25.4
28.4
31.6
25.4
28.8
32.5
36.4
40.4
95
100
110
120
130
1.94
2.04
2.24
2.44
2.65
12.4
13.6
16.2
19.1
22.1
14.2
15.6
18.6
21.9
25.4
16.5
18.1
21.6
25.4
29.4
19.4
21.3
25.4
29.8
34.6
23.1
25.4
30.3
35.6
41 .3
28.1
30.9
36.8
43.3
50.2
34.9
38.4
45.8
53.8
62.4
44.7
49.1
58.6
68.9
79.9
140
150
160
180
200
2.85
3.06
3.26
3.67
4.07
25.4
28.8
32.5
40.4
49.1
29.1
33.1
37.3
46.4
56.4
33.8
38.4
43.3
53.8
65.4
39.7
45.1
50.8
63.2
76.8
47.3
53.8
60.6
75.4
91.6
57.5
65.4
73.7
91 .6
111
71.6
81.3
91.6
114
139
91.6
104
117
146
177
220
240
160
280
300
4.48
4.89
5.30
5.7
6.11
58.6
68.9
79.9
91 :6
104
67.3
79.0
91.6 ~
105
119
78.0
91 .6
106
122
139
91.6
108
125
143
163
109
128
149
171
194
133
156
181
208
236
165
194
225
258
294
212
249
288
331
376
3-31
'
22:8
mm
.......
m/sec
C=140
C=130
C=120
C=110
C=100
C=90
C=80
C=70
10
12
14
16
18
0.14
0.16
0.20
0.23
0.25
0.079
0.110
0.147
0.188
0.234
0.090
0.127
0.169
0.216
0.268
0.105
0 .147
0.196
0.250
0.311
0.123
0.173
0.230
0.294
0.366
0.147
0.206
0.274
0.351
0.436
0.179
0.250
0.333
0.426
0.530
0.222
0.311
0.414
0.530
0.660
0.284
0.399
0.530
0.679
0.845
20
23
26
29
32
0.28
0.33
0.37
0.41
0.45
0.284
0.368
0.462
0.566
0.679
0.326
0.423
0.530
0.649
0.779
0.378
0.490
0.615
0.753
0.904
0.445
0.576
0.723
0.885
1.06
0.530
0.687
0.862
1.06
1.27
0.645
0.835
1.05
1.28
1.54
0.802
1.04
1.30
1.60
1.91
1.02
1.33
1.67
2.04
2.45
35
40
45
50
55
0.50
0.57
0.64
0.71
0.78
0.802
1.03
1.28
1.55
1.85
0.920
1.18 .
1.46
1.78
2.12
1.07
1.37
1.70
2.07
2.46
1.25
1.60
2.00
2.43
2.89
1.50
1.92
2.38
2.89
3.45
1.82
2.33
2.89
3.52
4.20
2.26
2.89
3.60
4.38
5.22
2.89
3.71
4.61
5.60
6.68
60
65
70
0.85
0.92
0.99
2.18
2.52
2.89
2.50
2.89
3.32
2.89
3.36
3.85
3.40
3.94
4.52
4.06
4.71
5.40
4.93
5.72
6.56
6.13
7.11
8.16
7.85
9.11
10.4
75
80
1.06
1.13
3.29
3.71
3.77
4.25
4.38
4.93
5.14
5.79
6.13
6.91
7.45
8.40
9.27
10.4
11 .9
13.4
90
100
110
120
130
1.27
1.41
1.56
1.70
1.84
4.61
5.60
6.68
7.85
9.11
5.29
6.43
7.67
9.01
10.4
6.13
7.45
8.89
10.4
12.1
7.21
8.76
10.4
12.3
14.2
8.60
10.4
12.5
14.6
17.0
13.0
15.8
18.8
22.1
25.7
16.6
20.2
24.1
28.3
32.9
140
160
180
200
220
1.98
2.26
2.55
2.83
3.11
10.4
13.4
16.6
20.2
24.1
12.0
15.3
19.1
23.2
27.7
13.9
17.8
22.1
26.9
32.1
16.3
20.9
26.0
31.6
37.7
19.5
24.9
31.0
37.7
45.0
23.7
30.3
37.7
45.8
54.7
29.5
37.7
46.9
57.0
68.0
37.7
48.3
60,1
73.0
87.1
240
260
280
300
320
3.40
3.68
3.96
4.24
4.53
28.3
32.9
37.7
42.9
48.3
32.5
37.7
43.3
49.2
55.4
37.7
43.7
50.2
57.0
64.2
44.3
51.4
58.9
67.0
75.5
52.9
61.3
70.3
79.9
90.1
64.2
74.5
85.5
97.1
109
79.9
92.7
106
121
136
102
119
136
155
174
122
143
165
189
214
152
178
206
235
267
195
228
264
301
341
liters/sec
10.4
12.7
-15;2->17.8
20.6
'
340
370
400
430
460
4.81
5.23
5.66
6.08
6.51
54.0
63.2
73.0
83.5
94.6
62.0
72.5
83.7
95.7
108
'
71.9
84.1
97.1
111
126
3-32
84.4
98.8
114
130
148
101
118
136
156
176
liters/sec
m/sec
C=140
C=130
C=120
C=110
C=100
C=90
C=80
C=70
15
20
25
30
35
0.16
0.21
0.26
0.31
0.36
0.079
0.134
0.203
0.285
0.379
0 .090
0.154
0.233
0.326
0.434
0.105
0.179
0.270
0.379
0 .504
0 .123
0.210
0.317
0.445
0.592
0.147
0.250
0.379
0 .531
0.706
0.179
0.304
0.460
0.645
0.858
0.222
0.379
0.572
0.802
1.07
0.285
0.485
0.733
1.02
1.37
40
45
50
55
60
0.42
0.47
0.52
0.57
0.62
0.485
0 .603
0.733
0.874
1.03
0.556
0 .692
0.840
1.00
1.18
0.645
0 .802
0.975
1.16
1.37
0.758
0 .942
1.15
1.37
1.61
0.904
1.12
1.37
1.63
1.91
1.10
1.37
1.66
1.98
2.33
1.37
1.70
2.07
2.46
2.89
1.75
2.18
2.64
3.16
3.71
80
100
120
140
160
0.83
1.04
1.Z5
1.46
1.66
1.75
'1)4
3.71
4.93
6.32
2 .01
3.03
4.25
5.66
7.24
2.33
3 .52
4.93
6.56
8.40
2.73
4.13
5.79
7.71
9.87
3.26
4.93
6.91
9.20
11.8
3.97
5.99
8.40
11.2
14.3
4.93
7.46
10.4
13.9
17.8
6.32
9.55
13.4
17.8
22.8
180
200
220
240
260
1.87
2.08
2.29
2 .49
2.70
7.85
9.55
11 .4
13.4
15.5
9.01
11 .0
13.1
15.3
17.8
10.4
12.7
15.2
17.8
20.6
12.3
14.9
17.8
20.9
24.3
14.6
17.8
21.2
25.0
28.9
17.8
21 .6
25.8
30.3
35.2
22.1
26.9
32.1
37.7
43.7
28.4
34.5
41 .1
48.3
56.0
280
300
320
340
360
2 .91
3 .12
3.33
3.53
3.74
17.8
20.2
22.8
25.5
28.4
20.4
23.2
26.1
29.3
32.5
23.7
26.9
30.3
'33.9
37.7
27.8
31.6
35.6
39.9
44 .3
33.2
37.7
42.5
47.6
52.9
50.2
57.0
64.3
71.9
79.9
64.3
73.0
82.3
92.1
102
480
500
520
540
560
4.99
5.20
5.40
5.61
5.82
48.3
52.1
56.0
60.1
64.3
55.4
59.8
64.3
68.9
73.7
64.3
69.3
74.5
79.9
85.5
75.5
81.4
87.6
93.9
100
90.1
97.1
104
112
120
109
118
127
136
146
136
147
158
169
181
174
188
202
217
232
580
600
620
640
660
6.03
6.24
6.44
6.65
6.86
68.6
73.0
77.6
82.3
87.1
78.7
83.8
89.0
94.4
99.9
91 .2
97.1
103
109
116
107
114
121
129
136
128
136
145
153
162
155
165
176
186
197
193
206
219
232
246
248
264
280
297
314
3-33
40.3
-45.8--"'
51.7
57.8
64.3
liters/sec
m/sec
C=140
C=130
C=120
C=110
C=100
C=90
C=80
C=70
25
30
40
50
60
0.20
0.24
0.32
0.40
0.48
0.106
0.149
0.253
0.383
0.536
0.122
0.170
0.290
0.439
0.615
0.141
0.198
0.337
0.509
0.713
0.166
0.232
0.396
0.598
0.838
0.198
0.277
0.472
0.713
1.00
0.240
0.337
0.574
0.867
1.22
0.299
0.419
0.713
1.07
1.51
0.383
0.536
0.913
1.38
1.84
70
80
100
120
0.56
0.64
0.72
0.80
0.95
0.713
0.913
1.14
1.38
1.94
0.818
1.05
1.30
1.58
2.22
0.949
1.22
1.51
1.84
2.57
1.11
1.43
1.78
2.16
3.02
1.33
1.70
2.12
2.57
3.61
1.62
2.07
2.57
3.13
4.39
2.01
2.57
3.20
3.89
5.46
2.57
3.30
4.10
4.98
6.99
130
140
160
180
200
1.03
1.11
1.27
1.43
1.59
2.24
2.57
3.30
4.10
4.98
2.57
2.95
3.78
4.70
5.72
2.99
3.43
4.39
5.46
6.63
3.51
4.02
5.15
6.41
7.79
4.19
4.80
6.15
7.65
9.29
5.09
5.84
7.47
9.29
11.3
6.33
7.26
9.29
11.5
14.0
8.10
9.29
11.9
14.8
18.0
220
240
260
280
300
1.75
1.91
2.07
2.23
2.39
5.95
6.99
8.10
9.29
10.6
6.82
8.01
9.29
10.7
12.1
7.91
9.29
10.8
12.4
14.0
9.29
10.9
12.7
14.5
16.5
11.1
13.0
15.1
17.3
19.7
13.5
15.8
18.4
21.1
23.9
16.8
19.7
22.8
26.2
29.8
21.5
25.2
29.2
33.5
38.1
320
340
360
380
400
2.55
2.71
2.86
3.02
3.18
11.9
13.3
14.8
16.4
18.0
13.6
15.3
17.0
18.8
20.6
15.8
17.7
19.7
21.8
. 23.9
18.6
20.8
23.1
25.6
28.1
22.2
24.8
27.6
30.5
33.5
27.0
30.2
--3S.-!J
37.1
40.8
33.5
37.5
41.7
46.1
50.7
43.0
48.1
53.4
59.0
64.9
420
460
480
500
3.34
3.50
3.66
3.82
3.98
19.7
21.5
23.3
25.2
27.2
22.6
24.6
26.7
28.9
31.2
26.2
28.6
31.0
33.5
36.2
30.8
33.5
36.4
39.4
42.5
36.7
40.0
43.5
47.0
50.7
44.6
48.6
52.8
57.2
61.6
55.5
60.5
65.7
71.1
76.7
71.1
77.5
84.1
91.0
98.2
520
540
560
580
600
4.14
4.30
4.46
4.62
4.77
29.2
31.4
33.5
35.8
38.1
33.5
36.0
38.5
41.1
43.7
38.9
41.7
44.6
47.6
50.7
45.7
49.0
52.4
56.0
59.6
54.5
58.5
62.6
66.8
71.1
66.3
71.1
76.0
81.1
86.4
82.4
88.4
94.6
101
107
105
113
121
129
138
94.5
103
112
121
131
117
128
139
151
162
151
164
178
193
208
90
440
630
660
690
720
750
5.01
5.25
5.49
5.73
5.97
41.7
45.5
49.4
53.4
57.6
47.8
52.1
56.6
61.3
66.1
65.2
71.1
77.2
83.5
90.0
55.5
60,5
. 65.7
. 71.1
76.6
I
3-34
77.7
84.8
92.0
99.6
107
mm
m/sec
C=140
C=130
C=120
C=110
C=100
C=90
C=80
C=70
20
30
40
50
60
0.13
0.19
0.25
0.31
0 .38
0.039
0.084
0.143
0.215
0.302
0.045
0.096
0.164
0.247
0.346
0.053
0.111
0 .190
0 .287'
0.402
0.062
0.131
0.223
0.337
0.472
0.074
0.156
0.266
0 .402
0.563
0.089
0.190
0.323
0.488
0.684
0.111
0.236
0 .402
0.607
0 .851
0 .143
0.302
0.515
0.778
1.09
70
80
90
100
110
0.44
0.50
0.57
0.63
0.69
0.402
0.515
0.640
0.778
0.928
0.461
0.590
0.734
0.892
1.06
0.535
0.684
0.851
1.03
1.23
0 .628
0.804
1.00
1.22
1.45
0.749
0.959
1.19
1.45
1.73
0.911
1.17
1.15
1.76
2.10
1.13
1.45
1.80
2.19
2.62
1.45
1.86
2.31
2.81
3.35
120
130
150
170
190
0.75
0.82
0.94
1.07
1.19
1.09
1.26
1.65
2.08
2.55
1.25
1.45
1.89
2.38
2.93
1.45
1.68
2.19
2.76
3.40
1.70
1.98
2.58
3.25
3.99
2.03
2.36
3 .07
3.87
4.76
2.47
2.87
3.74
4.71
5.79
3.07
3.56
4.65
5.86
7.20
3 .94
4.56
5.95
7.50
9.22
210
230
250
270
410
1.32
1.45
1.57
1.70
2.58
3.07
3.64
4.24
4.89
10.6
3 .53
4.17
4.87
5.61
12.2
4 .09
4.84
5.65
6 .51
14.1
4.80
5.68
6.63
7.65
16.6
5.73
6 .78
7.91
9.13
19.8
6.96
8.24
9.62
11 .1
24.0
8.66
10.3
12.0
13.8
29.9
11.1
13.1
15.3
17.7
38.3
440
470
500
530
560
2.77
2.96
3.14
3.33
3.52
12.1
13.7
15.3
17.1
18.9
13.9
15.7
17.6
19.6
21.7
16.1
18.2
20.4
22.7
25.1
18.9
21.4
23.9
26.7
29.5
22.5
25.5
28.6
31.8
35.2 . -
27.4
31.0
34.7
38.7
"4~8
34.1
38.5
43.2
48.1
53.3
43.6
49.3
55.3
61.6
68.2
740
770
800
830
860
4.65
4.84
5.03
5.22
5.41
31 .7
34.1
36.6
39.2
41.8
36.3
39.1
42.0
44.9
48.0
42.1
45.3
48.7
52.1
55.6
49.5
53.3
57.2
61.2
65.4
59.0
63.5
68 .2
73.0
78.0
71.8
77.2
82.9
88.8
94.8
89.3
96.1
103
110
118
114
123
132
141
151
liters/sec
3-35
mm
liters/sec
m/sec
C=140
C=130
C=120
C=110
C=100
C=90
C=80
C=70
30
40
50
60
70
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.31
0.36
0.050
0.085
0.129
0.181
0.241
0.057
0.098
0.148
0.207
0.276
0 .067
0.114
0.172
0.241
0.320
0 .78
0.133
0.202
0.283
0.376
0.093
0.159
0.241
0.337
0.449
0.114
0.193
0.292
0 .410
0.545
0 .141
0.241
0.364
0.510
0.678
0.181
0 .308
0.466
0.655
0.868
80
90
100
110
120
0.41
0.46
0.51
0.56
0.61
0.308
0 .383
0.466
0.555
0.653
0.353
0.439
0.534
0.637
0.749
0 .410
0.510
0 .619
0.739
0.868
0.481
0.599
0.728
0.868
1.02
0.574
0.714
0.868
1.04
1.22
0.698
0.868
1.06
1.26
1.48
0.868
1.08
1.31
1.57
1.84
1.1 1
1.38
1.68
2.01
2.36
140
160
180
200
220
1.22
0.81
0.92
1.02
1.63
2.36
1.11
1.38
1.68
4.01
2.70 .
1.28
1.59
1.93
4.60
3.13
1.48
1.84
2.24
5.34
2.68
1.74
2.16
2.63
6 .27
4.39
2.07
2.58
3.13
7.48
5.34
2.52
3.13
3.81
9.10
6.64
3.13
3.90
4.74
11 .3
8.50
4.01
4.99
6 .07
14.5
340
360
400
420
1.73
1.83
2.04
2.14
4.49
4.99
6.07
6.64
5.15
5.73
6 .96
7.62
5.97
6.64
8.07
8.83
7.02
7.80
9.48
10.4
8.37
9.31
11 .3
12.4
10.2
11.3
13.7
15.0
12.7
14.1
17.1
18.7
16.2
18.0
21 .9
24.0
450
480
510
540
570
2.29
2.44
2.60
2.75
2.90
7.55
8.50
9.51
10.6
11.7
8 .66
9.75
10.9
12.1
13.4
10.0
11.3
12.7
14.1
15.6
11.8
13.3
14.9
16.5
18.3
14.1
15.9
17.7
19.7
21.8
17.1
19.3
21 .6
26.5
21 .3
24.0
26.8
29.8
33.0
27.2
30.7
34.3
38.2
42.2
600
640
680
720
760
3.06
3.26
3.46
3.67
3.87
12.9
14.5
16.2
18.0
19.9
14.7
16.6
18.6
20.7
22.8
17.1
19.3
21.6
24.0
26.5
20.1
22.6
25.3
28.2
31 .1
24.0
27.0
30.2
33.6
37.1
29.1
32.8
36.7
40.8
45.1
36.2
40.8
45.7
50.8
56.1
46.4
52.3
58.5
65.0
71.9
BOO
4 .07
4.28
4.48
4.69
4.79
21 .9
24.0
26.1
28.4
29.5
25.1
27.5
30.0
32.5
33.9
29.1
31.9
34.8
37.7
39.3
34.2
37.5
40.8
44.3
46.1
40.8
44.7
48.7
52.9
55.0
49.6
54.3
59.2
64.3
66.9
61 .7
67.6
73.6
80.0
83.2
79.0
86.5
94.3
102
107
840
880
920
940
3-36
24~
m/sec
C=140
C=130
C=120
C=110
C=100
C=90
C=80
C=70
40
60
80
100
120
0.14
0.21
0.28
0.35
0.42
0.035
0.074
0.127
0.192
0.269
0.040
0.085
0.145
0.220
0.308
0 .047
0.099
0.169
0.255
0.357
0.055
0.116
0.198
0.299
0.420
0.065
0.139
0.236
0.357
0.501
0.080
0.169
0.287
0.434
0.609
0.099
0.210
0.357
0.540
0.757
0 .127
0.269
0.458
0.692
0.969
140
160
180
200
220
0.50
0.57
0.64
.71
0.78
0.357
0.458
0.569
0.692
0.825
0.410
0.525
0.653
0.793
0.947
0.475
0.609
0.757
0.920
1.10
0.558
0.715
0.889
1.08
1.29
0.666
0.853
1.06
1.29
1.54
0.810
1.04
1.29
1.57
1.87
1.00
1.29
1.60
1.95
2.33
1.29
1.65
2.05
2.50
2.98
240
260
280
320
0.85
0.92
0.99 1.06
1.13
0.969
1.12
1.29
1.47
1.65
1.11
1.29
1.48
1.68
1.89
1.29
1.50
1.72
1.95
2.20
1.52
1.76
2.02
2.29
2.58
1.81
2.10
2.40
2.73
3.08
2.20
2.55
2.92
3.32
3.74
2.73
3.17
3.64
4.13
4.66
3.50
4.06
4.66
5.29
5.96
350
380
410
440
470
1.24
1.34
1.45
1.56
1.66
1.95
2.27
2.61
2.98
3.37
2.24
2.60
3.00
3.42
3.86
2.59
3.02
3.48
3.96
4.48
3.05
3.55
4.08
4.66
5.26
3.64
4.23
4.87
5.55
6.28
4.42
5.15
5.92
6.75
7.63
5.50
6.40
7.37
8.40
9.49
7.04
8.19
9.43
10.8
12.1
500
550
600
650
700
1.77
1.95
2.12
2.30
2.48
3 .77
4.50
5.29
6.13
7.04
4.33
5.16
6.07
7.04
8.07
5.02
5.99
7.04
8.16
. 9.36
5.90
7.04
8.27
9.59
11.0
7.04
8.40
9.86
11.4
13.1
8.55
10.2
12..9
13.9
15.9
10.6
12.7
14.9
17.3
19.8
13.6
16.3
19.1
22.1
25.4
750
800
850
900
950
2.65
2.83
3.01
3.18
3.36
8.00
9.01
10.1
11.2
12.4
9 .17
10.3
11.6
12.9
14.2
10.6
12.0
13.4
14.9
16.5
12.5
14.1
15.8
17.5
19.4
14.9
16.8
18.8
20.9
23.1
18.1
20.4
22.9
25.4
28.1
22.5
25.4
28.4
31 .6
34.9
28.9
32.5
36.4
40.5
44.7
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
3.54
3 .89
4.24
4.60
4.95
13.6
16.3
19.1
22.1
25.4
15.6
18.6
21.9
25.4
29.1
18.1
21.6
25.4
29.5
33.8
21.3
25.4
29.8
34.6
39.7
25.4
30.3
35.6
41.3
47.4
30.9
36.8
43.3
50.2
57.6
38.4
45.8
53.8
62.4
71.6
49.2
58.7
68.9
79.9
91.7
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
5.31
5.66
6.01
6.37
6.72
28.9
32.5
36.4
40.5
44.7
33.1
37.3
41.7
46.4
51.3
65.4
73.7
82.5
91.7
101
81.4
91.7
103
114
126
104
117
131
146
161
liters/sec
300
45.1
50.8
56.9
63.2
69.9
38.4
43.3
48.4
53.8
59.5
3-37
53.8
60.7
67.9
75.4
83.4
m/sec
C=140
C=130
C=120
C=110
C=100
C=90
C=80
C=70
40
60
80
100
120
0.10
0.16
0.21
0.26
0.31
0.017
0.035
0.060
0.090
0.127
0.019
0.040
0.069
0.104
0.145
0.022
0.047
0.080
0.120
0.169
0.026
0.055
0.094
0.141
0.198
0.031
0.065
0.112
0.169
0.236
0.038
0.080
0.136
0.205
0.287
0.047
0.099
0.169
0.255
0.357
0.060
0.127
0.216
0.326
0.458
140
160
180
200
220
0.36
0.42
0.47
0.52
0.57
0.169
0.216
0.269
0.326
0.389
0.193
0.248
0.308
0.374
0.447
0.224
0.287
0.357
0.434
0.518
0.264
0.338
0.420
0.510
0.609
0.314
0.403
0.501
0.609
0.726
0.382
0.489
0.609
0.740
0.883
0.475
0.609
0.757
0.920
1.10
0.609
0.780
0.970
1.17
1.41
240
260
280
300
320
0.62
0.68
0.73
0.78
0.83
0.458
0.531
0.609
0.692
0.780
0.525
0.609
0.698
0.793
0.894
0.609
0.706
0.810
0.920
1.04
0.715
0.829
0.951
1.08
1.22
0.853
0.990
1.14
1.29
1.45
1.04
1.20
1.38
1.57
1.77
1.29
1.50
1.72
1.95
2.20
1.65
1.92
2.20
2.50
2.81
350
380
410
440
470
0.91
0.99
1.07
1.14
1.22
0.920
1.07
1.23
1.41
1.59
1.06
1.23
1.42
1.61
1.82
1.22
1.43
1.64
1.87
2.11
1.44
1.67
1.93
2.20
2.48
1.72
2.00
2.30
2.62
2.96
2.09
2.43
2.80
3.19
3.60
2.59
3.02
3.48
3.96
4.48
3.32
3.87
4.45
5.07
5.73
500
550
600
650
700
1.30
1.43
1.56
1.69
1.82
1.78
2.13
2.50
2.90
3.32
2.04
2.44
2.86
3.32
3.81
2.37
2.83
3.32
3.85
4.42
2.78
3.32
3.90
4.53
5.19
3.32
3.96
4.66
5.40
6.19
4.04
4.82
5.66
- '6:SS
7.53
5.02
5.99
7.04
8.16
9.36
6.43
7.67
9.01
10.5
12.0
750
800
850
900
950
1.95
2.08
2.21
2.34
2.47
3.77
4.25
4.76
5.29
5.85
4.33
4.88
5.46
6.07
6.71
5.02
5.66
6.33
7.04
7.78
5.90
6.65
7.44
8.27
9.14
7.04
7.93
8.87
9.87
10.9
8.55
9.64
10.8
12.0
13.3
10.6
12.0
13.4
14.9
16.5
13.6
15.4
17.2
19.1
21.1
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
2.60
2.86
3.12
3,38
3.64
6.43
7'!J7
9.01
10.5
12.0
7.38
8.80
10.3
12.0
13.8
8.55
10.2
12.0
13.9
16.0
10.1
12.0
14.1
16.3
18.7
12.0
14.3
16.8
19.5
22.4
14.6
17.4
20.4
23.7
27.4
18.1
21.6
25.4
29.5
33.8
23.2
27.7
32.5
37.7
43.3
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
3.90
4.16
4.42
4.68
4.94
13.6
15.4
17.2
19.1
21.1
15.6
17.6
19.7
21.9
24.2
18.1
20.4
22.9
25.4
28.1
21.3
24.0
26.8
29.8
33.0
25.4
28.6
32.0
35.6
39.4
30.9
34.8
38.9
43.3
47.8
38.4
48.4
48.4
53.8
59.5
49.2
62.0
62.0
68.9
76.2
liters/sec
3-38
..
..,
.......,
m/sec
C=140
C=130
C=120
C=110
C=100
C=90
C=80
C=70
60
70
80
90
100
0.08
0.09
0.10
0.11
0.13
0.006
0.008
0.011
0.013
0.016
0.007
0.009
0.012
0.015
0.018
0.008
0.011
0.014
0.017
0.021
0.010
0.013
0.016
0.020
0.025
0.012
0.015
0.020
0.024
0 .030
0.014
0.019
0.024
0.030
0.036
0.017
0.023
0 .030
0.037
0.045
0.022
0.030
0.038
0.047
0.057
120
140
160
180
200
0.15
0.18
0.20
0.23
0.25
0.022
0.030
0.038
0.047
0.057
0.026
0.034
0.044
0.054
0.066
0.030
0.039
0.051
0.063
0.076
0.035
0.046
0.059
0.074
0.090
0.042
0.055
0.071
0.088
0.107
0.051
0.067
0.086
0.107
0.130
0 .063
0.084
0.107
0.133
0.162
0.081
0.107
0.137
0.171
0.207
220
240
260
280
300
0.28
0.31
0.33
0.36
0.38
0.069
0.081
0.093
0.107
0.122
0.079
0.092
0.107
0.123
0.140
0.091
0.107
0.124
0.143
0.162
0.107
0.126
0.146
0.168
0.190
0.128
0.150
0.174
0.200
0.227
0.155
0.183
0.212
0.243
0.276
0.193
0.227
0.263
0.302
0.343
0.248
0.291
0.337
0.387
0.440
350
400
450
500
550
0.45
0.51
0.57
0.64
0.70
0.162
0.207
0.258
0.314
0.374
0.186
0.238
0.296
0.360
0.429
0.216
0.276
0.343
0.417
0.498
0.253
0.324
0.403
0.490
0.585
0.302
0.387
0.481
0.585
0.698
0.367
0.470
0.585
0.711
0.849
0.457
0.585
0.7272
0.884
1.055
0.585
0.749
0.931
1.13
1.35
600
650
700
750
800
0.76
0.83
0.89
0.95
1.02
0.440
0.510
0.585
0.664
0.749
0.504
0.585
0.671
0.762
0.859
0.585
0.678
0.778
0.884
0.996
.
0.687
0.797
0.914
1.04
1.17
0.820
0.996
0.951
1.16
1.09
1.32
1.24 . 1 :56"'
1.40
1.70
1.24
1.44
1.65
1.87
2.11
1.59
1.84
2.11
2.40
2.70
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1.15
1.27
1.40
1.53
1.66
0.931
1.13
1.35
1.59
1.84
1.07
1.30
1.55
1.82
2.11
1.24
1.51
1.82.11
2 .45
1.46
1.77
2.11
2.48
2.88
1.74
2 .11
2.52
2.96
3.43
2.11
2.57
3.06
3.60
4.17
2.63
3.19
3.81
4.47
5.19
3.36
4.09
4.87
5.87
6.64
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
1.78
1.91
2.04
2.16
2.29
2.11
2.40
2.70
3.02
3.36
2.42
2.75
3.10
3.47
3.86
2.81
3.19
3.60
4.02
4.47
3.30
3.75
4.22
4.73
5.25
3.94
4.47
5.04
5.64
6.27
4.78
5.44
6.13
6.85
7.62
5.95
6.76
7.62
8.85
9.48
7.62
8.66
9.76
10.1
12.1
2000
2200
2400
2600
2800
2.55
2.80
3.06
3.31
3.57
4.09
4.87
5.73
6.64
7.62
4.69
5.59
6.57
7.62
8.74
5.44
6.49
7.62
8.84
10.1
6.39
7.62
8.95
10.4
11.9
7.62
9.09
10.7
12.4
14.2
9.26
11.0
13.0
15.1
17.3
11 .5
13.7
16.1
18.7
21.5
14.7
17.6
20.7
24.0
27.5
liters/sec
3-39
.. -
.
-....-~
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SUBSECTION
SUBJECT
PAGE
4.1
INTRODUCTION
4-1
4.2
4-6
4.3
4-15
4.4
4-20
4.1
INTRODUCTION
4.1.1
Construction
There are many ways of constructing water wells. The method used usually
depends on the depth of the well. This section is only concerned with deep
wells (i.e., those deeper than 35 meters), which are normally drilled by one of
the following two methods:
4.1.1.1
..
The rotary method is much faster 1than the cable tool method.
It is suited to drilling wells to almost unlimited depths, and is seldom
used to drill less than 200 meters .
4-1
Nonflowing
artesian
well
'
Water
table
well - - - - ,
Piezometr ic
surface____,.
Flowing
artesian
well
---~
,:.,;,
Water-table :. .-:.
acquifer :::.:.~ .. :
..-
_:.: .. :~ ,... :
TYPES OF AQUIFERS
I
Recharge drea
at outcropping
of formation
4.1 .1.3
4.1 .1.4
4.1.1.5
Pump Base. After the well is drilled, cased and developed, a large
block of concrete is cast around the top of the well casing, as shown
in the illustration to serve as a foundation for the well pump.
The gravel chute allows gravel to be added as the gravel pack
settles. The sounding tube permits measurement of well depth and
pumping level; with the pump in place.
4-3
,-.
A TURBINE TYPE PUMP
l
.' .
6. '
41
.
.....
.. I
..
6.
..... .
4 I
..
A
0.
. ' II.
'
~
Jl . . ' .
COLUMN PIPE
COLUMN COUPLING
w . - - - WELL CASING
PUMP BOWLS
~ .. .....
---SUCTION BELL
4-4
-..:Jr..
REINFORCING BARS
EACH FACE
EQUALLY SPACED
CASING
..
. .,..
~
:.
:.
GRAVEL
II
a
0
, 0
SECTION
.,-
4-5
'1
~-~--
4.1.2
Static Water Level. The maximum level that water will rise in tht.
well when the pump is not operating.
4.1.2.2
Pumping level. When a well is pumped the water level will drop to
a certain depth and remain nearly constant for as long as the pumping rate is not changed. (Subject, however, to fluctuations in static
level due to seasonal variation and pumping activity in the area.)
For a given static level, every well has a specific, steady pumping
level for every flow rate; the greater the flow rate, the lower the
pumping level.
4.1.2.3
Drawdown.
4.1.2.4
Yield. The amount of water a well can produce under a given set of
conditions. Maximum yield, or Capacity, is the greatest flow rate
that can be steadily pumped out of the well.
4.1.2.5
Discharge.
4.1.2.6
Specific Capacity.
4.1.2.7
The distance that the water level falls below the static
level while pumping. In other words, pumping level minus static
level equals drawdown.
General
Over a period of years, or even months, a well's performance may deteriorate, with decreasing specific capacity and slower recover. This results from
clogging of screen, or of the water-bearing formation around the screen by sand,
clay or encrusted mineral deposits.
Decreased well performance results in higher electric power costs because
more energy must be supplie~ by pumps to extract water from the well. Also,
4-6
the amount of water pumped decreases, which means that less water is available
to meet the needs of the public.
The perfomance of a ?ew well should be checked at least once each day
for the first several days, then if the performance s~ems stable, it should be
checked once each month for the first year which constitutes a climatic cycle.
After the first year, and as long as the performance remains stable it
should be checked at least every six months. A permanent record of well
performance checks should be kept and comparisons between checks made
to discover any trends towards deterioration.
The well performance check consists of the following steps:
4.2.1.1
S_!atic lev~l. Before starting the pump, carefully measure the static
level and record on the Well Performance Record Card. (The pump
should have been stopped for at least 12 hours before doing this.)
4.2.1 .2
4.2.2
4.2.1.3
Specific Capacity. The pump discharge is divided by the drawdown to compute the specific capacity (in liters/sec. per meter). This
is recorded on the Well Performance Record Card.
4.2.1.4
Well Recovery. A well recovery test is earned out when the pump is
stopped. This is discussed in detail later in the section.
4.2.1.5
Materials Required:
1.
before.using.
4-7
RADIUS OF INFLUENCE
Discharge pipe
WATER TABLE
. . ....
'
..
....
here when :
.' ."
~ : .
; ...~......-..=-.-: .....
. ."""
. .:AREA.
0
00
DE WATERED ....
: .' . DURING . PUMPING: :
0
_......
':
...
:.....:. :. : :. ~6~-~
:ot :6.~~~i~~.~o~..
..
. . . . ..
. .: .. :...' . ~.
. (/) . .WATER . .. : . . . : ..
BEARING. . ... .....
... o:: ... . . . SANDS . . ... . . :- , : .
. . : IJ...: :-, ..
..
..
.
. . . ...:. .. ........
. . . '.
'
'
. ......
',
_.:
,'
,. ... : ."
. .
PUMPING
. . . ...
..
..
. ..
WATER LEVEL
. ..
. ..
.
..
.
MUTUAL INTERFERENCE
4-8
u.
(b)
m.
tv.
Procedure.
1.
u.
(b)
one
had
had
clip
4-9
The unweighted end of the long probe wire is soldered to the spring
in the cap at the other end of the flashlight which makes contact with the
bottom end of the batteries. When the weighted end of the probe wire
touches the water, the "switch" is "on" and the lamp will light, BUT
MAY BE DIM DUE TO ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE.
WELL PERFORMANCE RECORD
WELL DESIGNATION
DATE DRILLED
WELL DEPTH
Date
Checked
By
(c)
CASINGDIA.
DRILLER
SCREEN DEPTH
Static
Pumping Draw- Specific Time to Well
down Capacity Recover Depth Remarks
Level Discharge Level
Manufactured water level indicator units are available. All the components of the electric probe method are included in a single instrument.
The probe wire is wound on a spool inside the unit with an exterior hand
crank. Rotation of the pool as the probe is raised or
lowered
is indicated
- J
on a counter calibrated in meters and centimeters. It is only necessary
to connect the ground wire to the well. Lower the probe using the hand
crank, when the probe contacts the water a dial on the face of the instruments registers. The depth is read direcdy from the counter on the face
of the instrument.
(d)
The unweighted end of the long probe wire is soldered to the spring
in the cap at the other end of the flashlight which makes contact with the
bottom end of the batteries. When the weighted end of the probe wire
touches the water, the '~switch" is "on" and the lamp will light, BUT
MAY BE DIM DUE TO ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE.
WELL PERFORMANCE RECORD
WELL DESIGNATION
DATE DRILLED
WELL DEPTH
Date
Checked
By
(c)
CASINGDIA.
DRILLER
SCREEN DEPTH
Static
Pumping Draw- Specific Time to Well
Level Discharge Level
down Capacity Recover Depth Remarks
Manufactured water level indicator units are available. All the components of the electric probe method are included in a single instrument.
The probe wire is wound on a spool inside the unit with an exterior hand
crank. Rotation of the pool as the probe is raised or lowe~ed is indicated
- ..,.
on a counter calibrated in meters and centimeters. It is only necessary
to connect the ground wire to the well. Lower the probe using the hand
crank, when the probe contacts the water a dial on the face of the instruments registers. The depth is read directly from the counter on the face
of the instrument.
(d)
CD
0::
Q_
(.)
0::
tJw
_J
~
3
z
~
0
0
~ =-
_ _ ,
<!
0::
0
<.9
w
I
u
4-11
\
CHECKING DRAW DOWN WITH
AIR LINE GAGE AND AIR PUMP
4-12
( 1)
Materials Required
I.
(2)
Procedure
I.
u.
m.
IV.
v.
(e)
Manual Method
(1)
Materials Required
I.
(2)
Procedure
1.
4.2.3
Slowly lower the weighted end of the cloth tape into the well,
frequently jerking it up a few centimer with a fingertip. Feel the
following jerk as it straightens again. When the weight is in
water, it feels different because the tape does not become taut
at quickly as when the weight is in air.
4.2.3.1
4.2.3.2
4-13
1
4.2.4
Procedure
(1) Use one of the water level measuring methods previously described.
(2) If the electric probe method is used, set the probe two meters above
the pumping level.
(3) Stop pump; start stop watch or note time on wrist watch. Measure
level at frequent intervals as follows:
1.
n.
(4)
(5)
4.2.5
...__
4-14
I
If the static level drops but the drawdown is the same, the operator
knows that the water table is dropping. This means that the aquifer is
being depleted faster than it can recharge itself.
(b) If the static level is unchanged but the drawdown is increased, the operator knows that the screen or the aquifer near the screen is clogged and
water is not flowing freely into the well.
(c) If the static level is unchanged but the drawdown is decreased, the operator knows that the pump has lost its efficiency. When measuring the
static or pumping levels sufficient time must be allowed for the true
levels to be reached.
(a)
..
~-
_.....,......
(c)
(d)
Accumulation of sand and silt in bottom of the well until part of the
screen is blocked.
Incrustation, or clogging of the water-bearing formation next to the
screen and/or in the opening of the screen itself, due to build up of
mineral deposits, or clay.
Metal c rrosien deposits in screen openings.
Bacterial deposits: Some bacteria feed on iron or carbon compounds in
the water, producing a biologically harmless slime which collects on
the screen or surrounding formation. This slime traps mineral salts from
water passing through the screen, resulting ip clogging of the screen
openings.
4-15
4.3.2
Corrective Measuring
(a)
General
4-16
...
Unclogging of encrusted screens may be accomplished by the utility
without specialized equipment, but cleanmg may not be as thorough as
that done by a well drilling contractor with all proper equipment at his
disposal.
The following procedure may be tried by the utility without danger
of damaging the well if sounding reveals that blockage of the screen by
accumulated sand is not the problem. It is not guaranteed to solve the
problem of decreasing performance and, therefore, it may still be necessary to call on a well drilling contractor to surge the well by bailing or
jetting.
(b)
Procedure
(1)
Remove the well pump from the well, and remove the strainer and
foot valve. (See Section 5 "Pumping Equipment").
(2) Prepare a perforated length of 100 mm PVC pipe, 4 m long, with a
3.0mm diameter stainless steel cable long enough to reach down to
the water be<l!ing formation.
r
r
(3)
(c)
4-17
4.3.3
Routine Maintenance
Add make-up gravel. During the first year of operation of a new well,
the gravel pack may settle. The gravel chute cap should be removed, and
with the pump running, gravel added slowly as necessary to fill the gravel
chute up to the top. (A sudden drop in the gravel may indicate a hole in
the casing. In that case, remove pump and consult a well drilling contractor.)
(b) Periodic Chlorination. Once each six months, the well should be chlorinated to help prevent the build-up of encrustation.
This is most easily accomplished as follows:
(1) Dump 10 kg of 70% powdered chlorine down to well~ and let sit for
20-30 minutes to dissolv~.
(a)
4-18
(2)
Run pump (discharging to waste) until an odor of chlorine is detectable at the pump discharge. The odor should be detectable in a very
short time.
(3) Shut the pump down and let sit for several hours, preferably overnight.
(4) Before putting pump back in service, operate (again discharging to
waste) until chlorine odor is no longer detectable at the outlet.
( 5) If there is no odor of chlorine, or chlorine residual, during this final
pumping it is necessary to rechlorinate, because the well has been
contaminated and has a high chlorine demand. In other words, a
good job of chlorinating the well has not been accomplished.
4.3.4
--
4-19
ANNUAL
MAINTENANCE CHECK LIST
WELLS
LOCATION/DESIGNATION ............................................... .
NAME OF OPERATOR .............................. DATE . . .... .. .... . .. . .
Oleck off work completed. Explain any "NO" answers under "Remarks"
SUBSECTION
Check One
Yes
No
WORK ITEMS
4.2
4.2.1
4.2.2 (a)
0
0
4.2.2 (c)
4.2.3
4.2.1
4.2.1
_,.
-- _....,.._
0
4.2.1
4.2.1
4.2
WELL PERFORMANCE
4.2.1.1
4.2.1.2
4.2.1.2
4-20
4.2.1.2
4.2.1.3
4.2.1.4
4.2.1.5
4.3
4.3.3
4.3.3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
~
--
.... . ... . ... ... . ..... . .. ......... . .. . .... . . .. . ....... . .. . . ... ...... .. . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
~
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . .. . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .
~
4-21
~J
SUBJECT
SUBSECTION
PAGE
5.1
INTRODUCTION
5-1
5.2
5-1
5.3
5-5
5.4
WELL PUMPS
5-16
5.5
BOOSTER PUMPS
5-24
5.6
PUMP DRIVERS
5-30
5.7
5-34
5.8
5-35
5.9
RECORD KEEPING
5-38
5.1
INTRODUCTION
*
*
*
There are as many positive displacement pump designs as there are manufacturers.
However the two most common principles of operation are the flexible diaphragm
and the pocked plunger, or piston type.
Positive displacement pumps are seldom driven at more than 100 revolutions
--
per minute. Both the diaphgragm and packed piston pumps can be equipped with an
air compression surge chamber to smooth out the discharge pressure.
5.2.1
5.2.1.1
5.1
INTRODUCTION
*
*
*
*
There are as many positive displacement pump designs as there are manufacturers.
However the two most common principles of operation are the flexible diaphragm
and the packed plunger, or piston type.
Positive displacement pumps are seldom driven at more than 100 revolutions
per minute. Both the diaphgragm and packed piston pumps can be equipped with an
.
air compression surge chamber to smooth out the discharge pressure.
..
5.2.1
5-1
so~tion,
Operation
5-2
......,
Maintena~ce.
b~
Operation
This is the ordinary reciprocating piston pump: a
piston moves back and forth inside a cylinder, drawing in water
through the inlet valve and discharging it through the outlet valve
during each cylce.
This type of pump is used to deliver clean water or true solutions with no solid particles suspended in it, such as lime or activated
carbon slurries whose abrasive action would rapidly wear away
packing and score the cylinder walls.
5-2
/~- _ E CC ENTRI C
f /
n )
~~
DRIVE
Ii
FLEXIBLE
DIAPHRAGM
DIRECT CONNECTED
DIAPHRAGM TYPE PUMP
HYDRAULICLY CONNECTED
DIAPHRAGM TYPE PUMP
"'""\
5-3
OUTFLOW VALVE
1+ - - - + - - - PISTON
-flll-+-- - - - 1 f - - - CYLINDER
.. . _.....
RECIPROCATING PUMP
5-4
Maintenance
Individual manufacturer's designs vary a great deal
and therefore, the instruction booklet furnished with the unit should
be consulted for specific details of routine maintenance. However,
the trouble shooting chart at the end of this section may be helpful
in the event of operating malfunctions.
Principles of Operation
The heart of the turbine pump is the impeller. It consists of curved vanes
spinning around a central shaft inside a bell-shaped housing. Water enters at
the center of the impeller and is flung outward by the rotation of the vanes.
This causes a va~um at the center, drawing in more water. The shape of the
housing (or bowl) permits water to be pushed only toward the outlet end
under pressure of water being thrown out by the impeller vanes, resulting in a
continuous flow of water under pressure, out of the housing.
Several impellers may be installed in a line, one behind the other (i.e.,
multi-etage). Each impeller adds successively more pressure to the water but
has no effect on the amount of water pumped. Multi-stage pumps are mainly
used in wells, because the diameter of a well pump impeller is small and will
not produce high discharge pressure at normal speeds. Two impellers will produce twice the pressure of one.
The rotation of the impellers is provided by a prime mover or driver,
which may be an electric motor or a diesel or gasoline engine.
5-5
5.3.2
Head and Pressure. These two terms mean the same thing. However,
liead Is usually expressed in meters of water column, while pressure
is expressed in kilograms per square centimeter (kglcm2).
5.3.2.2
Head Loss. The pressure that is lost due to friction between the
<=="""" >
water and the walls of the pipe or between individual drops of water.
5.3.2.3
.~-f f/
I
'
....,
--,
LANTERN RING
OUTLET
r------'---....
5-7
RADIAL IMPELLER
,
I
I
---=----
SUCTION
TO DISCHARGE
TO DISCHARGE
AXIAL
IMPELLE~ ___ ~
~r
r~\
__,.
1:----l
I
II
\
\
'- - - - - - - - )
-t
I
I
1
\
-/ - - - __... I
,--------
f ~SUCTION
SHAFT
... -. _.,..
_______
""'
,'
,
...)
I
I
r---- \
'' "
I
SUCTION-+-
SHAFT
I
I
5-8
ATMOSPHERIC
GAGE PRESSURE
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
GAGE + BAROMETl
ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE
PRESSURE
VACUUM
BAROMETRIC
PRESSURE
ANY
PRESSURE
BELOW ATMOSPHERIC
I
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
I
I
I ABSOLUTE ZERO PRESSURE
STAT\J
DISCHARGE
HEAD
TOTAL
STATIC
HEAD
TOTAL
STA-TIC
CENTERLINE
OF PUMP
HEiAD
STATIC
DISCHARGE
HEAD
---~
STATIC
SUCTION
LIFT
(A)
- - -STATIC
SUCTION
HEAD
STA IC
SUCTION
LIF
(C)
(B)
5.3.2.5
5.3.2.6
5.3.2.7
5.3.3
Total Dynamic Head (TOH). The total dynamic head the pump must
deliver includes lift and pipeline head losses. Lift is the total vertical
distance the water is raised. In a well pump lift is the difference in
elevation between the pumping level in the well and the water level
in a reservoir into which the well pump discharges. If there is no
reservoir, the lift is calculated as the distance (in meters) between
the pumping level in the well and the discharge head plus the pressure at the discharge head converted to meters of water column.
If a booster pump raises water from one reservoir to ano ther, the !itt
is the difference in reservoir levels, even though the pump may be
located at a point lower than either reservoir.
Capacity. The capacity of a pump is the rate of flow of water being
pumped, expressed as liters/second to a given pressure, or head.
-== .::;-
Head-Dischar~e
curvy
5-10
5.3.4
(b)
D~harge
Pressure
Suctioll Head
Measure the suction head (P ) in meters.
2
(1) Well Pumps: P is the pumping level in the well, measured
2
as described in Section 4, "Water Wells".
(2) Booster Pumps: P2 is the pressure at the inlet side of the
pump, or the vertical distance that water is being raised
from the water level to the centerline of the pump discharge pipe.
...
I.
3.
Wind packing, needed for filling stuffing box, snugly around rod (for same
size shaft held in vise) and cut through each turn while coiled, as shown.
If the packing is slightly too large, never flatten with hammer. Place each
turn on a clean newspaper, and then roll out with pipe as you would with
a rolling pin .
2.
.
Right
Wrong
..,
4.
5.
....,
...,
5-12
I-
I_
Right
Wrong
6.
7.
8.
5-13
PUMP No. I
TO-----
PUMP No. 2
PUMP No.3
PUMP No.4
PUMP No. 5
Total Delivery m
.~
KWH/1000 m
IJ~alf
lf'\f'\0
f'ft3
--
~.
.J
_;
TOTALS
...
Overall Efficiency
(e)
Qx TDH
76.15 X IHP
5-15
IHP = 120 X 5
4.83
3 - 83.6
104
E
100 X 42
76.15
66.0.%
83.6
1. 732 X v X I
lOOOx .746
P.F.
Construction
Generally, pumps used on deep wells are of the multi-stage, vertical
turbine type. There are two basically different types of construction: the
line shaft type and the submersible type.
5.4.1.1
5.4.1.2
WatBr-lubrtcated pumps.
...,
7~-------+--------~------+-------~-------+--------r-----~~
SHUTOFF HEA
>-
L)
.~~~---+--------~------+-~~--~------~~~----+-----~~
w
L)
lJ..
lJ..
I-
W5o---
SAMPLE PR
. H ::50 M
I
I.
l
10
......
_...,..
30
w
~
<!
a::
CD
o+-------~------~------~~------~------~------~------~0~
0
20
40
60
80
100
DISCHARGE ( L/SEC)
120
140
5.4.2
Pump Installation
5.4.2.1
5.4.2.2
Installation
(a)
5-18
(3)
Lower suction pipe into well until the clamp rests on the
pump base. Leave clamp in place.
(4) Attach foot-valve, if used, to suction end of pump bowl
assembly.
(5) Attach a second clamp to upper end of bowl assembly
and lift until centered over suction pipe.
(6) Lower bowl assembly and screw onto suction pipe.
(7) Lift bowl assembly slightly, to take weight off lower
clamp, and remove clamp.
(8) Lower bowl assembly until upper clamp rests on pump
base.
(c)
(2)
(3)
(4)
{5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
{10)
{11)
{12)
5-19
PUMP PERFORMANCE
RECORD
PUMP LOCATION/DESIGNATION
DATE INSTALLED
PUMP DATA :
MANUFACTURER
SERIAL NO.
HORSEPOWER
CAffiCITY
HEAD
BOWL DEPTH
NO. STAGES
COLUMN PIA.
MOTOR DATA :
MANUFACTURER
HORSEPOWER
RATED VOLTAGE
RATED CURRENT
SERVICE FACTOR
INSULATION CLASS
TEMP. RISE
.......
( FRON T )
PERFORMANCE
DATE
CHECKED DISCHARGE
BY
(L/SEC)
CHECK
HISTORY
COMPUTED
TDH SHUTOFF
POWER
EFFICIENCIES
(M) HEAD(M) VOLTS AMPS FACTOR PUMP OVERALL
----
- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - __ ___,
- --- -- -- -- --- - - ---- -- - - - - - - - - - -- - --- - - - - -- - - - ------ -- -- --- -- ---- -- ---- --- -- ------ -- -- --- - - ---- - - - - -- --- -- ---- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - REMARKS :_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ __
(BACK~
5-20
: .
..
.. I
b. .
..
4
. '
.
.' ...
'
'
..
.. .
...... ...
4 I .
.
. . . ..
' . .A . . .
....
. - . '4
. 6
:
.
,.
_-,._- :-~ : ~
. 4 . .... ' :
COLUMN PIPE
COLUMN COUPL lNG
~--WELL CASING
PUMP BOWLS
TURBINE TYPE
WELL AJMP
---SUCTION BELL
5-21
DISHARGE ELBOW
.
/;
(J
.A I .
. > .
/i
~> . 1
. o
~
l L.____ -
...,
.'COLUMN PIPE
OLUMN COLLAR
WELL CASING
~;~t-----~UCTION
STRAINER
--
A SUBMERSIBLE PUMP
5-22
06)
( 1 7)
(18)
(d)
Repeat steps (4) through (15) until the entire pump bowl
and column assembly is in place.
Connect top shaft to line shaft.
Connect top shaft oil tube to line shaft oil tube.
(9)
Install sole plate on concrete pump base. Level by adjustment of anchor bolt nuts and shims on under side of
plate. Make sure that it is not binding the column or pump
against the casing. Do not tighten nuts on top.
(2) Invert pump head and connect flanged top column pipe
to pump head flange, making sure tha': the gasket is
centered.
(3) Attach cable sling to lifting hooks on sides of pump head,
center over well and lower onto column pipe.
{4) Rotate pump head clockwise to screw column pipe into
column coupling.
(5) Lift slightly to take weight off column pipe clamp, remove
clamp and rotate pump head until pump discharge points
in the desired direction.
( 1)
5-23
(6)
Construction
There are a large number of different types of centrifugal turbine booster
pumps; however, they nearly always fall into one of three categories:
* Can-type (vertical mounting)
* Close-coupled horizontal
* Split-case horizontal
5.5.1.1
Can-type. The can-type booster pump is usually a vertical turbine,
multi-stage pump similar to a lineshaft type well pump. It is mounted
inside a vertical length of pipe, closed at one end (i.e., a "can" with
an inlet near the top).
Installation and maintenance is the same as for the lineshaft
well pump. They generally have only one length of shaft, and therefore do not have a shaft-bearing lubrication system.
5.5.1.2
5.5.1.3
Close-Coupled horizontal. The dose-coupled booster pump is manufactured as a complete unit containing the pump and motor in a
common casing. They are generally used for small flows. Construction
varies from one manufacturer to the next. They are extremely simple
to install. The manufacturer's instruction booklet.on .Qperation and
maintenance should be consulted for specific details.
Split-case horizontai.
This is probably the type of pump most
widely used in water supply booster pumping. The pump and elec
trical motor are usually coupled shaft. When driven by an engine, the
pump and engine are mounted on separate bases linked by a drive
shaft with two or. more Oexible couplings, in which case pump and
engine should be parallel but offset slightly.
The upper half of the pump casing can be removed to permit
the impeller to be inspected and removed; hence the name, "splitcase". They are generally, but not always, single stage pumps.
The following paragraphs give instruction on installation and
maintenance of split-case pumps. The part of this section dealing
with lineshaft well pumps should be consulted for can-type pumps,
and the manufacturer's instruction for dose-coupled pumps.
524
r-
.. . -
5-25
---
5.5.2
Pump Installation
5.5.2.1
5.5.2.2
(a)
-...JII;.
(f)
Align the shafts of the pump and driver. Test for alignment by
laying a straight-edge across the coupling halves, rotating the
shafts 90 at a time, and checking alignment at each position.
(If not perfectly aligned, the shaft will be placed under stress
when coupled together. This will cause excessive vibration and
probable bearing and shaft failure after a short time.)
(g)
(h)
(i)
U)
(k)
5-27
INSTALLING SHAFT 8
PROOUCTION Pi'PE
......,
5-28
...
INSTALLING SHAFT 8
PROOUCTION ptpE
5-28
I -
--
5-29
Electrical Motors
5.6.1.1
(a)
...
(b)
The right angle drive is used to change the direction of a pump shaft by
90 degrees. It is usually mounted on a vertical-shaft pump driven by a horizontal
shaft driver. A typical example is where a well pump is driven by a diesel or
gasoline engine.
5.6.2.1
Mounting
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
Tighten bolts.
(g)
(h)
(i)
5.6.3
5-31
:
I
(@
'i FOUNDATION
.,..
TEMPLATE
---~
~.
~-
4-
--
FOUNDATION
BOLT WITH
WASHER
I
11
II
II
I 1
I
,~
I
I
o
I
1
I
I
PUMP OR
MOTOR
(11
1\.)
I ,<. ..1
ANCHOR BOLT
0
0
~>-
1-+ I
0 0: t>
FORM FOR
CONCRETE
of
..
0
..
,.
:b
h
l>
,'-4
t.
0
.d
..
CONCRETE
"'
'
MEASURING HORIZONTttl"'MISALIGNMENT
AT COUPLING HALVES
5-33
The main reason for grouting the pump base is to provide a permanent,
uniform bearing surface so that, once levelled and grouted, the alignment
and levelling of the pump base will not be affected by vibration.
In the case of a well pump installation, the grout serves an important
secondary purpose - preventing entry of surface water, insects, rodents and
debris into the well.
(1) Check the levelness of the sole plate (of well pump) or pump base frame
by placing a carpenter's level in various positions. Minor adjustments
can be made by loosening the foundation nuts as required on the underside and tightening those on top.
(2) Mix 10-15 liters of grout, depending on the pump size, in the following
proportions:
*
*
*
*
*
(3) Wet the surface of the pump foundation thoroughly, removing standing
water just before grouting.
(4) If a well pump , work the grout under the sole plate as far as possible
without pushing any into the well. Slope grout layer outward and downward from the edge of the sole plate at an angle of 45 degrees, and trowel
smooth.
(5) If a booster pump, construct a wooden form about 10 em wider than the
pump base (i.e., so that "the base will be about 5 em back from the edge
of grout). Pour in grout, and rod with stick or steel bar to ensure all space
under the pump base is filled. Trowel edges smooth and round off the top
edges.
5.7.2
Pre-Starting Check
(1) Check lubrication of pump driver to see that all parts are greased as
instructed by the manufacturer and that oil reservoirs are filled to the
correct levels with the proper grade and weight of lubricating oil.
(2) Check well pump shaft lubrication systems.
(3) If the pump is equipped with packing, be sure that the packing gland is
not too tight.
(4) Tighten all anchoring nuts and connecting bolts.
5-34
(5) If booster pump, bleed all air from the pump and piping by opening
the pet cock on top of the pump casing and opening the valves on the
discharge and suction piping. When no more air comes out of petcock
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
5.7 .3
close it.
Recheck alignment and levelling of pump and driver.
Check driver rotation and correct if necessary.
Tum pump sha~t by hand to see that it rotates freely with no binding
or drag.
Close the discharge valve and open the suction valve.
Starting
Trouble Shooting
.....
-..__-
-... .. ~
-\.
5-36
5.8.2
Routine Maintenance
Every Day
(a)
Every Months
..
5.8.2.3
(a}
5.8.2.4
(a)
Every Year
I
(a)
-5.8.3
_ ,
Unscheduled Maintenance
(a)
(b)
General
Pump Log
.. 4
- - -
-......11:.
Each day an entry is made on the pump log indicating the hour a pump
is started and stopped. Total hours running time are summarized monthly and
compared with electric and fuel consumption to determine optimum operations. Figure 5-18 illustrates the monthly pump log suitable for recording times
of five pumping units.
5.9.4
Production Summary
5-38
PUMP'DATA:
MANUFACTURER- - - - - - - - - - - - -- -- -------TYPE - - - - -- - - - - - (Horizontal or Vertical)
MANUFACTURERS DESIGNATION-------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- (Model No .)
RATED GPM - - -- - - -- - - - - - - - - --AT--------- - - -FT. HEAD
IMPELLERNUMBER- - - - - - - - - -- - --TYPE--------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - (Open or Closed)
IMPELLER DIAMETER - - -- -- - - - -- - -- - - - - - - NUMBEROF STAGES - - - - - -- - - - - - -- -- - - - - - OUTSIDE DIAMETER BOWLS- - -- - - - - - - -- -- -- INLET SIZE-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --OUTLET SIZE- - - -- -- - - -- -- - - DRIVER DATA:
ELECTRIC:
MANUFACTURER- - - - -- -- - - - -TYPE- -- - ----SERIAL NO.- - - - - RPM----- - --VOLTS- - -- -- - --AMPS- - - - - - --FRAMENO. - - - - - PHASE :- - - - - -- - H.P.------- - - - -- -POWER FACTOR- -- - -- - - - - ENGINE (DIESEL OR GASOLINE)
.. ..
MANUFACTURER-------------------MODEL---~----------.....
RATED HP---- - - - - - - - - - - --NO. 0 F CYLINDERS- - - - - - - - - -- - - - BORE----- - -- - - - -STROKE- - - -- - - - -- -NORMAL RPM- - - - - - - - ANGLE DRIVE
MANUFACTURER- - - - - - - - - - -- -- - - -- - - --SERIAL :NO.- - - - - -- - MODEL------- - - -- - - - -- -- - - -- - - -- - - - -RAT IO- - - - - - - -- - NUMBER OF GEAR TEETH:
INPUT - - - - - - - - -- - OUTPUT---- - - - -- --
5-39
5.9.5
POSSIBLE
P R 0 8 L E M
C AU S E
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Motor overloaded
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
;::::=:::> ~
5-40
TROUBLE-SHOOTING CHART
For Turbine Pumps
POS SIBLE
P RO B L E M
Pump operates noisily or
vibrate
excessive!~
__
_ ,.
C A US E
1. Wom bearings.
2. Bent or misalined shaft.
3. Loose foundation bolts.
4. Impeller corroded or partially
resulting in unbalanced rotation.
5. Air or vapor entering suction.
6. Unbalanced rotor in motor.
7. Bent impeller.
8. Pump is cavitating.
clogged,
Excessive wear
1. Sand in water.
2. Vibration not corrected.
3. Malfunctioning of pump lubrication system
(water pre-lubrication or oiler)
4 . Packing too tight on open lineshaft pump.
5. Cavitation m bowl(s) due to inadequate
suction pressure or partial blockage of inlet.
1. Inadequate ventilation.
2. Motor overloaded.
3. Unbalanced voltage.
5-41
MONTHLY
MAINTENANCE CHECK LIST
PUMPING FACILITIES
MONTH OF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 ... . . . .. . .
LOCATION/DESIGNATION ..... . ..... . ..... .... .. .. . ... .. .. . . .. . . . ..... . . . .
NAME OF OPERATOR . . ...... . .... . . . .. .. ..... .. .. . . . DATE . . . . .. . .. . . .. .
Check off work completed, explain any "NO" answers under "Remarks"
SUBSECTION
CHECK ONE
YES
NO
WORK ITEM
5.8.2.2
5.8.2.2(a)
5.8.2.2(b)
5.8.2.2(c)
5.8 .2.1
5.8.2.1(a)
5.8.2.1(b}
5.8.2.1(c)
~ --
-.-.:.
5.8.2.1(d)
5.8.2.1(e)
5.8.2.3(a)
5.8.2.3( a)
5.8.2.3(b)
5-42
SEMI-ANNUAL
MAINTENANCE CHECK LIST
PUMPING FACILITIES
WORK ITEM
SUBSECTION
5.8.2.4 (a)
5.8.2.4 (a)
5.8.2.4 (b)
5.802.4 (c)
5.8.2.4 (d)
1 . . . .
0- :
4 I
I} ' I
5-43
...,.
ANNUAL
MAINTENANCE CHECK LIST
PUMPING FACILITIES
WORK ITEM
SUBSECTION
CHECK ONE
YES
NO
5.3.4
5.3.4.1
Performance Satisfactory?
5.3.4.1
5.3.4.1
5.3.4.1(a)
5.3.4.1(b)
5.3.4.1( c)
5.3.4.1(e)
5.3.4.2
5.3.4.3
5.8.2
-~
Routine Maintenance:
5-44
5-45
.
~ .. .
--=:.&..
TABLE OF CONTENTS
~
SUBSECTION
PAGE
SUBJECT
6.1
TYPES OF RESERVOIRS
6-1
6.2
RESERVOIR CONSTRUCTION
6-4
6.3
RESERVOIR OPERATION
6-4
6.4
RESERVOIR MAINTENANCE
6-8
.... .. _ . . .,.
~--------------------------------l
6.1
TYPES OF RESERVOIRS
The word reservoir, as used in this section applied to storage of water for any
use. Although the emphasis is on storage of water for later consumption by the public,
most of the information that follows can be applied as well to such types of reservoirs
as the following:
*
*
*
Contact tanks
Sedimentation basins
Receiving tanks
Reservoirs used for storage of water supplies for later consumption fall into three
general types: (1) Regulating (2) Pure storage, and (3) Regulating/Storage.
6.1 .1
Regulating Reservoirs
Regulating reservoirs serve the following general purposes:
To even-out demands during the day; filling when demand is low, and
emptying when demand is high.
* To maintain desired pressure in a distribution system.
* To provide a limited en:ergency reserve for fire fighting.
* To prevent interruption of supply during pump outages because of
electric power failure, mechanical breakdown, etc.
* To permit routine scheduling of pump operation.
Regulating reservoirs are usually small ; storing an amount of water
equivalent to only a few hours demand; typically 4-6 hours.
\1\Tben the terrain of the service area is flat , regulating storage is provided in
elevated tanks. When terrain is favorable, regulating sto'tagemay be in the form
of a buried or surface rt:servoir constructed at an appropriate height on a hill.
Regulating reservoirs are not often connected directly to the water source
by a transmission main, but "float" on the distribution system in the following
way:
Water is pumped directly from the source into the distribution system at
a1 more-or-less constant rate. The regulating reservoir is also connected directly
to the distribution system. When demand is below the pump capacity, the
excess water pumped into the system finds its way into the reservoir. 'When
demand is greater than pump capacity, water flows out of the reservoir to
make up the deficit.
Usually the reservpir is completely filled by about midnight, and pumps
are stopped. (On days of very high demand, however, pumps might operate
24 hours a day) . Duri11g the night, when consumption is very low, all water
6-1
demands are met by gravity flow from the reservoir. Early in the mormng,
say, around 5:00 or 6:00 AM, pumps are again started while demand is still
low, and the reservoir is filled (or nearly filled) by the time demand rises past
the pump capacity. Sometimes, additional pumps are operated during the
parts of the day when consumption is at its peak, in order to avoid completely
emptying the reservoirs.
Water demand patterns in a given service area may change considerably
from season-to-season but are fairly predictable from day to day. Therefore,
pump operation schedules can be established with pumps being started and
stopped at given, fixed times of day. Pumping schedules are adjusted a few
times each year, as general climatic changes occur. The pumping schedules
for a given service area are determined by water consumption habits of the
population and by tpe regulating storage capacity available. Therefore, pumping schedules must be set up by each utility on the basis of its own experimentation and experience.
';(ypically, some kind of automatic control device is provided to start
and stop pumps. (Control Devices are discussed in detail in Section 10, "Electrical Equipmenf?.)
i.1.2
Pure Stgrage
Reservoirs .,~
i.1.3
Regulating/Storage Reservoirs
As the name implies, there are reservoirs that serve both purposes: regulation and storage. One common example is the clear well of a water treatment
plant, where treated water is produced at a steady, round-the-dock rate and
stored until needed. Booster pumps then operate to transfer water into the
distribution system at a higher rate for fixed daily periods, b;ased on demands
and regulating storage reservoir filling requirements.
6 -2
60
55
(;)
A. ~ ~~ ~
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
..
KD
_,t<
0
~ r\'~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ 1
~ ~~~
~
1/
~
~ t/. ~
~ 0-: ~'\r--...'\
IL.
~/
DEMAND CURVE
I - - I.IJ
~~
~
f- PUMPING
TO
STORAGE
:::E
z<(
10
CAPACITY= 36 M3 /HR.
0..
I--
C>
15
\~PUMP
~'""'""'
~ ~~~
FR.OM ~
~ ~ rr~~A~E~
~~
<(
"::>
0..
:::E
0
.....
J:
.....
0
0
z0 -0
C>
0
0
t\J
0
0
r<>
0
:::E
0
0
0
0
o;t
It)
0
0
It>
0
0
0
1'-
0
0
<X)
0
0
0
0
0
C1l
0
0
0
0
0
0
r<>
t\J
8o;t
-
0
0
It)
0
0
It>
0
0
0
0
0
0
- -
1'-
<X)
C1l
0
0
0
0
0
t\J
t\J
OF DAY
TIME
3
PUMP CAPACITY = 36 M /HR.
= 20
M /HR.
I 6 M3/ HR.
TO STORAGE
PUMP CAPACITY
= DEMAND;
FROM STORAGE
= 36 M3 /HR.
........
3
= 5<0 M /HR.
3
= 14 M / HR.
PUMP CAPACITY
= 36 M / HR.
PUMP CAPACITY
-DEMAND
AT POINT
8
0
-DEMAND
AT POINT
0
0
r<>
.....
t\J
J:
C>
-DEMAND
AT POINT
t\J
t\J
EXAMPLE!
AT POINT
0
0
= 40 M / HR.
3
4 M / HR.
FROM STORAGE
PUMP CAPACITY
3
= 36 M / HR.
3
.,DEMAND
= 20 M / HR.
TO STORAGE
6-3
3
= 16 M / HR
_...._
RESERVOIR CONSTRUCTION
Reservoirs are described according to their position relative to the ground surface,
and also according to their method of construction.
Locations
Buried (roof below ground)
Excavated (roof at ground level)
Surface (bottom at ground level)
Elevated (bottom above ground level)
Method of Construction
Prefabricated steel, bolted riveted or welded
Earth fill
Excavated fill
Combination of the above
Obviously, there are a great number of possible combinations of the above.
However, this section is mainly concerned with only four of these:
*
*
*
*
Since - as pointed out in another section of this manual -corrosion is the number
one enemy of the water utility, emphasis is pl aced on maintenance olsteel reservoirs.
6.3 RESERVOIR OPERATION
6.3.1
Terminology
The operator should be familiar with the following terms, used m any
discussion of reservoir operation:
6.3.1.1
Low Water Level. The elevation of the water surface (relative to sea
level) when the level control device signals the pumps to start.
6.3.1.2
6-4
6.3.1.3
High Water Level. The elevation of the water surface when the level
control device signals the stopping of pumps; usually 15-20 em below
the r:naximum water level.
6.3.1.4
Tide Zone. The area of the reservoir walls lying between the high and
low water levels. Being alternately submerged and exposed to the air
as the water level rises and fails, it is the area of the tank most likely
to become corroded.
6.3.1.5
Effective Capacity. The usable volume of water in the reservoir, expressed in cubic meter, when full to the high water level.
6.3.2
::-
Operation
Reservoir operation requirements vary from one system to the next
depending on, among other things: reservoir capacity, type of controls, climate, pumping capacity and demand variation patterns. Therefore, operational
practices must be established by each utility, based on its own conditions.
However, certain objectives are essential to efficient use of equipment and
satisfactory water service to the public.
6.3.2.1
6.3.2.2
6-5
ELEVATED
STORAGE
FLOATING ON
SYSTEM
STAND PIPE
FLOATING ON SYSTEM
OR CAN SERVE AS
PUMP SUPPLY TO RAISE
PRESSURE IN EMERGENCY
LEVEL
/
RESERVOIR
ROOF -
CONCRETE
-EXCAVATED STORAGE
RESERVOIR
GROUND
LEVEL
-~~~AF
......
.......
,/
.......
,/
,/
ROOF
SUPPORT
COLUMNS
\.
\__/
6-6
GROUND LEVEL
STORAGE - BURIED
"
\.
_/
\.
._
FLO,\A/'-""-"......._...___,._...-r~'----._____
UJ
INLET- OUTLET
OVERFLOW
UJ
LOW LEVEL;
DRAIN
6-7
VALVE
6.3.2.3
General
6.4.1.1
*
*
There is little that can be done to prevent differential settlement in existing reservoirs but the following precautions may slow or
lessen it.
I
(a)
6.4.1.3
6-9
{b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
{f)
6.4.2
Day-to-Day Maintenance
The following maintenance measures are not formally scheduled but are
carried out on an as-needed basis, determined by casual inspection as the
operator goes about his regular duties.
- ""'
6.4.2.1
,_
6.4.2.2.
Ladders and Safety Cages. Check and tighten all bolts, keep rungs
free of dirt or greases and examine protective coatings, touching
up as needed.
6.4.2.3
Beacon Li!1hts.
High tanks, particularly elevated tanks, are often
equipped with flashing beacon lights as a protection against lowflying aircraft. These should be checked daily for burned out bulbs.
Replace bulbs immediately.
6.4.2.4
6.4.2.5
6.4.2.6
Overflow and Drain. These are usually connected at a point downstream of the drain valve. At least once each month, open the drain
for a few moments to flush out collected silt. Check valve for leakage
around stem! and adjust or replace packing as required. Overflow the
reservoir for a few moments once a month to flush out the overflow
ptpe.
6.4.2. 7
Underdrains. Reinforced concrete reservoirs generally have perforated pipes installed under floor construction joints. These carry any
leakage out from under the reservoir through a common waste pipe.
The outflo\v from the underdrain system should be checked frequently. If any significant flow is noted, there is a leak in the reservoir
bottom and the reservoir should be drained and the leak sealed at
the earliest opportunity.
6.4.2.8
.....- ~-
-.,..Jr.
6-12
,_
6.4.2.10 Valves. Inlet, outlet and drain valves should be inspected and maintaineJ as described in Section 7, "Distribution Facilities".
6.4.3
Periodic Maintenance
!._
/
6.4.3.1
Every Month
(a) Draw down reservoir level to 25 percent of volume (during offpeak seasons only).
(b) Lubricate float control pulleys.
(c) Inspect float for leaks.
(d) Check level indicator for free operation.
(e) Sweep roof, catwalks and ladder landings.
(f) Inspect tide zone for corrosion (steel tanks only).
6.4.3.2
6.4.3.3
Every Year
(a) Drain reservoir (by consumption: not to waste) and shovel out
silt, sweep, and hose down walls and floor.
(b) Carefully inspect and repair coatings, inside and out.
(c) Clean and weigh cathodic protection anodes (if used).
(d) Disinfect as follows:
(1) Mix a solution of 70% calcium hypocholorite (HTH
Powder) dissolved in water, using 75 kg. of calcium hypochlorite for each 1000 cubic meters of storage capacity.
(2) Pour the solutions into the bottom of the reservoir.
(3) Fill the reservoir until it begins to overflow, then shut
off inflow.
(4) Let reservoir sit overnight with all valves closed.
(5) Open drain valve and let reservoir empty completely
(this time, draining to waste).
(6) ~lose drain valve and fill reservoir to high 7er level.
--
6-13
(e)
(f)
.... --
_......
__,\
'
6-14
MONTHLY
MAINTENANCE CHECK LIST
STORAGE FACILITIES
SUBSECTION
6 .3.2.1
6.3.2 .2
6.3.2.3
6.4.1.1
6.4.1.4 (a)
6.4.1.4 (b)
6.4.1.4 (c)
,..
CHECK ONE
NO
YES
WORK ITEM
Water from uncovered reservoirs examined to determine types and population of algae?
All gates, access hatches, ladder enclosures and manholes kept locked?
~---
6 .4.1.4 (e)
6.4.1.4 (f)
6.4.2.1
6.4.2.3
~I
6-15
6.4.2.4
6.4.2.5
6.4.2.6
.0
6.4.2.6
6.4.2. 7
6.4.3.1
. 1 ~. -. ~.~.. . . . . . . . .
-I
616
ANNUAL
MAINTENANCE CHECK LIST
STORAGE FACILITIES
SUBSECTION
WORK ITEM
CHECK ONE
YES
NO
6.4.3.3 (a)
6.4.3 .3 (b)
6.4.3.3 (c)
6.4.3 .2
6.4.3.3 (d)
or
6.4.3.3 (e)
REMARKS :
..
.............................................................. ..
-
.. . ...... .... ... . . .... . ... ... .. . . ... .. ........... .. . . . ... ... ... .......
~
6-17
- -
_.....
_..
- .. _.,...
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SUBJECT
SUBSECTION
....
PAGE
7.1
INTRODUCTION
7-1
7.2
PIPING MATERIALS
7-1
7.3
INSTALLING PIPE
7-18
7.4
7-36
7.5
7-44
7.1
INTRODUCTION
The hydraulics and overall operation and water distribution systems are discussed
in Section 1, "Overview of Water Supply", and Section 3, " Basic Hydraulics". This
Section is concerned only with the operation and maintenance of the physical components of distribution pipeline networks.
General
Table 7-1 shows commonly used pipe materials and types of joints.
Table 7-1
Pipe Materials
Pipe Material
Cast iron or
Ductile iron
Size range
100-450 mm
Asbestos-Cement
75-400 mm
Polyvinyl
Chloride (PVC)
13-200 mm
Steel, Galvanized
or Black
Steel, Lined and
Coated
13-100 mm
100-1200 mm
7-1
Type of Joints
1. Lead Caulked
2. Rubber Ring Bell &
Spigot
3_ Flanged
4. Mechanical Joint
Rubber Ring Couplings
1.- Rub~er Ring Bell &
Spigot
2. Rubber Ring Coupling
3. Solvent-Welded Coupling
1. Screwed Couplings
2. Welded
1. Flanged
2. Screwed Couplings
3. Butt-Welded
4. Rubber Ring Bell &
Spigot
5. Welded Couplings
Butt Straps)
Polyethlene or
Polybutylene
7.2.1.1
-.-
PVC AC CI STL-
PolyvinylChloride
Asbestos-Cement
Cast Iron (or Ductile Iron)
Steel
4
..
---
_ ...;.~r.._
TYPE OF JOINTS
B
S
F
S
W
7.2.1.2
(a)
.... -- ..
7-3
.-~~~
7-4
' .....
n - NUMBER OF BOLTS
d- DIAMETER OF BOLT
NOM.
PIPE
DIA.
mm
I SO
D
HOLES
-FLANGE TH I CKNESS
AWWA
J I S
211
18
18
75/80
200 160
21
19
191 152 19
19
100
220 180
22
19
229 191
24
19
168 19
238 195 19
150
285 240 23
23
279 241
25
22
290 247 20
18
200
343 299 29
22
342 299 21
250
300
12
12
406 362 30
483 432 32
25
25
12 410 360 22
12 464 414 23
18
21
21
8
8
10
350
400
500
600
505
565
670
780
23 16 533 476 35
28 16 5~7 540 37
28 20 699 635 43
31 20 813 749 48
29
29
32
35
12
16
20
20
24
24
27
10
12
12
16
460
515
620
725
29
30
33
36
530
582
706
810
A:t:2 24
524 25
639 27
743 28
27
lJf FLAT FACED FLANGES SUITABLE FO~ WORKING PRESSURE OF 7.00 KG./CM2 (100 PSI) EXCEPT AWWA WH ICH
ARE SUITABLE
IS 0
(1~0
PSII.
7-5
.J
Table 7-2
JOINT MODIFICATION
CONNECTION
Lc:rger 0 .D.
Smaller O.D.
Caulking
Couplings
Milling
Pipe End
MODIFICATIONS
BxF or SxF
Flexible
Couplings
Adaptors
AC
AC
AC
Cl
AC
PVC
AC
STL
Cl
Cl
Cl
AC
Cl
PVC
Cl
STL
PVC
PVC
PVC
AC
PVC
Cl
PVC
STL
Welding
Screwed
Flanqe
. . . . - _ ....,..._
STL
STL
STL
AC
STL
Cl
STL
PVC
7.f3
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
7 .2.2.
The larger pipe is milled to the same outside dimension as the smaller. (Generally used 'only for asbestoscement pipe, and only when the difference in outside diameters
is less than 1 em.)
Bell to Flange or Spigot to Flange Adaptors. Used to join
bell and spigot pipe or fittings to flanged. Usually purchased
with blank flange so that the bolt holes can be drilled to match
those of the flange to .which it will be connected at the time of
making the connection.
Flexible Couplings. Rubber ring compression, bolted, flexible
couplings are available for connecting pipe of the same inside
diameter, but with different outside diameters. If the difference
in dimensions is less than 3.5 mm, a straight flexible coupling
may be used. If the difference is 3.5-10 mm, a straight coupling
with one oversized rubber ring may be used.
Welding. Steel pipe is easily modified by welding.
(1) Weld nipple of proper size to end of steel pipe to fit
other pipe either as a bell or spigot, and make a caulk
. connection (lead or cement) to cast iron or asbestos
cement pipe.
(2) Swage end of larger steel pipe to receive end of smaller
steel pipe, and fillet well all-around.
(3) Butt weld steel pipes of similar diame~ers .
Screwed Flanges. End of steel pie is threaded to receive screwed
blank flange. Bolt holes are drilled to match connecting flange .
Fittings
7 .2.2.1
Materials
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
7 .2 .2 .2
Flanges.
Flanges made in different cou11tries are generally or different thicknesses, diameters, bolt sizes and most importantly - different bolt spacing. When purchasing flanges or flanged fittings for
making co~nections, the flanges should be underilled. Even if of
different thickness and diameter, bolt holes can be drilled to match.
7-7
7.2.2.3
Threads:
I
When threaded fittings of different countries or of different
types or sizes are to be connected, an appropriate adapter or bushing
must be used. Adapters can usually be made up in any machine shop
"'\. if the machinist is furnished v.rith a sample of each type of thread.
\ushings are usually available in any plumbing supply shop. See page
\
7-62 for pipe thread dimensions.
7.2.3
Valves
7 .2.3.1
General
being fully opened, the hand wheel is turned toward closed position
to take up the slack in the stem threads, and then one full turn.
If this practice is made a standard operating procedure by all person-
nel it will reduce the possibility of damage to the valve due to trying
to open a valve which is already open.
7-8"
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
... . . -
- ~
7-9
7 .2.3.2
Gate Valves. Gate valves are the most widely used of the isolating
valves. However, their use is gradually decreasing in favor of butterfly valves.
Plug Valves and Globe Valves. These valves are ideal for throttling
flows but are seldom used in large sizes because they are very expensive compared with gate valves or butterfly valves.
7-10
'
'
7-11
7-13
SWING VALVES
SPHERE VALVES
DIAPHRAGM VALVE
BALL VALVE
BUTTERFLY VALVE
7-14
PLUG
VALVE
7 .2.3.5
Check Valve. This valve allows flow of water in only one direction.
There are two types: the swing-type and the poppet ty-pe.
Mechanical Pressure Relief Valve. The relief valve acts to expel water
when system pressure reaches some predetermined level, to avoid
buildup of excessive pressures in the system. In its simplest form, it
has an adjustable spring which keeps it closed against system pressure.
When pressure rises too high, it overcomes the spring, opening the
valve and releasing water to bleed pressure. When pressure drops, the
spring again closes the valve.
*
*
*
*
(b)
Pressure Regulator
7- 16
--
(d)
Altitude Valve
(2)
7 .3.1
General. The following general rules should be followed when installing pipelines.
7 .3.2
Excavation
.wo
7.3.2.1
... - ~
General
(a)
TIGHT SHEETING
IN SOFT GROUND
TRENCH SHORING
IN HARD GROUND
7-19
--
.. ..
-~
7-20
CEMENT
7-21
P IPE
(f)
(g)
7 .3.2.2
Trench Dimensions
Excavate trench to dimensions shown in Table 7-3.
TABLE 7-3
PIPELINE TRENCH DIMENSIONS
Pipe Dia.
(mm)
Trench
Depth
(em)
13-75
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
70
85
90
95
100
120
125
130
135
7.3.2.3
Minimum
Width
(em)
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
Maximum
Width
(em)
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
Dewatering
Trenches should be fairly dry when laying pipe, to avoid later
settlement. Water should be removed by pumping, biili.~g"7;r by
digging a channel from the lowest point of the trench to a nearby
drainage ditch or low area where the water will not create a nuisance.
If a muddy trench bottom is unvoidable, dig the trench an extra
(a)
7.3.3.2
Joining
(a)
(b)
7-24
(4) .Join p ipe above ground alongside trench ; let dry thoroughly;
lower into trench, being careful to avoid abrupt deflection of joints.
(5) ''Shake" the pipe from side to side in the bottom of the
trench to allow for exp ansion, .contraction or settlement.
7 .3.4
When installing a new pipeline, it is nearly always necessary to connect to an existing main that is already in service. Since
new pipelines are seldom installed on short notice, there is usually
plenty of time to carefully plan the making .of connections in a way
that will result in the least inconvenience to the public.
General.
The only requirement for haste occurs during the time that the
existing main is out of service, when the duration of the interruption of supply must be held to an absolute minimum.
Inconvenience to the public may be minimized in the following
ways:
(a) Give advance public notice of interruption of service.
{b) Make connections at niglit when water demand is low.
(c) Install connection fittings and pour concrete thrust blocks
before starting to lay the new pipeline in order to minimize
the time necessary to complete the connection (this will also
allow plenty of time for concrete thrust blocks to cure before
the new pipeline is put in service).
(d) Shut down the main only m the presence of a supervisor.
-1. -
7 .3.4.2
-....-:.
(a)
(b) Notify the customer served by the existing main that service
will be interrupted, giving the date, time and expected duration.
(1) If service will be interrupted over a large area, give notice
by radio and/ or newspapers.
(2) If interruption will affect only a few customers (say, less
than 100), enclose a brief n<;>tice when mailing out water
bills. If this is not possible, post printed notices on power
poles in the immediate area or hand-deliver notices to each
I
7-25
7 .3.4.3
(a)
( 1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(b)
7 .3.5
Cut-in Connection
The water pressure in mains exerts forces, or thrust, against bends, tees,
dead ends and, sometimes, valves. If not restrained, thrust forces will cause
the fittings to move and separate at the joints. Movement of fittings is prevented
by ( 1) pouring concrete blocks behind the fitting to spread the thrust forces
over a large vertical area, or (2) mechanically tying joints together so that they
cannot pull apart, by such means as welding, flanges, clamps or tie rods.
7-27
7.3.5.1
Concrete
Excavation
Restrained Joints. When pipelines are laid in very soft clay soil or
through compacted fill, the earth may not provide enough resistance
to prevent movement of thrust blocks. When it is necessary to put
the pipeline into service immediately, joints are restrained by using
clamping harness as shown in the illustration. This prevents pulling
apart at the joints while allowing friction between the pipe and surrounding soil to also help resist the thrust forces . Usually, three or
four restrained joints on each side of the fitting will be enough to
resist all thrust forces. All restraining materials should be galvanized
steel or should be well-coated with a coal tar base material. A concrete thrust block should be poured to provide a margin of 1safety
against corrosion of joint restraints, but line can be pressurized im
mediately.
7-28
Table 7-4
ISOMETRY OF
THRUST BLOCK
AREA
REDUCER*
- OFFSETS
a BEND
90 ELBOW
OR BEND
TABLE OF MINIMUM THRUST BLOO<
BEARING AREAS IN SQUARE
METERS FOR PIPE SI ZE' S
IOOmm. to 600mm. 0 .
PIPE TEE a
goo
DEAD
SIZE
BEND
mm.{in.) END
NOTES:
CD ABOVE
0.09
0.12
0. 20
0 .28
200( 8")
0 . 35
0.50
0.27
0 .1 4
250(10")
0 .55
0. 77
0.42
0.21
300(12'1
0. 79
1: II
0.60
0.31
350( 14")
I. 07
I. 52
0 .82
0.42
400(16")
1.40
1.98
1.07
0 .55
450 (18")
I. 77
2.51
I. 36
0.69
500(2d')
2. 19
3. ro
1.68
0.85
600(24')
3. 15
4.46
2.4~
1.23
* SEE
100(4
11
11
150(6
GD
@ ALL CONCRETE
SHALL BE POURED TO
AVOID INTERFERENCE WITH BOLTED
CONNECTIONS .
7-29
'
POUR AGAINST
UNDISTURBED
SOIL
Table 7-4
TRENCH WIDT
"w"
GROUND
POUR AGAINST
UNDISTURBED 1--~ite
SOIL
.b
rd/2
' - .. c"
CONCRETE
t>
THRUST BLOCK ~ . . .
'J
_l
..___~'I'Tli"''FIT....J
I.
AREA= Ax B
ELEVATION
.:!
SECTION
PIPE
SIZE
"c"
mm. (h\.)
100 (4
METERS
11
--
22V2 BEND
--
0.2e
0.08
0.25
0.25
0.17
0.30
0.09
0.15
250 ( 10")
0.25
0.46
0.24
0.30
0.66
0.34
0.30
0 .30
0.90
1.18
0.46
0.60
450 (18")
0.35
1.49
0.76
!500 (20")
11
600(24 )
0.35
0.40
1.84
2.65
0.94
1.35
150 (6
200(8
">
11
--
--
NOTES:
8
0
ffi
....,
ABOVE AREAS
BASED ON AN ASSUMED
7-30
A- c PIPE
JOINT CLAMPING
CAST
or
DUCTILE
HARNESS
IRON
7-31
PIPE
7.3.6
Backfilling
7 .3.6.1
Place moist sand or granular soil under and beside pipe, and
compact with the feet.
(b) Fill with sand or granular soil to a depth of at least 20 em over
the top of pipe.
(c) Flood with water only if granular soil or sand is used.
(d) Fill remainder of trench with excavated material, in 25 em
"lifts", compacting each lift with a mechanical compactor or
hand stompers. If the excavated material is sand, the trench
may be backfilled almost to the surface and compacted by
flooding the trench. Never compact clay by flooding.
(e) Mound earth over top of trench to about 3 em above ground
level and thoroughly comapct by mechanical compactors or
~
"wheel-rolling" (i.e., driving a truck along the trench with
the wheels of one side over the trench line).
7 .3.6.2
(b)
/1.3.1
7.3.7.2
7-32
(b)
( 1000 mmfrreter
4
(0.5 meter)2 x 0. 7854 x 660 meters= 130m3
ppm
The entire pipe would require:
130m3 x 50 grams = 6500 grams or 6.5 Kg.
m3
In the case where a chlorine compound such as 70% HTH
is used, the amount for each cubic meter would be 50 ppm
x 1 gram x_l_= 71.5 grams, and for the entire pipeline with
ppm
0.7
3
130cm the amount of chemical would be 9295 grams or 9.3 Kg.
(c)
.. . - _..
.........
7-34
Hydrostatic Testing and Flushing. There are two good reasons for
Equipment
(1)
(1) Check that main is full of water and that all taps, service
connections and valves are closed. (Note: Asbestos-cement
and cement-mortar lined pipe . wilL..s.oak up water for
several hours after they are filled.)
(2) With the oil drum full of water, start the pump and gradually build up to the test pressure (10.5 kg/cm2 or 150 per
cent of maximum operating pressure, whichever is greater.)
(3) When the pressure gage indicated that test pressure has
been achieved, adjust the by-pass valve until reading of
the pressure gage remains constant at the test pressure.
(4) Fill the oil drum to a predetermined mark near the top.
(5) Continue to run the pump for the full duration of th~
test (2 hours). Do not stop the pump during the test.
Visually inspect joints for leakage during this time.
(6) Measure the drop in water lev(H and compute the volume
of water pumped. This is the .amount of leakage. It may
not exceed .077 liters per mm of diameter per kilometer
o.f length per hour. If leakage is excessive, determine the
7-35
(c)
Flushing Proc~ure
( 1) After a satisfactory test has been accomplished, open a
valve or tap at the lowest point on the pipeline and flush
the main by opening an isolating valve, to get rid of
strong chlorinated water.
(2) When a strong chlorine taste or odor is no longer present
in water coming out of the tap of hydrant, close it and
put the line fully in service.
Mainline Breaks
Occasionally, a pipeline that has been in service for years will suddenly
break, often completely disrupting the distribution system hydraulics and
causing localized flooding or washing out of streets, with widesread disruption
of . water service. Such major outages generally involve a broken pipe, or\parting
of joints due to movement of a fitting. Such failure, no matter what hour of
the day, should be treated as a serious emergency requiring immediate, all-out
effort by all members of the utility staff to get the leakage under control and
the break repaired. "Mainliners" occur from many causes including the following:
* Advanced stage of corrosion of steel or cast iron mains
* Unusual surges in pre~sure
* Unusually heavy traffic loads
* Undermining the thrust blocks by nearby excavations
* Settlement of pipe due to changes in drainage of the surrounding
area.
* Earthquakes and floods
There are no short cuts in repairing mainline breaks. The section of a main
must be isolated and pernument repairs made. There is a natural temptation to
to repair a mainline break by pouring concrete around the pipe or fitting. This
almost never works, for two reasons: ( 1) Concrete shrinks as it hardens, opening
a pathway for water to leak out between the piep and cdncrete, and (2) Concrete is very strong in compression but vey weak in tension. Therefore, the
water pressure will break i~ apart. In the end, the concrete will have to be
removed, and the repairs II\ade properly, prolonging the time the main is out
I
7-36
of service and requiring a great deal of unnecessary work for the operations and
maintenance personnel.
Another improper method of leak repair is to wrap the pipe with rubber
strips. This may stop the leak but will not be effective if even a slight improvement of pressure occurs, or the leak hole becomes even slightly larger.
7 .4.1.1
Broken Pipe
(a)
7.4.1.2
7-37
7 .4.2
Chronic Leaks
7 .4.2.1
General. The term chronic leak, is applied to those small leaks that
(a)
Above-Ground Leaks
Above ground leaks are the easiest to spot and, at the same
time, the ones most likely to go unrepaired. The most common
of these include:
*
*
*
*
-7-38
.. ,
..
,
,,
.. , .. ..
'
'
.. ..
..
, ..
,
'
'I
\
\
, ,
',
.....,, ..
I
'
..
.....
_____ .,
"'
- ... -----
,,
, ..
,
..
-.
7-39
.....
-- ... ',
''
'
'I
'
,
,,'--- ... ,
I
,,
..
..
..
.. ..
,,
I
I
{b)
Buried leaks
*
*
*
*
Standing water or muddy areas in the vicinity of pipelines that cannot be accounted for by recent rains or
surface waste-water drainage.
Water in valve boxes.
Patches of abnormal grass growth in the vicinity of a
pipeline.
Inflow of water to excavation when installing new service connections.
(a)
Above-Ground leaks
(b)
...,
.--..
clean surface.
(3) Assemble the repair clamp loosely around the pipe near,
but not over, the leak.
(4) Slide the clamp over the leak, check gasket seating and
tighten snugly.
(c)
,.r
Leaking Joints
(i) Excavate at the joint and for a full pipe length on one
side.
(ii) Dewater the excavation.
(iii) Break and remove the coupling at the leaking joint,
being careful not to damage the pipe ends.
(iv) Inspect pipe ends for damage (when an asbestos-cement
pipe joint has been leaking for some time, the water
leaking out often erodes a groove in the pipe end).
(v) Remove one pipe length.
(vi) If MOAs are available (i.e., lengths of pipe "Milledover-All", or machined throughou~ their length to the
diameter of the joint setting surface), install one full
length or two half length MOA's by sliding collars all
the way into each end, inserting into the line and sliding couplings into final position.
Swabbing the milled, or spigot end of any pipe with
soapy water immediately before making up a rubber
ring joint will permit easier jointing and reduce the
possibility of displacing the rubber ring due to friction.
(vii) If MOAs are not available, remove one pipe length and
mill one end to the diameter at the joint seating surface
at least 30 em back from the pipe end. Then, slide one
collar back on the milled pipe end, insert the pipe length
into the line, and push the collar into position.
(viii) Be sure that collar is centered over the joint and check
the seating of rubber rings using a depth gage.
(2) .Asbestos-Cement Pipe Joints, Deflection Method. Applic7-41
...
,.
-lbi
I!
INSERTING
-...J
.i:.
1\)
:J
J
a NEW
LENGTH OF PIPE
J
J
'
b --
1164
.,
Cd
-.1
L: lrl
-trilL
D
.J
6
INSERTING REPAIR SLEEVES
3
...._
& ]I
..,..._
/ . .i
:J3
:=bd
Q:
:
~
3
~
3
6
,. ,
,I
I.
.....-
This type of leak usually results from improper seating of a rubber ring at the time of installation, or excessive
deflection of the joint, resulting in pushing out of the
rubber ring. Check for this with a depth gage and, if found
to be the problem, center the pipe in the bell by the use
a wedge or pry-bar and push the rubber ring into the
groove using a Llunt edged metal bar or hardwood stick.
Never use a screw driver or chisel. If joint deflection is
excessive, excavate along the pipe in both directions, adjusting deflections at the other joints. If the leakage
results from damage of pipe ends or rubber rings, it will
be necessary ,to replace a pipe length- or rubber rings by a
prpcedure similar to that used for asbestos-cement pipe
(deflection method).
(4) Ductile or Cast Iron Pipe, Caulked Joints.
(i) Excavate at the leaking joint.
(ii) Place blocks or timber under the pipe on both sides at
the joint to prevent movement.
(iii) If cement caulked, chip out cement using a chisel.
(iv) If lead caulked, and leak is not too big, recaulk the
joint. using lead wool if necessary. If the leak is large,
and the original lead cannot be successfully recaulked it
must all be burned out with an oxygen-acetylene torch
and either repoured full of lead then caulked, or caulked
tight with damp cement.
When melted lead comes into contact with water
'or even damp surfaces such as a wet board it explodes
and flies around. When working with molten lead ex7-43
General
7-44
1-
--
This type of leak usually results from improper seating of a rubber ring at the time of installation, or excessive
deflection of the joint, resulting in pushing out of the
rubber ring. Check for this with a depth gage and, if found
to be the problem, center the pipe in the bell by the use
a wedge or pry-bar and push the rubber ring into the
groove using a blunt edged metal bar or hardwood stick.
Never use a screw driver or chisel. If joint deflection is
excessive, excavate along the pipe in both directions, adjusting deflections at the other joints. If the leakage
results from damage of pipe ends or rubber rings, it will
be necessary ,to replace a pipe length-or rubber rings by a
pr9cedure similar to that used for asbestos-cement pipe
(deflection method).
(4) Ductile or Cast Iron Pipe, Caulked Joints.
(i) Excavate at the leaking joint.
(ii) Place blocks or timber under the pipe on both sides at
the joint to prevent movement.
(iii) If cement caulked, chip out cement using a chisel.
(iv) If lead caulked, and leak is not too big, recaulk the
joint. using lead wool if necessary. If the leak is large,
and the original lead cannot be successfullv recaulked it
must all be hurned out with an oxygen-acetylene torch
and either repoured full of lead then caulked, or caulked
tight with damp cement.
When melted lead comes into contact with water
'or even damp surfaces such as a wet board it explodes
and flies around. When working with molten lead ex7-43
(d)
General
7-44
7-45
...
7 .5.2.1
Maps. The following maps are the minimum required for any distnbution system. Utilities which serve more than about 100,000 population will often require additional maps; grouping maintenance
districts into sectors, pressure zones or other divisions of the system.
(a)
Comprehensive Map (Scale 1 :5000) showing all pipelines, reservoirs, pump stations, water sources and maintenance district
boundaries.
(b) Sectional Plats (scale 1:1000) showing locations of mains,
valves, hydrants, services and appurtenances. Each map is designated by a letter or numeral. Limits of the area shown are
outlined on the comprehensive map.
7.5.2.2
7 .5.2.3
Record Cards
(a)
7 .5.2.4
/.
7.5.3
.. .
_.....
Routine Maintenance
7 .5.3.1
TABLE 7-6
DISCHARGE FROM HYDRANTS AND BLOWOFFS
Diameter
of Opening
---~Etj __
Free
Discharge
'Liters/sec.\
_\..:
_____::..1__
30
50
62 '
75
100
150
7.5.3.2
70
120
270
(a)
7 .5.3.3
(a)
(b)
(c)
7-47
...
7.5.3.4
months.
(a)
(b)
Pressure Surveys
7.5.4.1
*
*
Procedure. Survey teams read pressures at many points on the distribution system at two times of day; during late night hours when
demand is at a minimum and during the day when demands are high.
Pressure readings are recorded on a suitable map of the distribution system and pressure contours drawn for each of the fWt> sets of
readings. Any irregularities in the pressure contour intervals indicate
possible system hydraulics problems.
7 .5.4.3
*
*
7.5.4.2
.....,
Pressures are recorded at every street intersection (and at intermediate points, if streets are far apart).
Night pressures are read between the hours of midnight and
4:00A.M. Daytime pressures are read between 8:00A.M. and 6:00
P.M.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
7 .5.4.4
(a)
Connect all points on the map having the same pressure (say, at
intervals of 0.5 kg/cm2) by a light, colored pencil line. Repeat
for each pressure. Use different colored lines for night pressures
and day pressures.
(b) Squeezing together of two contours may indicate a blockage of
a main or it may simply indicate a false pressure reading.
(c) If several contours are narrowly spaced across a pipeline it indicates one of three things:
( 1) If occuring on both the night and day contours, there is a
very large leak in the main.
(2) If occurring on the day contours only, the pipeline is
undersized (if a steel or cast iron main, the pipe walls may
be badly corroded).
(3) If occurring on night contours only;-'there are probably
f!lany leaks in the main.
(4) The regulating reservoir level will drop as the day
progresses. This will progressively affect the pressure readings but will not cause the kind of sharp changes that indicate pipeline problems; provided that work progresses
steadily without interruption, in one direction .
7 .5.5
Leakage Surveys
7.5.5.1
General. Leakage surveys are not done on a regular routine basis, but
-.J
u..
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
OBTAINING PRESSURE PROFILES TO DISCOVER PROBLEM AREAS
RUBBER STOPPER
WITH SMALL HOLE
'
HYDRANT BELOW
STREET LEVEL
7-51
(d)
(e)
(f)
7.5.5.3
7 .5.5.4
7-52
~-
- - --- -- - - -- -- - -- -- - -
7.5.5.5
(a)
Method
Mapping of System
Wherever the flow measurement survey indicates that leakage in a district is excessive, a map or sketch of the district is
prepared showing the locations, lengths and sizes of all water
mains and valves. (Often a copy of the sectional plat is used.)
This is used in recording the locations of all leaks found during
the detailed leak search.
(c)
Measuring Flow
~FIRE HYDRANT
"".,::.c:,
ill
71111lll,
lj
11 1
11 1
1io I
I I
I I
I I
50 mm CORPORATION COCK
I I
I-\.~
(_
"'
~,_,
Hourly Demand, QH
!!~~!_!>~~~ QH =
Rz -
R1
QAv.
Where PMIN =Lowest hourly flow, expressed as
a percentage of average demand
~IN = Average of lowest hourly demand
recorded on each of the three nights
(6)
Repeat steps (1) through (5) for each selected district, and
compile. These may be done one at a time or, if the necessary men and equipment are available, in two or more
districts simultaneously.
(7) Compare Minimum Flow Percentage of all test districts.
Where the percentage of one district is high in relation to
the others, a detailed leak search should be carried out and
all leaks repaired.
7 .5.5.6
(a)
7-55
UNSCHEDULED
MAINTENANCE CHECK LIST
INSTALLING PIPE
Check off work items completed. Explain "NO" answers under "REMARKS"
7-56
7.3.3
LAYING PIPE
7.3.3.1 (a)
7.3.3.1 (b)
7.3.3.2
7.3.3.3 (a)
7.3.3.3 (a)
7.3.3.3 (b)
7.3.3.3 (b)
7.3.3.3 (b)
7.3.4
7.3.4.1 (b)
7.3.4.1 (c)
7.3.4.3 (a,b)
7.3.4.3 (a,b)
7.3.3.3 (a)
7.3.4.1 (d)
7.3.4.3 (a,b)
.... .. .. -
7.3.5
THRUST PROTECTION
7.3.5.1 (a)
...JI'
7-57
/
7.3.5. 1 (b)
7.3.5.1 (c)
7.3.5 .1 (c)
7.3.6
BACKFILLING
7.3.6.1 (a)
7.3.6.1 (c,d)
7.3.6.2 (a)
7.3.7
7.3.7.1
7.3.7 (1,2)
7.3.7 (1,2)
7.3.7.3 (a)
7.3.7.3 (b)
7.3.7.3 (b)
- 0....
7.3.7.2
7.3.7 .3 (b)
7.4.7.3 (c)
7-58
7-59
7.5.4.2
7.5.4.2
7.5.4.3 (a)
7.5.4.3 (b)
7.5.4.3 (c)
7.5.4.3 (d)
_,. --
7-BO
_ ,...,~~~:.
ANNUAL
MAINTENANCE CHECK LIST
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
SUBSECTION
CHECK ONE
YES
NO
WORK ITEM
7.5.3
ROUTINE MAINTENANCE
7.5.3.1
7.5.3.2 (c)
7.5.3.2 (d)
7.5.3.1
7.5.3.1
7.5.3.1
7.5.3.2 (a)
7.5.3.2 (b)
7.5.3.2 (e)
7.5.3.3
7.5.3.3
I
7-61
.... ---
_ .,..-
TABLE 7-10
PIPE THREAD DIMENSIONS
n = THREADS I
CM.
STRAIGHT THREADS
TAPER THREADS
AWWA
NOM.
PIPE
DIA.
IRITI
9.5
7.48
I 3
15.806
1.337
0.856
7.48
5 . 51
19 . 793
1. 814
I .I 62
20
5.51
25 . 279
1.814
25
4. 33
31.770
32
4.33
40
D*
o*
17.145
1.412
I .073
5.51
21 .336
1.814
1.3 79-
I .I 62
5 . 51
26.670
1. 814
1.379
2 . 309
I . 479
4 . 53
33.401
2.21 0
1.6 8 0
40. 431
2.309
I .479
4. 53
42 . 164
2 . 210
1.680
4.33
46. 324
2.309
I . 479
4. 53
48.260
1.680
50
4.33
58.1 35
2.309
I .479
4.5 3
60.325
2.210
2.2 I 0
1.68 0
63
75/80
4. 33
4.3 3
73.705
86.405
2.309
I .479
3.1 5
73... 025...;. 3 . 1 75
2.4 1 3
2.309
I .479
3 . 15
88.900
3 . 1 75
2. 41 3
100
4. 33
Ill. 5 51
2. 309
I . 479
3 . 15
114.300
3. 1 75
2. 41 3
150
4 . 33
162.351
2 . 309
I .479
3. I 5
168. 275
3.175
2.413
I S0
INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS
ORGANIZATION
BSS
BRITISH STANDARD
J IS
SPECIFICATIONS
I
7-62
- ""
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SUBSECTION
PAGE
SUBJECT
8.1
GENERAL
8-1
8.2
AERATORS
8-1
8.3
FILTERS
8-5
8.4
CHLORINATION EQUIPMENT
8-11
8.5
pH ADJUSTMENT EQUIPMENT
8-33
. .... - _,..,
\
~A
8.1
GENERAL
*
*
*
*
Aerators (for oxidation of iron, and removal of dissolved gases, tastes and
odors)
Filters (for removal of oxides, lime residue, etc.)
Chemical mixers (mainly for addition of lime to adjust acidity )
Chlorinators (for disinfection)
8.2 AERATORS
8.2.1
General
The basic function of an aerator is to break up a volume of water, exposing each particle to air. This serves two important purposes : ( 1)
Oxygen in the air combines with elements in the water- iron, for example -- to form solid particle oxides that will settle out, and (2) the mechanical agitation of individual water particles, combined with exposure
to air, releases dissolved gases, such as hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide,
from the water (a good illustration is the carbon dioxide gas that collects
at the top of a bottle of soft drink when it is shaken).
There are many ways of aerating water but the devices most commonly
used are:
_ ...
*
*
*
*
8.2.2
Several wooden trays with slotted bottoms are stacked, one above the
other, with air spaces between them. Water is introduced at the top of
aerator and trickles down through successive trays, each tray breaking the
water up into small streams as it passes through the slots. Often, each
tray is filled with some irregularly shaped particles such as lime stone or
lumps of charcoal (coke), ceramic balls or specially mad e plastic shap es.
These particles, (aerator media) serve to break up the water into thin
sheets as water flows over and around them .
8-1
The velocity of flow onto layers of charcoal media will tend to break
off pieces which will lodge in the slots and restrict flow (this is particularly experienced for the first few weeks after new charcoal is placed in the
trays). It will therefore be necessary to remove th aerator media from time
to time, and clean out the slots. This is most easily accomplished as
follows:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
8.2.3
Remove all media from the top tray and placed it in a container.
(Charcoal must not be dropped into the container, but rather placed
by hand; otherwise, individual pieces will be cracked on impact,
hastening the time when the slots will have to be cleaned out again.)
Thoroughly clean the slots, using a thin iron bar, and sweep out the
tray with a stiff brush.
Remove media by hand, piece-by-piece, from the next lower tray and
place it directly in the top tray, discarding all broken fragments.
Clean the tray as in step (b) and repeat the process for successive
trays down to the bottom one.
Place the container full of media removed in step (a) in the bottom
tray, piece-by-piece, discarding broken fragments.
It is suggested that all metal parts such as bolt heads, nuts, washers,
brackets, etc., be wire brushed and painted as needed, each time the
aerator is cleaned out.
Cascade Aerators
Maintenance of the concrete tank, valves nozzles and inletoutlet piping is carried out as described in other sections of this
manual. The diffuser pipes may he made of any one of a large
number of materials, shapes and sizes. M.aintenance of these
consists of occasional mechanical cleaning to remove en.crusted
mineral deposits and scale. Care should be exercised to avoid
enlarging the air holes.
I
8-2
--
--.,
z
0
(f)
::::>
LL
LL
0
0:::
LLI
. : .. . ~ . .
(!)
..
. ....
>-
(f)
(f)
<!
0::
0....
~
.
0::
<(
w
_J
N
N
z
~
0:::
0....
(f)
~~
I
8-3
}
.
INFLUENT
MANIFOLD
DISTRIBUTION TRAY
I
I
I
WALKWAY AT
COLLECTOR LEVEL
~--+t-;l::::t;-
EFFLUENT FROM
AERATOR TO
CONTACT TANK
STEEL SUPPORT
STRUCTURE
8.2.5
8.3 FILTERS
Generally, well or spring water is filtered only when the water is being
aerated for removal of iron, manganese, or large amounts of dissolved gases.
Rapid sand filters may be manufactured as a package unit in the form of a
steel tank with the filter unit in the bottom half and filtered water storage in the
top half. These may be of the gravity type or pressure type. Conventional filter
beds in a concrete basin are used for larger, higher capacity filters.
Operation is basically the same for all types of filters. Water flows downward through layers of sand and some coarser medium such as anthracite coal
chips or gravel. The material being filtered out accumulates at, or just below, the
surface of the filter media and must occasionally be removed by backwashing, or
running water backward through the filter then towaste, to eliminate clogging
effect of eremoved material.
A log of filter operation should be kept at the treatment plant. The length
of filters runs should be noted by the operator. Changes in length of filter runs
may indicate changes in raw water quality, improper backwash rates, or ineffective pretreatment.
8.3.1
Filtration Cycle
Water enters a typical gravity filter basin above the filter media of
granular material, usually sand. In recent years a combination of sand and
anthracite coal particles have come into use. Such a filter will produce
high quality water at higher filtration rates than_,. with
.. - _.....,_sand alone.
Ideally, the water enters the filter and flows vertically downwards
to the media, through the media, and into the effluent system with as
little cross current as possible.
The water flows down through the media, at a rate of 2 to 4 gal/min/
ft2 of surface area.
As a filter functions the media becomes partially clogged with the
particulate matter suspended in the applied water. This first occurs at or
near the media surface. When the surface is sufficiently clogged it will
crack under the weight of water above the media, and water passing
through the tiny cracks will deposit suspended particles further down into
the media bed.
Eventually, enough material has been deposited in the spaces between
the grains of media that the filter must be back washed in order to continu~ production of filtered water at the specified rate.
8-5
8.3.2
Backwash Cycle
Filter Maintenance
8.3.3.1
8.3.3.2
(a)
Clogged Filters
The first indication of clogged filter media will be
increasingly shorter filtration cycles. The most common
causes of clogged filters are (a) formation of mud balls
due to insufficient backwash rate, and (b) cementing of
sand grains by lime residue, iron oxide, or slime growths.
( 1) Mud Balls
Mud balls are made up of suspended solids that
have been removed from the water and were not
removed during backwashing due to low backwash
I
rate of flow. When newly formed, they are small
and light, and may be found on the surface of the
filter media.' At this point they can be easily removed
by suction :h ose or by mechanically sifting the top
8 -6
FILTER BED
WASH TROUGHS
CONCRETE
FILTER TANK
OPERATING FLOOR - --
-----'
PRESSURE LINES TO
HYDRAULIC VALVES FROM
OPERATING TABLES
cp
~
PIPE GALLERY FLOOR - - - - - "
INFLUENT TO F ILTERS
EFFLUENT TO CLEAR WELL
DRAIN
CONTROLLER
FILTER SAND
STRAINERS
UNDERDRAIN PIPES
8-8
_....Boil
IN FILTER BED
_,.
...
- __.,..
8-9
(b)
--.
*
*
-,
Temporary Remedies
{d)
Once each year, the filter units should lJe removed from
service and reconditioned as follows:
(1)
..
I~
8-10
---
General
r-
There are two basic ways of introducing chlorine into the water: (1)
Hypochlorination, or the injecting of a chlorine solution, and (2) the
injection of pure chlorine gas.
There are many types of chlorinators, and the operator should refer
to the instruction manuals provided by the manufacturers of the specific
equipment he will operate. It is essential that the operator has a clear
understanding of the basic principles of chlorination and of the basic
operating procedures that are followed, regardless of the type of equipment used.
- - Chlorine handling safety is discussed in detail in a later section of this
Manual ("Work Safety"). The operator should be thoroughly acquainted
with the procedures, particularly the first aid measures given there.
( 8.4.2
Terminology of Chlorination
8.4.2.1
,.-
,.-
----------------------------------------------------------------~~----~----------------------~~----~~
I~
(,
- - - - -----??
If
'l_-. : -
~~~~~:
...~::-:://
~~~b~~bs~~ppers w/
~Y'---.~
- - ..:v..J
,/
\r
'
I"~
!-'
....:.......__-1~
, -
;.1
'/
Flexible Polythelyne
tubino
j
=~\\~t=====
[@~-=~==========:.::.j/
To feed point---- ,
!L-Large
~lastic garbage
I;
can w cover
PROCEDURE
I. ADJUST MOVEABLE TUBE IN BOWL TO EMPTY 75% OF TOTAL
VOLUME IN 24 HOURS
2.CALCULATE LBS. OF CALCIUM HYPOCHLORITE REQUIRED FOR
24 HRS. OF DOSAGE.
3. EACH DAY AT THE SAME TIME, BRING THE LIQUID LEVEL UP
TO THE SAME FULL MARK AND ADD THE CALCU'l.ATED
AMOUNT OF CALCIUM HYPOCHLORITE.
4.1F FLOW RATE IS TOO LOW FOR 24 HRS. USE A 12 HOURS
CYCLE.
8-12
8.4.2.2
Chlorine Residual.
8.4.2.3
The amount of chlorine available for disinfection after chlorine demand is satisfied.
organism after chlorine first comes in contact with it. This time
varies from a few seconds to about two hours, depending on the
type of organism and the pH of the water. The term contact
time is also used to describe the time between if\iection of
chlorine and delivery of th chlorinated water to the consumers.
To be safe, at least 20 minutes contact time must be allowed.
8.4.2.4
8.4.2.5
Hypochlorination
8.4.3.1
Hypochlorite Solutions
(a) General. In addtion to chlorine gas, chlorine is commer-
(1}
Longer Shelf-Life
(2)
(3)
(b)
(3)
Sodium Hypochlorite
(c)
19.3 kg/hour
-8-15
(2)
-2-
The most frequent problem encountered in case of hypochlorinators is clogging at points where solution flow is
restricted. This is more likely to be a problem where calcium
hypochlorite is used than where sodium hypochlorite is used,
because there are insoluble particles in calcium hypochlorite
and none in sodium. This problem is especially troublesome if
the water is fairly hard or contains iron.
8-16
_ ,.,..
'
s~\, (l~
(a)
Daily Maintenance
, c' G)J'
( 1) Flush all vital parts with clear water.
(2) R~move strainer, flush and clean with a stiff,
vegetable-fiber brush.
(3) Flush out chlorine solution lines with fresh water.
(b)
8.4.4.2
Calculating Dosage
Gas chlorinator feed rates are calibrated in kilograms or
pounds per 24 hours. Calculation of feed rate is best explained
by example.
. Suppose it is desired to inject chlorine gas into a flow of 100
1/s so that the dosage will be 1.0 mgii. - Determine the required
feed rate.
Feed Rate= 1.0 mg/1 x 100 1/sec x 86,400 sec./day
= 8~640 1 000 mg., or 8.64 kg/day
Gas chlorinator feed rates are seldom calibrated at intervals
of less than 0.1 kg/day, or 0.25 pounds. Therefore, the feed
rate in the above exampled would be set at 8.6 kg/day with
little effect on the dosage.
8.4.4.3
8-17
\~~~
'
In addition to the chlorine dispenser itself, installation may
include the following accessories:
*
*
*
*
*
(a)
Chlorinator Shut-Down
( 1) Close cylinder valves.
(c)
Vapor Pressure
Of Liquid Chlorine
Source =Kapoor 8 Martin
600
/_
500
I
Curve
(.!)
Data
OF
PSIG
-29.29
0
-10
8.29
0
13.81
20
27B4
40
46.58
60
70.91
80
I 01.76
100
140.20
'186.95
120
140
243.33
160
310.35
180
389.17
200
480.97
220
587.13
400
~
I
(I)
L.
::J
(/)
(/)
(I)
'_ o_
L.
300
a.
0
>
200
100
V.
-20
20
I
v
/
..
.....
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Temperature - F
8-19
180
200
220
roo
90
~~
\
~\
80
70
20
30
1\
60
40
50
20C
()
0
I
10
50
1 '
c-- \ \ ..
t--
0 c
40
60
,\
%
30
70
\~
20
\\
10
..
80
90
~~
100
10
pH
II
Tank Valve
1--------G-'a-'s-------------~~Point
of
Application
Check Valve
Regutating
Valve Outlet
Water
Supply
Relief
Valve
8-21
... - .. _......
8-22
.-
8-23
2500
-- G:l 2000
~
ex:
i5
NO BACK PRESSURE
(I')
lQ 1500
:z:
::r
~
'
"'
5
......
~
Q
1000
a::
~
z:
1\
~ 500
' ""
1\..
200~ ~B
100
I
0
1
r--.
""""
2
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19 20
FtG. 1
150
140
110
I
100
c:>
(I')
v
v
60
II
~50
J
I I
40
,
v
"""'
.......
!-"""
- ....
I/
L
FLOW OF GAS CHLORINE
FROM 150 LB CYLINDER
z:
::::>
20
L.
~ io'
1--"
1---'
.,. ~
IJ
70
30
V'
'(
80
i5
~c-o-,
90
a::
ex:
l,...ooo io'
V'
120
::t:
130
Q
LLJ
. --
NO BACK PRESSURE
./
_/
CURVE
A-
CURVE
B-
NO AIR CIRCULATION
- !----- -
-f-
'
- -
1- - -
f-
r- r--
-~
- j--
t-
--
10
0
1
z:. ~
10
11
12
ELAPSEDTIME - HOURS
FiG.
8-24
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
u~~~
~ .~:1
i
::N,
CHLORINATOR
~VENT
c0
SAFETY CHAIN
r-aJ:WIFI
00
1\J
01
BOOSTER PUMP
l
FEEDING CHLORINE GAS
FROM CYLINDER OF LIQUID CHLORINE
Ill
CHLORINE GAS
VACUUM TUBING
....,
LEAD GASKET
I'
I
o I
CHLORINE CYLINDER
8-26
8.4.4.4
t-
8-27
(e)
Gas Filter
(f)
(g)
---;
Flowmeter
Rate Valve
The rate valve must be kept clean and free of accumulated deposits for accurate control of the gas flow rate. It
should be inspected frequently and cleaned as required.
(i)
Ejector
U)
Hose Lines
mg/1
FIGURE 8-1
CHLORINE SOLUTION RECORD
LOCATION - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Date
Mixed
Solution
Tank No.
Quantity
of
Hypochlorite
Type
Hypochlorite
. . . ...
- ---------1
8-29
_....
FIGURE 8-2
CHLORINE GAS RECORD
Cylinder
No.
Date
Recieved
Date
on
Scale
8-30
Date
off
Scale
Date
Returned
8.4.6
Chlorination Records
1 -
8.4.7
Control of Chlorination
8.4.7.1
Chlorine demand is defined as the difference between the
amount of chlorine applied and the amount of free, combined,
or total available chlorine remaining after a specified contact
period.
8.4.7.2 In general, chlorine reacts with fewer materials as the pH is
increased.
8.4.7 .3
Reactions that do occur generally are more rapid as the temperature is increased.
8.4.7.4 Even under optimum pH and temperature conditions the oxidation of some materials occur only slowly - sometimes requiring
appreciable time for completion.
8.4.7 .5
Effective chlorination control necessitates adjustments in feed
rates not only in relation to variation in flow but also to variations in water quality.
8.4.7.6 Principal materials which consume chlorine before dismtection
takes place are inorganic reducing substances, such as hydrogen
sulfide or dissolved iron, ammonia, amino acids, proteins and
carbonaceous material.
8.4.7.7
Reactions with inorganic reducing material is very rapid. With
organic materials it is usually slow and extent depends on excess
concentration of chlorine present.
8.4.7.8 In general to accomplish "break-point" chlorination the free
available chlorine residual should be '70-80~ of total chlorine
residuaJ.
8.4.7.9 Initial "break-point" chlorination residuals will produce tastes
and odors in distribution system.
(a) Flush mains before starting. Begin at point of application.
(b) Build free chlorine residuals slowly in increment of 0.2
mg/liter at weekly intervals.
(c) Time required before entire system is filled with free
chlorine residuals may be one to six months.
(d) Time can be shortened by flushing mains.
8.4.8
(b)
8-32
--.
8.4.9
Drop dilution method of testing for chlorine residuals is used where the
residual is above about 10 mg/liter, or the range of the color standards.
Depending on water quality, the reaction of orthotolidin and the
chlorine will produce a precipitate and a false indeterminant color.
The procedure requires a color comparator, orthotolidin, distilled
water, and a medicine dropper which will dispense 20 drops per milliliter.
(a) Determine the capacity of the comparator tube, 5, 10, 15 ml or 30
mi.
(b) Add 1.5 ml orthotolidin to a 30 ml tube, or 10 to 15 drops for small,
10-15 ml tubes.
(c) Fill to mark of the tube with distilled water, and mix.
(d) Add one drop of chlorinated water and mix.
(e) Compare color intensity.
(f) If no color is apparent, discard and rinse tube with distilled water
and begin again with step (b), this time:: adding two dops of
chlorinated water.
(g) When a measurable color is produced use the following calculation
to determine chlorine residual.
(h) Cap. of tube (ml) x measured residual x 20
Number of drops sample
(i) Assume tube capacity of distilled water and orthotolidin is 30 ml,
and that 4 drops of chlorinated water produced a residual reading of
0.6 ppm in the comprator, then 30 x 0.6 x 20 = 90 ppm residual
4
chlorine in the chlorinated sample.
...
(b)
(c)
Measuring pH
.....,
8.5.2.1
8.5.2.2
Typically, lime solution is mixed in a small steel or concrete tank of, say, 4-6 cubic meters capacity. It is then
pumped through plastic tubing into the water main, or it
may be allowed to flow through an open trough to the
clearwell or contact tank.
Lime contains insoluble materials which settles out of
solution quickly, and therefore must be stirred cmrtinU'Ottsly while feeding. The insoluble material must be cleaned
out of the batch tank each time a new batch is made.
(b)
Mixing
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(c)
Maintenance
{1) Flushing Solution lines (Daily)
CORROSION
CORROSION
CONTROL
CONTROL
10
1l
00
..
1-\~1/......
~.~
1-
<.T1
35
"......,_
1-
....rr-.....
~
'\
_.
.......
,_ ...... ...
....
~~
.,
i
30
Q. 25
Q.
:2
SERIOUS CORROSION
0
~
15
f0
ZONE OF
20
><
10
1-
5
&
50
100
Alkallnty
150
200
250
(p.p.ml as Co C03
~00
350
d
0
25
50
75
Alkalinity
100
125
<p.p.m. l as Co
150
co 3
17!5
200
>0::
0::
:::>
_j
(f)
_j
0::
0
>-
(.9
z
0
w
w
l.J...
(xiii)
(xiv)
(xv)
(xvi)
(a)
General
Maintenance
(1) General
Clean
dust
removal
equipment.
Clean vapor removal equipment, if any.
Remove grit from slaker grit storage chamber,
if any.
'1.
1-- - HOPPER
QUICK
LIME
.t..
~
1--- - FEEDER
WATfR
WATER
r1f!fflffi :~ ;)
'
..
~~----~~~------~
. SLAKiNG
(X)
HEAT
EXCHANGER _ _...___ _-----..~
(0
HYDRATED LIME
SOLUTION
-.-.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
8 .5 .3
(v)
8-40
MONTHLY
MAINTENANCE CHECK LIST
TREATMENT FACILITIES
LOCATION/DESIGNATION ................................................ .
MONTH OF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
NAME OF OPERATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19 ....... .
Check off work items completed. Explain any "No" answers under "Remarks".
If any item of equipment is not used, leave both squares blank.
Subsection
Check One:
Yes
No
Work Item
8.2
AERATORS:
8.2
8.3
FILTERS:
8.3
8.3.2
8.3.2
Was the top 3-5 'em of the filter sand sifted or cleaned by
suction hose to remove mud balls?
8.3.2
8.3.3.1
8.3.3.2
--
8.4
CHLORINATION EQUIPMENT:
8.4.3
Hypochlorination:
8.4.5
8.4.3.2
8.4.3.2(b)
8.4.3.2(b}
8-41
8.4.3.2(b)
8.4.3.2(b)
8.4.3.3(a)
8.4.3.3(a)
8.4.3.3(~)
8.4.4
Gas Chlorination:
8.4.5
8.4.4.4(a)
8.4.4.4(b)
8.4.4.4(d)
8.4.4.4(e)
8.4.4.4(g)
8.4.4.4(j)
8.4.4
8.4.4
8.4.4.4(b)
8.5
pH ADJUSTMENT EQUIPMENT:
8.5.2
8.5.2.2
8.5.2.2
8.5.2.2
8.5.2.2
842
... . .
l
-
_ ...._
-,
8.5.2.3
8.5.2.3
8.5.2.3
8.5.2.3
8.5.2.3
8.5.2.3
8.5.2.3
8.5.2.3
8.5.2.3
8.5.2.3
8.5.2.3
REMARKS:
............................ . ..............................
..
. ..................................... . ... . ........ ' .................. .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-43
ANNUAL
MAINTENANCE CHECK LIST
TREATMENT FACILITIES
Subsection
Work Item
Check One:
No
Yes
8.2
AERATORS:
8.2
8.3
FILTERS:
8.3.3.2
8.3.3.2
8.3.3.2
8.3.3.2
8.3.3.2
8.3.3.2
..,
0
8.4
CHLORINATION EQUIPMENT:
8.4.3
Hypochlorination:
8.4.3.3
8.4.3.3
8.4.4
Gas Chlorination:
8.4.4.4
8.5.2.2
8.5.2.2
8.5.2.2
8.5.2.2
8-44
....
.-..:..
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
SUBJECT
SUBSECTION
9.1
INTRODUCTION
9-1
9.2
VEHICLES
9-4
9.3
ENGINES
9-8
9 .4
AIR COMPRESSORS
9-8
9.5
9-10
9.6
9-15
. .. . ---
9.1
INTRODUCTION
9.1.1
General
This section covers the kinds of equipment that are not directly employed in production, treatment, pumping, storage or distribution of
water but are used in the maintenance, repair and logistics of water
supply.
9.1.2
Manufacturers' Instruction
Every manufacturer of equipment has his own ideas about designing for
convenience of operation, efficiency and durability, and then builds these
ideas into his product. Therefore, no two pieces of equipment of different
manufacture are exactly alike. Each manufacturer knows the limitations
and weaknesses of his own product and furnishes written instruction for
installation, operation and maintenance that will ensure satisfactory ser
vice and the longest possible life. Therefore, maintenance or repair of a
piece of equipment should never be undertaken without first consulting
the manufacturer's instruction booklet. When a new piece of equipment is
installed, the operator should study the printed instructions while examining the equipment to be sure that he thoroughly understands its principles of operation and its construction.
9.1.3
Cleanliness
Aside from appearances, there are good, practical reasons for keeping
equipment clean. Studies have shown that repair and maintenance of
equipment covered with dust, dirt and old grease requires about 20 per
cent more time than clean equipment.
When dissipation of heat is a factor, build up of grease and dirt acts as a
heat insulator. Dirt on the outside of an engine _(indsit.s way into the carburator and oil sump .
Cleanliness is important in work safety. When surfaces are coated with
oily dirt, hand tools slip, resulting in cracked knuckles, and particles fall
in the eyes of the man working under the equipment.
Finally, lubrication fittings covered up by grease and dirt often get
missed during routine lubrication.
Cleaning is most easily accomplished on most mechanical equipment
using an emulsion cleaner. (Typically, this is a dark brown paste, pur
chased in any automotive supply store, which is then thinned with kerosene). The solution is applied with an old paint brush, allowed to sit a
short while, then hosed off. Of course, care must be exercised to avoid
getting water into electrical connections, air vents and other parts where
it could cause damage.
If no such emulsion cleaner is available, the equipment can be cleaned
by applying kerosene then using a high pressure compressed air hose and
nozzle to blow off the softened dirt and lubricant. It may be necessary to
91
repeat this 2 or 3 times if equipment is very dirty or where heat has burned the grease or oil.
9.1.4
Lubricants
9.1.5
Hand Tools
The operator should develop good habits in the use and care of hand
tools. He should get in the habit of always returning a tool to the same
place after each use. In the shop, it is a good idea to mount a plywood
board on the wall with hooks for each tool. It is helpful to trace the outline of each tool on the board at its proper location, then fill iri the outline with white paint.
Sorting through a cluttered tool box each time a different tool is needed not only wastes a great deal of time, but also distracts the operator's
mind from the job at hand. Also an edged tool may be damaged in a tool
box with other tools. Moreover, difficulty in locating the right tool when
needed encourages the operator to grab any tool that seems like it will
do, such as a pair of pliers instead of the proper wrench. This usually results in extra work for the operator when he has to go back and do it
right.
Proper care of tools is important, since even the simplest tools are expensive. Also, a tool with a grease-covered handle most ensures skinned
knuckles. Following are a few examples of proper tool handling do's and
don'ts.
* Do wipe all oil and grease off a tool after use.
* Do replace tool in its proper location after use.
9-2
l
l
FIGURE. 9-2
EQUIPl1ENT MAINTENANCE SUMMARY CARD
DESCRIPTION:
DATE
'WRK
DOt\E BY
DESCRIPTION OF WORK
PER~ORMED
...
9-3
--
*
*
*
*
*
*
9.1.6
Maintenance Records
A good, orderly system of record keeping will ensure that every piece
of equipment will receive proper care at the proper time. Where there are
inadequate or poorly handled records, it usually happens that some items
of equipment receive more care than they actually need, while others get
no attention until they break down.
Figure 9-2 is a typical Maintenance Summary Card. This card is used for
all types of equipment, serving only to show when they were worked on
and what was done. Other record cards for specific items of maintenance
show specific details including parts replaced, adjustments, etc. Each
piece of equipment is given an item number. Maintenance record cards are
filed in the work shop or utility office by item number.
.......,
9.2 VEHICLES
9.2.1
Operation
There are two main concerns in operation of a motor vehicle: (1} the
safety of the operator, his passengers and the public, and (2) _operation in
such a way as to avoid the need for repairs any more often than necessary.
.
Vehicle safety is a complex subject that need not be discussed here,
since it is presumed that every vehicle will be operated only by licensed
drivers familiar with traffic laws and good safety habits.
There are several common habits, some of them practiced by otherwise
excellent drivers, which lead to untimely repairs that should not be necessary. These include:
(a) Driving with foot lightly on clutch
Even though it does not seem that any pressure is exerted, the
clutch plates will slip so slightly as to be unnoticed. This will cause
the clutch to wear out much sooner than it otherwise would.
(b) Quick Starts
Bums much fuel and stresses clutch linings.
(c) Starting in Wrong Gear
9-4
.......
When accidentally starting in the wrong gear, don't lug the engine
and damage the clutch; shift down to a lower gear.
(e)
Drive at a steady soeed to use less fuel. Most engine wear occurs
during acceleration.
(f)
(g)
Maintenance
9.2.2.1 Tires. Keep the tires inflated to the pressure recommended by the
(a)
/;l
rmr
)
l.uw
>
1
~
'-.1
,..
EXCESSIVE WEAR
UNDER-INFLATED
OVER-INFLATED
.~
'.L
!J
EVEN WEAR
PROPERLY INFLATED
--
9-6
>
(3)
(4)
General
Internal combustion engines are used to provide power for several kinds
of equipment, including:
* Vehicle (trucks, automobiles, jeeps)
* Centifugal pumps
* Power cranes
* Electrical generators
* Air compressors
Those engines are of two types: (a) electric spark igniting (i.e. gasoline
or natural gas) and (b) self-igniting (diesel). There is little difference in
operation and maintenance of these, the principal differences being that
diesel engines have neither a carburator nor continuous electrical ignition
system.
9.3.2
Operation
The following operating practices will help to prolong the useful life
and minimize repairs of any engine, whether driven by diesel fuel, gasoline or natural gas:
(a) Run the engine until it is warm before putting it under load.
(b) Before shutting down a hot engine, let it run under no-load for a
minute or two so that it cools down gradually.
(c) Operate at moderate speeds and do not overload the engine.
(d) Avoid unnecessary starts and stops. Most wear of engine& ccurs
while starting because parts being moving before lubricants get
thinned by the engine's heat and work their way into all moving
surfaces. (Contrary to popular belief, an engine in good condition
does not need to "rest". An engine which is started and stopped
several times a day will wear out long before one that runs continously, 24 hours a day.)
(e) Avoid letting the engine idle for long periods of time. Cooling
systems are designed to operate best at higher speeds; therefore,
engines tend to overheat when idling. (This is not true, however,
when they have an external heat exchange or piped cooling water,
instead of a radiator.)
9.4 AIR COMPRESSORS
9.4.1
Air compressors may be driven by an electric motor or a combustion engine. Operation and maintenance of motors and engines are
described elsewhere in this maimal.
9-8
General.
... --
\..
_1
.---'
./
l.L.
---
-u
_......
~.
...
---
.... ~
Both sheaves must be in alignment. Missalignment wears both sheaves and belts.
9-9
9.4.2
Maintenance
9.4.2.1
Air Cleaner
Every compressor is equipped with an air cleaner. The air
cleaner must be located such that it can take in only clean
air. {A common failing is installation of a diesel or gasoline
engine-driven compressor in a confined space so that the engine
exhaust is sucked into the comrpessor.)
(a) Check the filter element at least weekly, and clean or
replace as required.
(b) If located in an enclosed room, make sure that the room
is well ventilated and that ventilators are not blocked.
9.4.2.2 Air Receiver
The air receiver is a tank at the discharge side of the compressor cylinder. It absorbs pulsations, enabling compressed
air to be delivered at a constant pressure. It also acts as a compressed air storage reservoir, allowing momentary demands
above the compressor capacity. Finally it acts as a moisture
trap collecting moisture that is "squeezed" out of the air by the
compression.
A safety valve mounted atop the receiver prevents buildup of
pressure to dangerous levels. Never tamper with this valve so as
to induce pressure greater than the design pressure of the compressor unit or the compressed air tank.
Drain accumulated water from the receiver daily, through the
drain valve at the bottom.
9.4.2.3 Cleaning
All outside surfaces of compressors must be kept clean because accumulated dirt and oil act as a heat insulator, preventing dissipation of heat to atmosphere, with resultant low efficiency of operation.
9 .4.2.4 Lubrication
Keep the compressor well lubricated, checking the atl--tevel at
least once in every .24 hours of operation. Use only lubricants
recommended by the comrpessor manufacturer. Oil should
have a low sulfur and carbon content and should have an oxidation inhibiter.
9.4.2.5 Major Maintenance
At least once in every 200 hours of operation, the compressor should be disassembled for complete inspection and oil
change, following the instructions given in the manufacturer's
operation and maintenance manual. Particular attention should
be given to valves and packing at this time.
Power Cranes
9 .5.1 .1 General. Power cranes used by a utility may be truck-mounted
units used in the .field for setting pumps, valves, etc., or over9-10
Operation
(a) Smoothness of Operation
Overloading
Positioning
(1) When not in use, position the crane out of the way of
other work.
(2) When lifting, make sure the crane cable is directly
over the object being lifted.
(3) Never leave a crane loaded, even temporarily. If
other work must be done between lifting and lowering of a load into its final position, lower the load in a
convenient location while the work is done, then lift
it again, maneuver it to fmal position and lower into
place.
9.5.1.3
Maintenance
Monthly Inspections
Once each month, thoroughly clean, inspect and lubricate the crane, following the manufacturer's instruction
9-11
Operation
(a) Smoothness of Operation
Overloading
(c)
Positioning
(1) When not in use, position the crane out of the way of
other work.
(2) When lifting, make sure the crane cable is directly
over the object being lifted.
(3) Never leave a crane loaded, even temporarily. If
other work must be done between lifting and lowering of a load into its final position, lower the load in a
convenient location while the work is done, then lift
it again, maneuver it to fmal position and lower into
place.
9.5.1.3
Maintenance
(b)
Monthly Inspections
Once each month, thoroughly clean, inspect and lubricate the crane, following the manufacturer's instruction
9-11
912
Maintenance
(a) Monthly Maintenance
(1)
Hoist
,..
(3)
Upper Hook
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(4)
Lower Hook
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(5)
Load Brake
SWIVEL
.. _,.,..
SWIVEL
LOWER HOOK
9-14
(i)
(ii)
(b)
( 1)
Hooks and chain slings must be kept in top condition because of the
extreme danger of injury or damage if they break under load.
(a) Always arrange slings so that the ~oad is carried on the arc of the
hook, and not on the tip.
(b) Examine hooks often for cracks.
(c) Do not allow the chains of a sling to make an angle of less than 45
degrees from the horizontal, for a given sling, the farther apart the
ends, the smaller the load it can safely carry.
(d) When not in use, store slings on a rack, off of the ground.
(e) Thoroughly examine slings and hooks monthly for the following,
and replace if necessary:
- ... _.,.,.
(1) Spreading of hooks
(2) Bent, worn or elongated chain links
(3) Stiff sections of chain
(4) Gouges and. nicks on chain links
(5) Lengthening of sling because of slight elongation of each link.
9.6 PORTABLE ELECTRIC TOOLS
The types of portable electric tools most commonly used in water supply
maintenance include:
* Drills
*Grinders
* Impact Wrenches
9-15
9.6.1
Operation
Maintenance
9.6.2.1
Bearings. Portable electric tool bearings may be of the ball,
roller, needle or sleeve type. While proper lubrication is essential, too much lubricant can be as just as harmful as too little.
Ball bearings are usually factory-lubricated and require no
further lubrication.
Roller, needle and sleeve bearings require continuous lubrication. These are often located in a grease-packed chamber.
9.6.2.2 Gears. The types of gears most often used in portable electric
tools are spur, spiral, worm, bevel and helical. These are usually
housed in a grease-or oil-ftlled gear box.
Gear lubricants should be replaced once each year, or more
often, depending on the amount of use. When this is done, the
gears should be removed from the gear housing; the gears and
chamber cleaned with solvent, then reassembled and packe~
with fresh grease or oil ~s recommended by the manufacturer.
9.6.2.3
Electric Cord. Electric cords should be kept clean and free of
oil or grease which tend to deteriorate rubber insulation. When
storing electric tools, be sure the cord is not kinked and has no
sharp bends.
Cracked or worn electric cords are dangerous to the operator
and should be replaced, preferably with a cord set purchased
from the tool manufacturer.
9.6.2.4 Motor
Several types of electric motors are used in portable electric
tools. It is suggested that they be returned to the manufacturer
for any repairs or, if not possible, that they be repaired by a
competent electrical appliance repair shop.
9-16
DAILY
MAINTENANCE CHECK LIST
VEHICLES
DATE .................................................................. .
MILEAGE: BEGINNINGOFDAY ....................... ENDOFDAY ....... .
LICENSE/DESIGNATION ...... . ......... . ................................. .
"
SUBSECTION
9.2.2.4
CHECK ONE
YES
NO
WORK ITEM
4. Tire pressures?
....... ..... ..... ..... ...... ... ............ .. .... ' .... ..... ............... .
I
9-17
200 HOUR
MAINTENANCE CHECK LIST
COMPRESSORS
SUBSECTION
9.4.1
WORK ITEM
CHECK ONE
YES
NO
9.4.2
9.4.2.1
9.4.2.2
9.4.2.3
9.4.2.4
9.4 .2.4
9.4.2.5
REMARKS :
...... -
9-18
-....Ji~
15000 KM
MAINTENANCE CHECK LIST
VEHICLES
LICENSE/DESIGNATION .................................................. .
NAME OF OPERATOR ......... ..... .................. DATE .............. .
NAME OF MECHANIC .. .. . . .......................... DATE .............. .
The following work items should be carried out by a qualified mechanic and checked off by
the operator. Explain any "NO" answers under "Remarks". Show parts replaced and
quantities of lubricants under "Remarks".
SUBSECTION
9.2.2.4(d)
CHECK ONE
YES
NO
WORK ITEM
2.
3.
4.
Rotate tires?
5.
6.
7.
... - _
...
.........
9-19
WEEKLY
MAINTENANCE CHECK LIST
VEHICLES
SUBSECTION
9.2.2.4
WORK ITEM
CHECK ONE
YES
NO
1.
2.
3.
Battery connections?
4.
5.
6.
Air Filter?
7.
8.
REMARKS:
................................. . ................................
9-20
.. . ...... .
-~
MONTHLY
MAINTENANCE CHECK LIST
CRANES AND HOISTS
i;
'
SUBSECTION
CHECK ONE
YES
NO
WORK ITEM
9.5.1.2
9.5.1.2
9.5.1.2
9.5.1.2
(ii) Trolley?
1.
2.
9.5.1.2
9.5.2.3
_...,.....
3.
Lubricated chains?
4.
Inspected hose?
5.
9-21
; IANNUAL
MAINTENANCE CHECK LIST
CRANES AND HOISTS
LOCATION/DESIGNATION ................................................ .
NAME OF OPERATOR.~ .............. .......... ...... DATE .......... .... .
Check off work items completed. Explain any "NO" answers under "Remarks".
,SUBSECTION
9.5.2.3
CHECK ONE
YES
NO
WORK ITEMS
manufacturer?
6. Lubricated swivels?
--
_...,.
9.5.2.3
9.5.2.3
9.5.3
9.5.3
REMARKS:
...............................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I ..................... .
~
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9-23
_.,.
~ .
- _..........
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SUBSECTION
SUBJECT
PAGE
10.1
INTRODUCTION
10-1
10.2
ELECTRICAL TfRMS
10-1
10.3
ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
10-5
10.4
POWER SUPPLY
10-5
10.5
ELECTRIC MOTORS
10-8
10.6
ENGINE GENERATORS
10.7
10-13
10.8
ELECTRICAL FIRES
10-16
10.9
10-19
_,.
.........
10- 12
10.1 INTRODUCTION
There are a great number of electrical terms. Many of them are of little or
no interest to the waterworks operator. However, the following terms are basic to
an understanding of electricity and should be known and thoroughly understood
by the operator.
.... -- _ . . . ._
10.2.1 A conductor is any material that electricity will flow though easily. The
word conductor is most often used as another word for wire, but can be
applied to water, most metals, or even the waterworks operator's body.
10.2.2 An insulator is any material that electricity will not flow through, such
as ceramic, rubber or plastic.
10.2.3 Current is the energy that flows through a conductor. The unit of current
is the Ampere or "Amp." There are two types of current: Direct
Current (D.C.) and Alternating Current (A.C.). Direct current flows in
one direction like water in a pipe. The most common use of D.C. is in the
battery system of an automobile. Alternating current repeatedly reverses
direction at a frequency _determined by the design of the power
company's generator. (In the Philippines this frequency is 60 times per
second.) A.C. and D.C. current is used for 'lighting and to power pump
motors, for example.
I
10.2.4 Voltage is the force that pushes current through a conductor. The unit of
voltage is the "Volt".
10-1
--
flow of current through it. The unit of resistance is the "Ohm". The
resistance of a conductor depends on the material it is made of, its length,
and its cross sectional area. For example, a steel wire has a higher
resistance than a copper wire of the same length and diameter. Also, a
piece of wire one meter long has a lower resistance than a piece of the
same wire that is two meters long.
10.2.6 Ohm's Law is the most basic principie of electricity. It is given by the
formula:
E= Ix R
,w here E =Voltage (volts)
I = Current {Amps)
R =Resistance {Ohms)
1 0.2.7 Power is the combined quantity of voltage and current required to operate
10-2
CUSTOMER
POWER HOUSE
POWER SUPPLY
10-3
TIGHTLY
ELECTRICAL
TAPE
CONDUCT
... .
10-4
_ ....,.-
Electric current must always .flow, sooner or later, either into the earth or
back to its source. It may pass through a complicated circuit panel and a
piece of equipment, but finally it must pass into the ground or back to
where it came from. If for any reason it cannot do so, it will not flow. The
route that the current follows from its source (i.e., the power company's
generator) to the ground (or back to its source) is known as a circuit.
If a wire is cut or a switch opened, the circuit is broken and current
cannot flow. If, at some point in the circuit, the current is accidentally
allowed to flow into the ground (for example, if a bare spot on a wire
touches the metal frame of a building and flows t hrough it into the ground)
the circuit is "shorted" to form a " short circuit. Nearly every electrical
probl~m results, directly or indirectly, from either a "broken" or "shorted"
circuit. Generally when the circuit is broken, the only result is that the
equipment will not function. Short circuits, on the other hand, nearly
always cause damage to equipment or wiring.
- . - ---
10.4 POWER SUPPLY
The electric power company has the responsibility for delivering the required
amount of electric power, at the voltage specified by the customer, up to the
main seiVice panel located within the customer's property. While the water
supply operator has no responsbility for maintaining the power company's equipment, he should be aware of the process by which electric power is delivered to
the facilities under his control.
10.4.1 Electric Power Generation. There are basically four types of electric
generators presently in use by electric utility companies:
(a) Hydroelectric Generators use water power to tum turbines. Typically a dam is constructed on a large river and the normal river flow is
routed through the turbine chamber.
(b) Steam Turbine Generators. Water is heated, using coal, fuel oil, or
natural ga,s, to make high pressure steam which, in tum, is used to
10-5
(c)
(d)
- ....
10-6
10-7
The electric motor operates on the principle that when an electric current
passes through a conductor, a magnetic field is set up surrounding it. Stationary
electrical wires inside the motor case are wound in such a way that as electric
current flows through them, a rotating magnetic field is formed. A central core,
made of iron and free to rotate, continuously tries to align itself with the moving
magnetic field, and therefore rotates at the same speed as the magnetic field.
The amount of power that can be delivered by an electric motor is determined by the strength of the magnetic field inside the motor. The strength of
the magnetic--field is, in turn, determined by the amount of electric power put
into the motor. At a given voltage, this means that mechanical power output
depends on the amount of electric current flowing through the windings. Since
large currents require large wires, it follows that the higher the horsepower of the
motor, the larger the wires and, therefore, the larger the motor.
10.5.1 Squirrel Cage Induction Motor. This is the most commonly used motor
in waterworks installations. It gets its name from the construction of its
rutor (the rotating core of the motor) which resembles an animal cage.
Its construction is the simplest of any of the large motors, and requires
the least complicated controls.
10.5.2 Ventilation . Every motor puts out less energy than is put iJ:I.to it)?.,t:cause
some of the electrical energy is converted to heat. The amount of heat
generated in a motor is very large.
All motors are designed to operate within a given temperature range
above an air temperature of 40C. The design temperature rise (usually
shown on the motor nameplate) varies from 40C to 80C, depending
on the type of insulation covering the windings.
If temperature rises far above the design temperature, insulation will
begin to melt, resulting in a short circuit and "burning out" of the motor
windings. Therefore heat must be removed from the motor as fast as it is
generated. All motors are equipped with ventilation ports to allow hot air
to exhaust and to draw in cool air. If the ventilation ports become
clogged, the motor will almost certainly bum up. Also, since motors are
designed to operate at a given rise above 40C, it follows that the air
surrounding the motor should not be allowed to rise above that level. If
the motor is inside a building 1 the room must be well ventilated to prevent
10-8
buildup of heat in the air. Motors have been destroyed because of furniture, boards or boxes being placed in a pump room in such a way as to
block the ventilator openings.
The operator should periodically check the operating temperature of
all motors (large motors normally operate with temperatures of 30 65C on the outside of the motor <>ase. Therefore, the motor may be
running at a normal temperature even though the operator cannot hold
his hand against the case.) This is done by taping a centigrade thermometer against the motor case (out of direct sun) midway between the intake and exhaust vents. The temperature reading should not exceed the
following:
Class A* insulation: 90C
Class B* insulation: ll0C
Class H* insulation: 150C
*The insulation class is usually shown on the motor nameplate. It will
usually be class B on large motors.
10.5.3 Motor Starting . Much more power is required to start a motor than to
keep it running; sometimes 5-10 times as much. The motor starter,
located in the main control panel, allows the initial surge of power to start
the motor for a short period of time. Because the high stresses and
current overload exist at start-up, it is very desirable to minimize stopping
and starting.
10.5.4 Periodic Maintenance
1 0.5.4.1 General. The following maintenance program is intended for
large motors such as are used for driving well pumps, booster
pumps and, sometimes, air compressors. For those, or any
other type of motor, the most important item of maintenance
is cleanliness and use.
Except for bearing wear, the best maintenance for any
electric equipment is to use it, to keep it warm and dry.
Moisture is an enemy of insulation along with oil and dust.
Every motor should be operated for at least 5-6 hours every
-~ - - -~
few days or at least every week. The longest useful life of a
motor is obtained from a unit which is never shut down and
cooled off, especially in a humid climate.
1 0.5.4.2 Scheduled Maintenance
(a) Daily
(1} Check temperature of motor housing with hand.
(Experience will enable the operator to judge whether
it is running unusually hot.)
Remember, it is easy to feel the difference between
70 and 80F, more difficult between ll0 and
120, and impossible between 150 and 160.
(2) Check lubrication reservoir level.
(3) Check air vents for blockage.
(4) Check external wiring fo! frayed insulation or loose
connections.
10-9
(5)
(b)
Monthly
(1) Check motor housing temperature with thermometer
as previously explained.
(2) Check voltage and current at each leg of three phase.
(3) Check shaft alignment.
(c)
Annually
(1) Drain lubricant, flush out oil reservoirs with kerosene,
(2)
(d)
(1)
(2)
(3)
The following trouble shooting chart shows some of the most common
electric motor problems and their causes.
SYMPTOM
Motor fails
to start
PROBABLE CAUSE
ANALYSIS
Defective power
Supply
.... _...,
Blown or defective .
secondary fuses
Blown or defective
secondary fuses
Motor fails
to come up
to speed.
Magnetic switch
closes but poor
switch contact
Open circuit in
control panel
Leads improperly
connected
Low or incorrect
voltage
Motor runs
hot
Motor
vibrates
Overload
Mechanical
Overload Hydraulic
Inadequate ventilation
Overload
Unbalanced supply
voltage
,_
10-11
\.
Motor
noisy
Electrical noise
(1)
10-12
-- -
(2)
(3)
(4)
( 5)
(6)
damage.
Replace brushes.
Clean bearings and lubricant reservoirs with solvent
and replace lubricants.
Replace external wires and connectors.
Clean dial faces and glass covers, replacing as necessary.
Carry out performance test.
-~
10-13
----------~ ~-
- --
---
Float switch
Control circuit wires
FLOAT CONTROL
10-15
----..1
rates and the like. Often, an alarm bell inside the panel is coupled with
lights on the face of the panel to give warning of any abnormal operation
of equipment.
(a) Control Circuits. There are two types of circuits inside the control
panel. One is the power circuit which carries electrical power to the
various pieces of electrical equipment: motors, chlorinators, motoroperated valves, and the like. The other type - the control circuit controls the opening and closing of these power circuits.
Control circuits operate at low current and voltage to minimize
the risk of injuries or damage. Power for the control circuits originates from the main panel, passes through the control transformer
to reduce voltage, and is sometimes converted to direct current in a
rectifier.
(b) Relays. The relay is the basic iink between the control circuit and
the power circuit. The relay takes advantage of the fact that when
current flows through a conductor, a magnetic field is set up around
the conductor. This allows the flow of current in one circuit (the
control circuit) to magnetically operate a pair of movable contacts
in a second circuit (the power circuit).
Relays may be "No-r mally-Open" or "Normally-Closed".
Normally open relays will close when the control circuit is energized,
normally-closed relays will open when the circuit is energized.
?O
n~ver
10-16
..... .
10-17
- _..........
00
00 u
II
1
MONTHLY
MAINTENANCE CHECK LIST
ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
MONTH OF
19 ......... .
LOCATION/DESIGNATION ............................................... .
NAME OF OPERATOR . ....................... DATE . .............. .. .. .. . .
Check off work items completed. Explain any "NO" answers under "Remarks". If any
item of equipment is not used, leave both squares blank.
SUBSECTION
WORK ITEM
10.5
ELECTRIC WORKS
10.5.4.2.(a)
....
ONE
NO
1.
2.
3.
4.
1.
CHECK
YES
2.
3.
10.6
GENERATORS
1.
2.
Examine wiring?
3.
4.
5.
10-19
10.6.2.1 (b)
1.
2.
3.
10.8
10.8
10.8
10.8
10.8
REMARKS:
. ... ..
10-20
_....,.
ANNUAL
MAINTENANCE CHECK LIST
ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
CHECK ONE
YES
NO
WORK ITEM
SUBSECTION
10.5
ELECTRICAL MOTORS
10.5.4.2 (c)
Were the following work items done during the past year:
1.
2.
10.6
GENERATORS
10.6.2.1 (c)
1.
2.
3.
4.
__._
REMARKS.
10-21
ANNUAL
MAINTENANCE CHECK LIST
ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
SUBSECTION
CHECK ONE
YES
NO
WORK ITEM
10.5
ELECTRICAL MOTORS
10.5.4.2 (c)
Were the following work items done during the past year:
1.
2.
10.6
GENERATORS
10.6.2.1 (c)
1.
2.
3.
4.
REMARKS .
.........
-~
10-21
... .
_ ..,..
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
SUBJECT
SUBSECTION
11.1
INTRODUCTION
11-1
11.2
SELECTION OF METERS
11-1
11.3
11-7
11.4
TESTING METERS
11-10
11.5
METER RECORDS
11-15
11 .6
11-15
11.7
... - _ ...,.._._
11 -19
'----.---~
I.
METER SIZE*
Mo/hr
MM
IN
NOM. BORE I. D.
.I
11
3/4
11
1/2
5/8
11
1/2
11
7 1/2"
3/411
7 1/2"
15
5/8
5/8
15
5/8
5/8 11
I"
3/4 11
20
3/4
3/4 11
I"
3/4 11
3/4 11
25
I"
I ~4
I"
I"
11
5/8 11
NOTE:
1t
"d"
OF
SIZES
ARE NOMINAL
AND THE
AND
ARE
SAME
MFG. PRACTICE
FOR
MEASURED
11-3
BOTH
FROM
11
I 10
..... _...,.
DEPENDING
INLET AND
OUTSIDE
9"
3!411
ON LOCALE AND
OUTLET.
FACE TO OUTSIDE
FACE
The venturi meter (sometimes called a pressure differential meter) operates on a complex principle of hydraulics. It
consists of a tube with a constriction near the center. As water
passes through the constriction (or throat), velocity increases
and hydrostatic pressure dorps. Two sensing lines - one at the
throat and one slightly upstream - transmit the two pressures
to the recorder which is calibrated to convert pressure differentials to flow readings.
Venturi meters are used only to measure very large flows
and are almost never used for measuring customer consumption.
There are no moving parts in the venturi meter, and therefore little for the operator to worry about in terms of maintenance, except for the read-out system.
11.2.2
.....
The ideal way of establishing the proper meter sizes for a particular
service connection would be to compute the maximum amount of water
that could possibly be used at one time if every water fixture on the customer's property were wide open. This could then be compared with the
amount of water that could be passed through various sizes of meters
without an excessive loss of pressure. Unfortunately, the amount of water
that can be drawn from a fixture (or through a meter) depends on the
pressure available, which is subject to wide variation.
The effect of pressure can be ignored entirely when sizing meters if
the capacities of fixtures (and of the meter) are expressed in te_~~ ..91
equivalent numbers of single taps, or fixture units. For example, a bath
tub draws twice the amount of water that can be drawn through a single
tap, or 1/25 the water that can be drawn through a 15 mm water meter,
given the same pressure. Therefore, one bathtub is counted as two fixture
units and a 15 mm meter has a capacity of fifty fixture units; the relationship being constant, whatever the pressure may be.
In that way, the selection of a meter size is reduced to counting the
total number of fixture units to be served through the meter, and
choosing a meter that has a capaci~y at least equal to that number of
fixture units.
Table ll-1 shows fixture units for various types of fixtures, and
Table 11-2 shows the fixture -unit capacity of various sizes of water
I
meters.
I
Where meters are undersized, pressure losses will be excessi_ve, with
the result that pressure within the, customer's plumbing system may be
too low, prompting complaints to the utility. Also meter parts will move
11 -4
faster, causing abnormal wear. On the other hand, meters are least accurate at low flows, and oversizing of meters will result in under-registration
of consumption, with loss of revenues.
The maximum size of service meters is often limited to 50 mm in
order to standardize repair and testing procedures. When a customer's
requirements exceed the capacity of a 50 mm meter, multiple meters are
installed in a manifold arrangement.
SERVICE TO CUSTOMER
VALVE
METER
IN
11-5
Table ll-1
FIXTURE UNITS FOR VARIOUS PLUMBING FIXTURES
No. of Fixture Units
----------Private
Use
- - --
Public
Use
----
Bathtub
10
Hose bib
Drinking Fountain
5
1
Other, 13 mm size
Other, 20 mm size
Other, 2 5 mm size
10
Table ll-2
MINIMUM CAPACITIES OF WATER METERS
Meter Size
11.3
15 mm
50
20mm
100
25mm
225
40mm
625
50mm
1250
given in this section that are perfectly safe for small service meters might damage
meters of other types or materials. If there is any conflict between a particular
manufacturer's instructions and the procedures given in this manual, the manufacturer's instructions should be followed.
The main aim of meter servicing is to eliminate the .mechanical friction that
causes most meter registration errors. This is done by replacing worn parts and removing built-up deposits of mud, silt and minerals that are collected from the water
and deposited on bearing surfaces.
11.3.1
11.3.2
Meters are put through the following steps after they are brought
to the meter shop:
(a) Tested at intermediate flow rate
(b) Rough cleaning
(c) Dismantling and cleaning
(d) Examination and replacement of worn or damaged parts
(e) Reassembly
(f) Testing
If testing reveals that accuracy of a meter is still below acceptable
limits, it is put through the entire process again, with particular attention
given to the examination stage.
The most efficient way to service large number of meters is to set up
a routine sequence of steps that will result in restoring the dirtiest, most
worn-out meter to satisfactory condition, then putting every meter
through the same process, whether all steps are needed or not. This spares
the operator from making several decisions for every meter, and eliminates
the possibility of a needed step being overlooked. The time consumed in
unnecessary steps is more than offset by the reduced percentage of meters
that have to be reworked and retested.
Dismantling
. . --
- ~L
oil or kerosene to the threads and let it sit for a few minutes; then
try again.
{b) Never use pliers to grip plastic or nylon parts.
(c) If the measuring chamber cannot be removed from the casing with
the fingers, do not try to pry it out with a screwdriver or: knife. Tap
the outside of the casing around its circumference with a lead or
wood mallet to break up mineral deposits between the chamber and
casing. It is convenient to have a lead plate about 30 em x 30 em x 1
em thick on the disassembly table. Then meters with stubborn
chambers can be tapped on the plate while rotating the meter. The
lead plate will absorb the shocks and will not scar the casing.
{d) When gripping a meter in a vise, do not tighten the vise so much that
the casing will be distorted.
(e) When opening the chamber of a nutating disc meter, use the special
spreading tool provided by the meter manufacturer.
11.3.3
Cleaning
When meters are brought into the shop, they should be immediately
disassembled, if possible, and all parts cleaned and examined for obvious
wear or damage. If meters cannot be disassembled immediately, it is important that built-up mineral deposits be prevented from hardening, which
would otherwise cause difficulty in disassembly and cleaning. This is done
by filling the meter with water, capping the ends and storing it in an
upside-down position.
Cleaning of meters is done by various combinations of the following:
* Hosing (to remove caked on mud)
* Soap and water with a bristle brush
* Alkaline solutions (removal of oil and grease)
* Acid solutions (removal of lime deposits, rust and scale)
* Sandblasting (removal of mineral deposits)
* Wire brushing (removal of mineral deposits)
.., . - _......_
11.3.3.1
Precautions
(a)
(b)
(c)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
*Step (e)
11.3.4
After cleaning, all parts are closely examined for wear or damage.
Any damaged or worn part should be discarded, no matter how slight the
defect, except where specific corrective measures are described in the
following paragraphs. The ccst of replacement parts is very slight compared to the cost of repairing and testing the meter.
It is a good idea to keep a completely dismantled new meter of each
type and size used by the utility at a convenient location in the meter
shop, for comparing thicknesses, clearances and the like. Each one should
be kept in a shallow wooden box, pan or tray, ~o avoid mixing the parts
with those of meters being repaired.
11-9
11.4
TESTING METERS
(a)
11.4.1
Test Rates
Testing Meters
11.4
TESTING METERS
11.4.1
Test Rates
11.4.2
Testing Meters
If located such that flow into a reservoir can be metered, they are checked
in place by measuring volume changes in the reservoir; (2) Testing in place
by connecting a 50 mm calibrated test meter to the test ports provided for
th.at purpose and discharging to waste, or (3) If tests ports are not provided, the meter is removed and connected to a fire hydrant in tandem
with a calibrated test meter, discharging water to waste during the test.
(g)
(h)
(i)
~U)
Metered Volume
Accuracy = - - -- - - - - - - x 100%
Tank Volume
(k)
.... --
Equipment
( 1) Test Cart. It is convenient to prepare a sturdy fourwheeled cart for testing meters in the field. It should
be large enough to accommodate the test meter, tool
box and a selection of pipe fittings. Mounting
brackets should be provided to allow bolting of the
test meter to the cart. Carried to the work location
on the service truck, it not only aids in transporting
materials from the truck to the meter, but serves as a
base for the calibrated meter during the test.
(2) Hoses. Two heavy-duty, rubber, 50 mm hoses, each
about five meters long, should be available for the
test. Each hose should have standard pipe threads on
the end fittings, and a , union on one or both ends of
each hose. One hose is installed between the test
meter and the test port of the meter being tested. The
11 -12
_.
~~~_g_
Q~E!i!Y
2
50mm Pipe Couplings or unions
1
Reducer, Screwed
63 X 50
75 X 50
Screwed Flange*
2
Screwed Flange*
2
100 X 50
Screwed Flange*
2
150 X 50
Screwed Flange*
200 X 50
2
50 mm
Elbows, screwed
4
50 mm Plug, Globe or Gate Valve
1
50 mm Short Nipples
6
*Needed only when the utility has flanged meters
in the same size.
(b) Procedure. Use of a calibrated test meter restricts the
maximum flow rate at which the larger meter can be tested.
In general, the maximum test flow rate will be that specified for the test n:eter, but the intermediate and minimum
test flow rates will be that sp.ecifi_eg for the meter being
tested. The reason for this is that the accuracy of the test
meter is not known above its maximum test rate, and
therefore the accuracy of the larger meter cannot be determined.
(1)
Testing In-Place
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
Accuracy of=
Meter
--
(3)
(4)
Q~EE!Y
(b)
~!!~g_
11-13
Accuracy of=
Meter
(2)
(g)
11 .5
METER RECORDS
It is the duty of the meter shop staff to keep track of scheduled routine repair
and testing of meters, replacing meters in service and bringing them to the meter
shop as servicing becomes due. To do this, it is necessary to always know the location of every meter and the date when it was last installed.
11.5.1
The simplest and most effective way of keeping track of the location
and status of meters is through the use of Meter History Cards. These are
printed forms on sturdy, heavy card stock, with the following information to be filled in:
* Manufacturer and type of meter
Manufacturer's serial number
* Size of meter
* Date Purchased
* Purchase Price
* Installation History
* Repair and Testing History
Information on dates of purchase and prices .are furnished to the
meter shop by the utility's commercial section. The remainder of the
information on the card is filled in by the meter shop staff as work is
completed.
A sample Meter History Card is shown on the following page. The
meter history cards are kept in the meter shop files in numerical order
and segregated by brand name, using the manufacturer's serial number
for reference. Also, each time a meter is serviced, the last two digits of
the year are printed in the top right-hand corner of the card in pencil
(so that it can be erased the next time the ~~t~i~ serviced, and the
year of that servicing printed in its place).
11.5.2
Routine Maintenance
During the first four years after a system is changed from unmetered to
metered service, the meters are not routinely tested and .therefore only enough spare
parts are required for ser:vicing as requested by customers and for occasional malfunctions.
11-15
DATE RECEIVED
SIZE
TH'D.
FIG
DISPOSITION DATE-------.________._______
_
TYPE __________
FINAL DISPOSITION - - - - -- - - - --
INSTALLATION
INSTALLED
DATE
CONNECTION
MFG.
METER
RECORD
REMOVED
ADDRESS
DATE
RDG
RDG
CHECKED
BY
--
...
TEST AND
DATE
REPAIR
RECORD
PARTS USE D
.. - . _ ....._
11-16
REMARKS
Beginning in the fourth year, routine servicing is begun and a larger percentage
of spare parts will be required. Table 11-4 shows recommended spare parts inventories for two types of meters. Meters of other makes have different spare parts
lists but requirements will be similar. These quantities of spare parts are based on
fairly bad conditions and can be adjusted with experience.
Table 11-4
SPARE PARTS INVENTORY
(per 1000 Meters in Service)
KENT, 13-25 MM OSCILLATING PISTON
~~~~E_!~~~~_!:.!~~~_Q~-~~~~_!!
TATI_N_G_:QI_s_G_
Q~9"iP_!i~n
Plastic lid
Hinge pin
Register and gear assembly
with gasks:t
Register assembly gasket
Ramp assembly
Top plate assembly complete
Top plate only
Piston
Shutter
Working Chamber
Location pin
Strainer, plastic
Circlip
Working chamber 0-ring
Seal wires
Lead seal blanks
Q_~t_i!y_
30
30
20
10
10
10
10
20
20
20
10
_!?~~~i9E
2~~E!Y_
10
10
100
"100
..... - -
10
20
20
20
10
5
10
10
10
10
10
10
.;...It'...
The ideal meter shop layout is one where meters move in a smooth, continuous
path through successive steps in the repair and testing process with no wasted
motion. A typical layout is shown in the illustration. The path of the meters
through the shop is indicated by arrows.
11-17
LOADING
DOCK
rr====~====~==~~
PAINT
_J
METER STORAGE
1/
I
I
SPRAY
I
I
'00
~
LL
C5
~
:I:
0
lU
/
/
i30:
ID
SINK
REPAIR
BENCHES
REB\IR
METER
BENCH
PARTS
---
--
STORAGE
LAYOUT
~~ TAN~,\~----.-.::~\,....._
LARGE METER
. ..___ _....:..T....:..ES.;;_T;.__~
SHOP
11.7
General.
11-19
_____________
,._
--- -
----
11 -20
(6)
11.7.2.2
(a)
Procedure
(1)
11.7.3
Tapping Machines
follows:
11.7.4.1
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
11.7.4.2
.. .
-~
11-22
~------------------------ -- -
/'
--
_.,.
--- _ . . . . .,
TABLE OF CONTENTS
~
SUBSECTION
SUBJECT
PAGE
12.1
INTRODUCTION
12-1
12.2
12-1
12.3
CATHODIC PROTECTION
12-2
12.4
PROTECTIVE COATINGS
12-6
.....
12.5
12-17
12.1
INTRODUCTION
,..
Ordinary water or even moist soil is a good enough conductor to sustain the
corrosion process. If salt or acid is added to the water, it becomes a much stronger
conductor. (This explains why metals corrode much faster in sea water.) The
ability of an electrolyte, such as water or moist earth, to conduct electric current is
known as conductivity. The higher the conductivity, the more rap.i dly corrosion will
take place.
12.3
CATHODIC PROTECTION
_.. The most important protection against corrosion consists of good, well-maintained protective coatings. Sometimes, however, additional protection is provided in
the form of cathodic protection. Since it is difficult to apply a perfect coating even a pin hole in the coating is enough to allow corrosion to proceed beneath the
surrounding paint - cathodic protection is used to prevent corrosion at points of
imperfections in the coating.
There are two kinds of cathodic protection. One type requires an outside
source of electric current to "overpower" corrosion currents in the metal being protected (Impressed Current Cathodic Protection). The other uses corrosion to fight
corrosion. A strong anode such as one made of zinc or magnesium is placed so as to
create a corrosion current between itself and the steel to be protected, overpowering the weaker corrosion currents within the steel. (Sacrificial Anode Cathodic
Protection)
12.3.1
Impressed Voltage
Impressed Voltage Cathodic Protection consists of placing a cast iron
electrode in the vicinity of the steel to be protected, with a small d.c.
voltage applied to the electrode from an outside power source. The impressed voltage is large enough to suppress the natural corrosion currents
in the steel. (The maximum corrosion current voltage between adjacent
spots on a steel surface is about 0.6 volts.)
When cathodic protection is used in a steel tank, several electrodes
are suspended in the tank in a pattern that will insure ;; ~n:;~um voltage
of 0,6 volt at the tank wall.
When buried steel pipelines are to be protected, steel or cast iron
electrodes are buried in the ground at intervals along the pipeline. The
spacing of electrodes is such that the minimum voltage between electrodes
will be 0.6 volt at the pipe wall.
12.3.2
Sacrificial Anode
Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection consists of placing anodes
made of a material that is a stronger anode than any point on the surface
of the steel. Usually these are made of zinc or magnesium. This type of
anode does not require an outside source of electric power but uses
natural current flow from itself to the steel surface t~ suppress corrosion
currents in the steel. Io time, the anode is completely corroded away and
must be replaced. Under average conditions, a sacrificial anode lasts about
12-2
RUST TUBERCULES
CATHODIC
AREA
IRON IONS
CORROSION OF STEEL
........
12-3
.........
_);
r--
~r-
lD
a::
<(
(.)
~~
-t
ZINC
(ANODE)
-IONS-
EC"ECTROLY IE I
(c)
STEEL PIPE
(b)
{a)
CORROSION CAUSED BY DISSIMILAR ME I ALS
...... -
12-4
_...
CORROSION
CORROSION
CON TROL
prl
10
<:ONTROL
'
3~r---~---r---.----~---r--~----~~
I
30
.....
1\.)
u,
e<i.
25
<i.
8
20
'i<
,zoNE ,oF
I
SERIOUS CORROSION
1~
!i
111
10
J'
.,a
.c
...0
~
lL
sl
."t.,.""
I)
50
100
150
200
250
Alkollnoty (p.p.m l oa Co C03
300
350
~--L---~---L--~--~~--L---J-~
0
25
50
71)
100
125
150
175
200
Alkalinity
~ -
( p. p.m. l a Co
co 3
12.4
PROTECTIVE COATINGS
The main purpose of protective coatings is to prevent corrosion of metal. However, they are also used to seal porous surfaces (i.e . wood, concrete or plaster)
against moisture, and to provide an attractive appearance.
The type of coating used depends on the physical makeup of the surface and
the expected degree of corrosion.
The soundness of protective coatings is the most important factor in the length
of useful life of metal structures. A small chip of missing paint may provide a path
for moisture to reach the metal, allowing corrosion to go beneath the surrounding
paint. For this reason, corrosion should not be allowed to gain a toe-hold. The
operator should develop the habit of closely examining paint surfaces continuously
in the course of his regular duties. At the first sign of a spot of rust on any metal
surface, it should be wire-brushed and touched up. A small quantity of each type
and color of paint originally used should be stored in a convenient location for that
purpose.
As a general rule, coatings should be touched-up using only a coating of the
same type. Some coatings react chemically with others to produce peeling, cracking
or bulging.
Paints used on non-metallic surfaces are usually applied mainly for the sake
of appearance, and do not carry the same urgency of repair as metal coatings. However, deterioration of appearance tends to get out of hand if painted surfaces are not
repaired promptly from day-to-day.
The most critical area inside a steel tank is the so-called tide-zone. This is the
area that is alternately submerged and exposed as the water level in the tank rises
and falls. A fihn of hydrogen forms on submerged tank walls as a Qy;product of
corrosion, and tends to stop or slow the corrosion process. This hydrogen film is
removed when exposed to air, allowing a new round of corrosion the next time the
surface is submerged. The operator should occasionally examine the tide zone when
the tank level is low. The most severe corrosion will occur just below the high water
level. Tanks should be drained and inspected annually, or more often if examination
of the tide zone reveals serious corrosion effects such as rust or tuberculation
(bumps in the coating surface caused by formation of rush pockets beneath). Total
recoating of tank interiors is expensive and requires the tank to be taken out of
service for several days. Therefore, coating damage should never be allowed to get
beyond the wire-brush-and-daub stage.
12.4.1
Types of Coatings
There are basically three types of coatings used in waterworks facilities: paint, molten m~tal and dielectric coating compounds. Their uses
depend mainly on the atmosphere that the coated surface will be exposed
to. However, where thei"e are various coatings suitable for a given surface,
12-6
12-7
MAGNESIUM ANODES
1
INDICATING LIGHT_/
NOTE :
ARROWS INDICATE DIRECTIONOF FLOW OF CURRENT .
SACRIFICIAL
ANODE
t
TRANSFORMER
IMPRESSED
I
12-8
VOLTAGE
CHECKING
WEIGHT OF
CATHODIC
SYSTEM
ANODES
12-9
PROTECTION
(c)
12.4.2
( 1) Metallic Aluminum
(2) Metallic Zinc (Galvanizing)
Dielectric Coating Compounds are thick compounds that are highly
resistant to the flow of electric current (i.e., having high dielectric
strength). They are generally used to coat steel tank interio-rs. However, they are often used to coat interiors and exteriors of steel pipe,
as well.
(1) Hot Coal-Tar Enamel
(2) Cold Applied Coal-Tar (not suitable for underwater use since it
gives offensive taste and odor to water).
(3) Cold Applied Tasteless and Odorless Tank Solution (suitable for
repairing any old coating having a coal-tar base).
(4) Asphalt is mainly used for coating buried steel, particularly exteriors of steel pipe.
(5) Cement Mortar is mainly used for coating interiors and exteriors
of buried steel pipe. Not suitable for above ground metal surfaces because expansion and contraction due to temperature
changes will crack the mortar coating.
Surface Preparation
From time to time, the operator will be required to repaint
structures where the small size of the job will not justify hiring a painting
contractor. When a large job is done by a contractor, such as repainting
a storage reservoir, the best preparation is sandblasting. For small jobs,
however, the use of sandblasting is not practical.
The main purpose of all surface preparation is to clean off all impurities that will keep the paint from adhering to the surface, such as rust,
mill scale, dirt, oil and grease.
In general, the surface will have been previously painted and it will
not be necessary to remove all the old paint. Sometimes, however, newly
installed metal brackets, conduits and the like, will be painted for:.the .fiPst
time.
Painting of galvanized metal Is particularly troublesome, since paint
will not ordinarily stick to a galvanized surface unless it is first specially
treated.
In all cases, surfaces should be painted immediately after preparation. If allowed to sit overnight, wood and concrete surfaces will absorb
moisture from the air and the paint will not stick. Metal surfaces will
develep a light film of nearly invisible rust that will keep paint from sticking properly.
No painting job ~ould be undertaken when humidity is extremely
high or in rainy weather, and no surface preparation should be done if it
seems likely that such conditions will set in before painting is completed.
Where a paint repairing job is expected to take several hburs, it is
advisable that instead of completing all surface preparation before starting
to paint, small areas be prepared and painted in one continuous operation.
12-10
(a)
there are rust spots; in which case they must be trea ... u rne same as
old painted metal).
(1) Pickling
(i)
Wash with acid solution. Dilute one part of acid (hypochloric, phosporic or acetic) in 20 parts of water. Thoroughly wet the surface using an old paint brush, and allow
to dry thoroughly.
(ii) Wash with clear water to remove all acid solution and zinc
dust. Dry with cloth as completely as possible. Allow to
dry further in air to remove all remaining moisture.
(2) Pretreatment. There are treating agents available in paint or
hardware stores. These are usually special coatings, designed to
adhere to galvanizing, which can then be painted over. When
using these, follow the manufacturer's instructions printed on
the container.
(d)
(i) Hose down with clear water to remove loose dirt and rust, and
allow to dry thoroughly.
(ii) Mix pretreatment solution consisting of one kilogram of zinc
sulfate dissolved in four liters of water.
(iii) Apply pretreatment solution with long handled brush, being
sure to wet the surface thoroughly.
(iv) Allow to dry. Do not rinse.
Seal Coat Method
(i) Remove efflorescence (white chalky areas caused by concen trations of lime at the concrete surface). Mix solution consisting
of one part hydrochloric acid ?Jld four parts clear water. Apply
to areas of efflorescence, wetting them thoroughly . Wear
rubber gloves.
12-12
(ii) Hose down with clear water to remove all acid solution, dust
and dirt. Allow to dry thoroughly .
12.4.3
Application of Coatings
bucket each t ime it is filled from a larger container. This will allow
the proper amount of thinner to be determined by trial and error.
The ratio of thinner to paint should never exceed 1 :8. Following are
the proper steps in mixing paint:
(1) Remove the top of the container and pour off the clear liquid
at the top into another clean container.
(2) Stir the remaining paste with a clean, flat paddle or power
stirrer until a uniform consistency is obtained.
(3) Return the liquid that was originally po.ur~ff, a little at a time
continually stirring until the paint has been recombined to a
smooth, even con sistency.
(4) "Box" the paint by pouring back and forth several times from
one container to the other.
(5) Pour a convenient quantity from the container into the
painter's bucket (i.e., the small handled bucket that the painter
holds while brushing) or spray gun. Then tightly cover the container.
(6) If paint does not brush on smoothly or clogs the spray gun, mix
a small amount of thinner with the paint in the paint bucket
(the type of thinner must be compatible with the type of paint,
as shown in Table 12-1 ). If still too thick, add a little more
I
thinner. Repeat until a proper consistency is achieved. Note
the total amount of thinner used to achieve good results, and
use the same amounts in following buckets-full.
12-13
(b)
12-14
-,
(ii)
- ,
-,
12-15
- - ..
APPLYING PROTECTIVE
WI'TH
COATING
PAINT BRUSH
12-16
_......_
12.5
* Do
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
12-17
TABLE 12-2
COMMON COATING DEFECTS
SYMPTOM
HOW TO RECOGNIZE IT
..
CAUSE
BUBBLING
CHALKING
ALLIGATORING
BLISTERING
CHECKING
-u
CHIPPING (FLAKING)
CRAZING
.
DISCOLORATION
RUNNING
HOLIDAYS
WRINKLING
SAGGING
12-18
COATING
AREA
OF APPLICATION
SURFACE
PREPARATION
APPLICATION
MECHANICAL
(WIRE BRUSH
PIPING.
THINNER
COATING
~,..NO.
~
_.
WASH COAT
0 .025mm.
ALKYD PAINT
0.040mm.
TURPENTINE ,
MER
I 2
MINERAL SPIRITS! I
MECHANICAL
MINERAL SPIRITS! 2
LINSEED OIL.
_.
TH ICKNESS
EACH COAT
TURPENTINE,
MECHANICAL
MATERIALS
p,OJm
MINERAL SPIRITS! 2
APPLICATION
ALKYD PAINT
0.040mm.
IO.OIO mm.
0.025mm.
LINSEED OIL
NONE
I TURPENTINE
(.0
I SANDBLASTING
10.150 mm.
0.010 mm.
0.025mm.
0.030mm.
I
~
BURIED
STEEL SURFACES
I MECHANICAL
NONE
MECHANICAL
NONE
COAL -TAR
PRIMER
O.OIOmm.
COAL - TAR
PAINT
0 .800 mm.
SURFACE
AREA
BURIED
OF
APPLICATION
COATING
THINNER
PREPARATION
APPLICATION
THICKNESS
EACH COtrr
MATERIALS
I0 .40 mm.
MECHANICAL
NONE
MECHANICAL
WATER
OVER 900mm .
13.0
.....
"'
"-'
0
MECHANICAL
WATER
STEEL PIPE.
SANDBLAST! NG
NONE
I
~
MECHANICAL
NONE
13.0
16.0
OVER 500
20.0
I COAL- TAR
0.010
PRIMER
2 .500
AND
0 .200
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SUBJECT
SUBSECTION
PAGE
13.1
GENERAL
13-1
13.2
13-1
13.3
FALLS
13-13
13.4
13-13
13.5
ELECTRICAL SHOCKS
13-14
AREA
OF APPLICATION
IN
SURFACE
THINNER
PREPARATION
MECHANICAL
WATER ( CONT'D)
CONCRETE
WALLS EXPOSED
WEATHER
TO
WASHING
COATING APPLICATION
NO.
MATERIALS
~ATI
AS RECOMMENDEC
0.04mm.
BY MANUFACTURER
0.05
AS RECOMMENDED
100%
COVER
PRETREATMENT BY MANUFACTURER
WASHING
_.
WATER
PRETREATMENT
'
THICKNESS'
EACH COAT
100%
COVER
N
_.
MECHANICAL
WEATHER
MINERAL SPIRITS
TURPENTINE,
ENAMEL
100%
COVER
LINSEED OIL
INTERIOR
WOOD SURFACES
MECHANICAL
MINERAL SPIRITS
UNDERCOATER
COVER
TURPENTINE
LINSEED OIL
100%
100%
COVER
!.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SUBSECTION
SUBJECT
PAGE
14.1
FORMULA
14-1
14.2
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
144
14.3
CONVERSIONS
14-9 -
14.4
TEMPERATURE TABLE
14-13
13.1
GENERAL
Experience has shown that certain kinds of personal injuries occur more frequently than others. These fall into four broad categories:
(1) Chemical handling injuries
(2) Falls
(3) Injuries from rotating machinery
(4) Electrical shock and bums
The following sections discuss these individually. Where unusual first aid
measures are required, they are discussed in detail; otherwise, it is suggested that
reference be made to a good first aid manual kept in the utility office.
13.2
*
*
*
Chlorine
Hydrated lime or Caustic Soda
Liquified petroleum gas (Butane or Propane)
* Various solvents and lubricants
Of these, chlorine presents the most severe hazard, not only to the operator but
to persons living in the vicinity, as well. Therefore, this subject is discussed in great
detail compared with other chemical hazards.
13.2.1
Chlorine
The operator must develop good working practices in order to minimize the chance of accidental chlorine release. It is not enough to know
what to do; the operator must familiarize himself with all aspects of preventive-maintenance procedures. The protective equipment issued to him
must be thoroughly familiar to him, and he must keep such equipment
ready for use. The following procedures should be followed :
(a) The chlorine exhaust fan must be turned on at all times when entering the chlorine room, whether for a routine check or for servicing or
repairing leaking equipment, even while wearing a mask. Always
check the exhaust for possible blockage.
(b) In all cases when the concentration of the chlorine gas in the air is
unknown, a self-contained gas mask approved for chlorine must be
worn. The location for storage of the gas mask must not be in t he
same room as the chlorine container. Keep it in a special, protective
enclosure outside of, but near the chlorine storage or feeder room.
(c) Start-up of o peration of a chlorinator or opening of a chlorine cylinder must not commence unless gas masks are on hand nearby outside.
(d) A gas mask must be worn when it is necessary to locate and stop
small leaks in the piping or when making any repairs or adjustments
on leaking equipment. The cylinder valve(s) must be closed before
starting repairs.
(e) Water must never be applied to a chlorine leak because of t he added
corrosive action created by the water-chlorine mixture which will
13-1
(f)
(g)
(h) When. connecting the piping from the cylinders to the chlorine
or whenever it is necessary to break a connection and recouple it,
a new lead or fiber washer must be used each time. The yoke
type clamp that attaches to the chlorine cylinder should be soaked
in an evaporative solvent and cleansed with a wire brush. The slide
and threaded adjustment screw should be lightly coated with
petrolatum (vaseline).
(i) Fittings must be inspected for rounded or wom threads, or burrs that
might contribute to leaks. There should be "play" in the flexible
tubing to minimize the chance of fracture if struck. Use a flexible
tube which is long enough that a loop 6"-8" in diameter can be
formed above the tubing alignment. Flexible metal chlorine gas
piping must be replaced immediately if kinked during cylinder
change over. No attempt should be made to clean and reuse them.
All black-iron pipes used as header pipes for gas or liquid must be
replaced after 5 years of service.
(j) A green slime may form where a leak was repaired. A dry cloth
should be used to wipe away slime. (Do not use a wet cloth as its
dampness would combine with the slime, possibly creating another
leak.) If this green slime has dried to a dust, do not blow it or wipe
it away unless the area is completely ventilated. Avoid breathing this
dust. Even minute particles are dangerous.
(k) When using chlorinated powder or chloride of lime a proper type of
eye shield and gloves must be worn.
13.2.1.1
~- - ----
RESULT
OF
BAD HOUSEKEEPING
13-3
(f)
-30
-10
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
(g)
-34.5
-23
-17.7
-6 .6
4.4
15.5
26.6
37.8
48.9
60.0
71
82
93
104
Pressure
--E_Si_
0
8.3
13.8
27.8
46.6
70.9
101.8
140.2
186.9
243.3
310.4
389.2
480.9
587.1
!Sgf~:_
0
0.58
0.97
1.95
3.28
4.98
7.2
9.8
13.1
17.1
21.8
27.3
33.8
41.3
Valve Stiffness
Cylinder valves are carefully checked before leaving
the manufacturer's plant, but occasionally a valve may be
stiff to tum or difficult to shu t off tightly (i.e., a small
amount of chlorine may be getting by the valve). This
leak may be caused by a small piece o f scale or other
foreign matter in the valve seat. Sometimes the valve
can be freed by opening and shutting a few times (with the
outlet cap in place and by lightly tapping the body of the
valve). Actually, once the cylinder is hooked up, inability
to shut the valve completely is normally not important and
the contents can be withdrawn until empty. Once the cylinder has been discharged (and only gas remains in it), the
outlet cap and good fiber gasket will effectively stop
chlorine from escaping.
A chlorine cylinder valve should be opened only 1 !2
turn .
(h) Valve Defect - Turning Spindle
The most troublesome type of leaking valve defect
13-5
(i)
ct:
I
0..
(f)
(.!)
(}_
<{
m
'.{1
(9
0::
0_j
I
13-8
- ...
13-9
13.2.3
First Aid. The severity of chemical bums is directly proportional to the time that the chemical is in contact with moisture,
since the reaction will continue until all lime or caustic soda has
been hydrolized or removed. Therefore, the most important
first aid measure is : FLUSH WITH COPIOUS QUANTITIES
OF CLEAR WATER!
(a) Burns on Skin
Immediately flush with water. Continue flushing,
even after all chemical residue appears to have been
washed away. Do not wrap the bum with cloth as this
will stick to the wound. Seek medical attention if there is
blistering or an opening in the skin (burns are particularly
susceptible to infecti9n). Under ?_O ~ircumstance~ ~pply
butter, salt, grease or other home remedies to a burn. The
most effective first aid measure is cold clean water.
(b) Eye Burns
As with burns of the skin, the first remedy should be
flushing with copious quantities of water to dilute the
chemical. The most effective way to accomplish this is to
fill the wash basin with water and have the victim immerse
the top of his head and eyes, then open and close the eyes
repeatedly, holding open the injured eye with the fingers
if necessary, for two or three minutes. The eye should
then be covered with a clean bandage and the victim
rushed to the hospital.
(c) Inhalation of Lime or Caustic Soda Dust
There is little that can be done by way of first aid. If
the victim is conscious, have him swallow a good quantity
of water to minimize damage to throat and mouth.
NEVER TRY TO POUR WATER DOWN THE THROAT
OF AN UNCONSCIOUS PERSON. Rush the victim to
hospital. Do not wait to see if he improves; lime bum does
not act that way.
13-12
of someone being overcome by gas, the most important step is to get the
victim into the fresh air. If the victim does not revive immediately , follow
the procedures for chlorine poisoning. Generally, the gas is dispersed almost immediately in open air; hence, there is no danger of asphyxiation of
persons living nearby.
13.2.4
Cleaning Solvents
FALLS
As a general rule, the operator should never climb aerator structures, ground
storage tanks, or elevated tanks without another person standing by to render
assistance in the event of a fall.
Aside from the obvious danger of falls from high structures, the operator must
be on the alert for potential hazards in and around the plant including oil spots,
loose objects and open excavations. Most falls resulting in injuries are caused by
slipping or stumbling.
When oil is spilled on a concrete surface, it should be wiped up and sprinkled
with a solvent such as paint thinner or kerosene, if available, followed by sprinkling
with sand. The sand soaks up the solvent and oil, and after drying, can be swept up.
This not only removes the hazard of a slick spot on the floor, but prevents unsightly
staining of the concrete, as well.
13.4
The most common cause of this type of injury is loose clothing or long hair becoming entangled in rotating parts. Another very common type of injury occurs
where the victim yields to the temptation to touch a rotating shaft.
Usually, nothing h appens but, occasionally a burr or set-screw on the shaft,
invisible at high speed, will give a severe cut. If the victim happens to be wearing
gloves, the fiber will be caught on the projection and pulled into the shaft.
Finally, when repairing, working or maintaining any piece of machinery, the operator should have the equipment turned off, with an appropriate sign hung over the
switch to ensure that a second person will not unknowingly switch the equipment
on. If possible, pull the fuses.
13-13
13.5
ELECTRICAL SHOCKS
13.5.1
General
First Aid
The danger of electric shock lies in its effect on the central nervous
system. Someone who has received an electric shock and lost consciou~
ness is in an extremely critical state. The victim may have stopped breathing and the heart may have stopped. If either one (or both) of the latter
conditions exist , the victim is in immediate danger of dying. Both artificial
respiration (see "Chlorine Handling") and external cardiac massage should
be started immediately (see following). At the same time, send for medical help or rush the victim to a hospital. Continue resuscitative measures,
i.e ., artificial respiration, until: (a) arrival of medical help, (b) restoration
of normal breathing, or (c) there is no doubt that death has taken place as
evidenced by setting in of rigor mortis. There are cases on record of
victims reviving after two or three hours of artificial respiration and heart
massage.
Often, a severe shock will be followed by fluttering of the heart .
(Do not confuse this with a fast heart beat .) In this condition, the heart is
fibrillating and no blood is being pumped to the body. If fibrillation
(fluttering) continues for more than a second or two and no qualified
medical practitioner is available at the scene, roll the victim on to his side
and strike him sharply once between the shoulder blades with the heel of
the hand; then check heart beat and repeat, if necessary.
13.5.2.1 External Cardiac Massage. This procedure is used only when
the victim's heart has actually stopped, and only if a doctor is
not present.
13- 14
13-15
' ..
ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION
13-16
13-17
- ::c.-
14.1
FORMULA
Mathematical calculations for the water works operator involves the use of
areas, volumes, rates of flow, chemical dosages, pipe line velocities, and pressures.
If all units of measure were identical, it would be relatively easy to reduce the elements of water works mathematics to a relatively simple form. Since all units of
measure are not identical, then factors must be applied to convert from the given
unit to that required. Problems may appear complex but if taken in steps, you will
find they are made up of simple equations.
In solving problems, care should be taken to be sure that all units of measure
are the same. If they are not, then the proper conversion factor should be applied
before proceeding with the solution of the problem. In the following, the various
parts of the mathematics required in water works calculation will be presented
separately and then examples will be given to illustrate their use.
AREA
Rectangle- Square:
b
Area= b x h
Example:
b = 8 meters
h = 5 meters
Circle:
-..,.
14-1
Triangle:
b = length of base
h = vertical height from base
to top of triangle
l...
Area= 1/2bh = bh
2
Trapezoid: A plane figure with four sides, two of which must be parallel.
'
Area = a + b x h
2
Parallelogram: A plane figure with opposite siaes equal and parallel.
NOTE: Comers need not be
square.
b = length along base line
h = vertical height from base to
opposite side
Area= bh
VOLUME
By volume is meant the amount of space or bulk contained within a body. Common
unit of measure is cubic meters.
14-2
.,
I
I
,
,,'
I
I
,-------b
Volume = b x h x w = bhw
Example:
h = 3 meters
b = 5 meters
=5
w = 3 meters
x 3 x 3 = 45 cu. meters
Cylinder:
,-
, ....
----
.... ,
'"
Volume
Example :
d = 4 meters
Calculation:
5 meters
3 .1416
(2)2
or
Volume (cu. meters) = 0 .785 x (4) 2 x 5
Example :
Calculation:
14-3
= 1,177,500 liters
Hemisphere:
Volume
1 rr x (diameter)3
12
Example:
3.1416
12
d3
0.262 d3
0.262
(3) 3
1/3 rr r2h
3.1416
3
r2h
1.047 r2h or
d = 4 meter
Calculation:
h = 5 meter
1.047
(2)2
(4)2
or
Vol. (cu. meters) = 0.262
14.2
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
14.2.1
Fractions
It is difficult to handle fractions in a calculation. If a fraction is encountered, it should be converted to decimals. This is done by dividing
the denominator into the numerator as:
0.5
112
g /t.o
0.5
3-1/2
14.2.2
3 + 1/2
3 + 0.5
3.5
Rates of Flow
For expressing pumping capacity and plant output, the most commonly used flow rates are cubic meters per minute, cubic meters per second, and liters per second.
Since a day consists of 24 x 60 = 1,440 minutes, a cubic meter per
minute is equivalent to 1,440 cubic meters per day.
14-4
1 000
= 0.694 m3 /min.
1,440
a)
Filtration Rate:
5.0 m x 7.0 m
Filter rate
4,250
35 .0 X 24 X 60
------
= 0.0844 m 3;m2fmin
14.2.3
Chemical Dosage
Example:
Calculation:
3,000
21,650 kg/1,000,000 m3 =
Dosage (p .p .m.)
1.0 kg/1,000 m
21.65 p .p.m.
Example:
126 kg/day
1,000
Example:
14-6
--
To illustrate, a compound used in chlorination is calcium hypochlorite (HTH, Perchlom, etc.) and it contains 70 per cent available chlorine. To determine the
amount of the basic chemical to be used to give (say 1 kilogram of chlorine) divide
the amount of chlorine required by the percent of available chlorine to give the
amount of chemicai to be used.
Total wt. of basic chemical
1
1.43 kilograms
0.70
Example:
.70
kgfl,OOO m 3
Vol. of pipe
= 71.4 kg/1,000 m3
=
0.785
(1.50)2
350
= 618 .5 m 3 or 620m3
44.25 kilograms
A water has a chlorine demand of 0.4 ppm. It is desired to chlorinate this supply to a chlorine residual of. 1.0 pSm. What would
be the daily chlorine feed for a flow of 11,500 m fday?
Calculation:
14-7
16.1 kg/day
--
Pressure is expressed in two forms. It may be expressed as the total
force pushing against a given area (total pressure - kg) or it may be expressed as the pressure exerted against a unit area, such as kilograms per
square centimeter.
Example:
Calculation:
100 em x 100 em
10,000 cm2
0.10 kgfcm2
10,000 cm2jm2
Example:
Calculation:
Pressure (kgfcm2) =
1,000 kgjm 3 x 25 m
10,000 cm2/m2
Total pressure
14.2.5
Flow Velocity
Calculation:
Velocity (metersjsecond) =
X -- - - - - - - -
100 cmfm
1.16 mfsec.
14-8
'
14.3
TABLEOFCONVERS~NS
To Obtain
By Conversion Factor
Multiply
Lengths -
inches
"
"
"
feet
"
,"
X
X
miles
"
"
centimeters
"
X
X
X
X
X
meters
"
"
"
kilometers
"
"
0.0833
25.40
2.54
0.0254
304.8
30.48
0 .3048
0.333
1.609 X 105
5,280
1.609
0 .3937
0.01
100
3 .281
39.37
1.094
3,281
0.6214
1,094
=
=
feet
millimeters
centimeters
meters
millimeters ~
centimeters
meters
yards
centimeters
feet
kilometers
inches
meters
centimeters
feet
inches
yards
feet
miles
yards
Areas
square inch
"
"
,
,
square feet
"
"
square miles
"
,
X
X
X
X
X
X
"
"
acre
"
"
6.452
6 .944
645.2
square centimeters
square feet
square millimeters
square centimeters
square inches
square meters
103
929.0
144.0
0.0929
acres
square feet
square kilometers
640
27 .88 X 10 6
2.590
43,560
4,047
1.562
=
X
103
square feet
square meters
square miles
'- .
square centimeters
",
"
"
0 .1550
1.076 X 10 3
10-4
14-9
square inches
square feet
square meters
/
square meters
"
"
square kilometers
"
"
hectare
X
X
X
X
"
10.76
3.861
square feet
square miles
10 7
10.76 X 10 6
0.3861
2.471
1.076
square feet
square miles
acres
square feet
105
Volume
cubic inch
"
"
"
"
"
"
cubic feet
"
"
"
"
"
"
cubic centimeters
"
"
,,"
"
"
cubic meters
"
"
"
"
"
"
cubic meters
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
X
X
X
X
X
16.39
1.639 x Io-2
1.639 x 1o5
5.787 X 104
2.832 X 104
1,728
0.02832
7.48052
cubic meters
liters
cubic meters
cubic feet
cubic centimeters
cubic inches
cubic meters
gallons
3.531 x 1o5
6.102 X 10-2
10-6
2.642 x 1o4
cubic feet
cubic inches
cubic meters
gallons
103
106
liters
cubic centimeters
cubic feet
gallons
35.31
264.2
103
106
35.31
264.2 (
1.308
liters
cubic meters
cubic feet
gallons
cubic yards
.gallon
"
"
"
liters
"
0.26418
cubic centimeters
gallons
0.0625
pounds
3.785
3.785 X 103
0.1337
3,785
103
liters
cubic meters
cubic feet
cubic centimeters
Weight
ounce
14-10
~-
pounds
"
X
X
"
Tons (short)
"
grams
"
"
"
kilograms
"
ounces
grams
tons (short)
kilograms
16.0
453.5924
0.0005
0.45359
2,000
907.18486
pounds
kilograms
kilograms
milligrams
.ounces
pounds
0.001
1,000
0 .03527
2.205 X 10-3
pounds
ton (metric)
2.205
0.001
Velocity
feetfsec
"
cmfsec
"
X
X
"
30.48
0.3048
1.969
0.03281
0.036
cmfsec
mfsec
ft/min
ftjsec
kilometers/hour
Flow
cubic meterjsec
,,
"
"
U.S. gal/min
"
"
"
"
"
"
cubic feetfsec
"
"
"
literfsec
"
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
"
"
cubic metersjsec
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
gallons/min
liters/min
15,852.0
60 X 10 3
2.228 x 10-3
0.06308
63.08 x 1o-6
0.02832
2,446".85
0.2642
cubic feet/sec
liters/sec
cubic metersfsec
=
cubic meters/sec
cubic meters/day
gallons/sec
gallons/min
gallons/day
cubic feetfsec
gallons/min
million gallonsfday
gallons/sec
kilogramfcubic meter
pounds/ cubic inch
15.8~
2,282
35.3145
15,850.8
22.825
264.2
Density
poundfcubic feet
"
"
"
X
X
16.018
0.5787
14-11
103
--
\
kilogram/cubic meter
0.06243
gram/cubic centimeter
0.03613
Pressure
inches of water
0.07355
25.40
5.202
"
,
"
pound/square inch
"
"
X
X
X
X
0 .0703066
703.066
=
=
inches of mercury
kilograms/ square meter
pounds/square foot
kilograms/ square em
kilograms/square meter
kilograms/ em2
14.223
kilograms/square ft
2.205
pounds/square foot
pounds/square foot
4.883
Dosages
parts/million
"
"
0.0584
8.345
1.000
1.000
1.000
"
"
"
"
grains/gallon
"
X
X
142.8
17.12
14-12
kilograms/square meter
grains/U.S. gal.
pounds/million gal
milligrams/liter
grams/ cubic meter
kilograms/ 1,000 cu.m.
pounds/million gallons
parts/million
14.4
TEMPERATURE TABLE:
DEGREES
~
~
f8!:::!.BENt!_~II
32F
DEGREES
_G._~.llL~
o oc
DEGREES
FAHRENHEIT
- ------ -
DEGREES
.f&_!.SIU__
125F
51.7C
35
1.7
130
54.5
40
4.4
135
57.2
45
7.2
140
60.0
50
10.0
145
62.8
55
12.8
150
65.6
60
15.6
155
68.3
65
18.3
160
71.1
70
21.1
165
73.9
75
23.9
170
76.7
80
26.7
175
79.5
85
29.5
180
82.2
90
32.2
185
85 .0
95
35.0
190
87.8
100
37.8
195
90.6
105
40.6
200
93.3
110
43.3
205
96.1
115
46.1
210
98.9
120F
48.9
212F
,--
I t""""'
14-13
100