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1 Introduction
Damage detection at early stages in structures has become substantial and also vital
from serviceability and safety point of view. Many decades of research produced
variety of methods to detect damage. Some methods need access to locations of
damages in structures which are in most circumstances impractical. This limitation
can be overcome if vibration responses of structure were used to identify damage
which was extensively studied. The fundamental idea being that damage effects the
stiffness, mass or energy dissipation, i.e. the damping properties of a system, which,
in turn, alter the measured dynamic responses of that system. Changes in global
dynamic response parameters, such as natural frequencies, mode shapes, modal
damping factors or modal mass etc. are mostly used for damage detection. Doebling et
al.[1] provided a comprehensive survey about various damage detection techniques
employing vibration until 90s. Salawu and Williams [2] surveyed damage detection
algorithms using natural frequencies alone. Among the various damage detection
algorithms, gradient based or evolutionary or heuristic damage detection algorithms
are very popular, SVM is one such heuristic based algorithm based on statistical
learning mechanism. This algorithm gained popularity in last 4 decades which was
developed and conceived by Vapnik [3], the acceptance and applications of which has
increased recently [4,5]. The SVM formulation uses the Structural Risk Minimization
(SRM) principle, which has been shown to be superior [6] to traditionally used
Empirical Risk Minimization (ERM) principle employed by conventional Artificial
Neural Network (ANN) algorithm. SRM basically search for an upper bound on the
expected risk, whereas ERM minimizes the error on the training data itself. It is this
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difference which makes SVM more general as compared to ANN type of algorithms.
In this paper regression form of SVM is used. Damage detection of a cantilever beam
using modal displacements are used which showed promising results [7]. Several
damage conditions are simulated and the natural frequencies are used to detect
damages [8] using SVM. Regression analysis finds a best fit function by minimizing
errors for linearly separable data, but it become difficult if the data are not linearly
separable. The benefit of SVM is that a linearly non-separable data can be separated
by projecting the data space to higher dimensions by adding the kernels function. The
kernel functions convert the non-linearly separable data to linearly separable data in
higher dimensions where we need not consider about the conversions of feature
vectors( here in our case natural frequencies) to higher dimensions
In this paper, SVM algorithm is used for damage identification (i.e. its location and
severity) of a beam using natural frequencies only. The damage is simulated by
reducing the Youngs modulus of the material locally within an elemental volume
which indirectly reflects the localized stiffness loss. Numerically simulated data are
generated from a converged numerical finite element model of an isotropic
rectangular cantilever beam, simulating various damage scenarios and the
corresponding natural frequencies are recorded. In this paper, the term measured data
was referred to the data obtained from numerical simulations. The detection of
damage and its severity of damage of a cantilever beam is demonstrated in the paper.
2 Mathematical Formulations
In the Support Vector Machine (SVM) algorithm natural frequency (x) and damage
(y) can be correlated as (y,x) where x= {} is vector of natural frequencies and y being
a scalar, depicting damage location or the material parameters [3]. Now this set of
data can be regressed to determine or predict the values corresponding to damage
location and severity. The approximation is represented by the equation
y= (w.x) + b.
(1)
minw,b,, , + ( =1( + ) .
2
(2)
Here, C is a variable parameter that encodes the cost of non-separation in the sample
set, and , are slack variables introduced so that the data could be made
308 Detection of Damage in Beam from Measured Natural Frequencies Using SVM Algorithm
separable. In order to account for the erroneous sample of data, a -insensitive loss
function is introduced
| ({} , {} )|, | ({} , {} )| >
.
=
(3)
The data is assumed to be linearly separable for the regression if the xi (natural
frequencies) are taken just two. In our sets of problems tackled, it is initially decided
that up to 8 natural frequencies be taken for each training sample to have a better
representation of pattern in damage is using SVMs regression model. Analyzing the
data in higher dimensions may increase the volume of the sample space to a large
extent and eventually the data will become sparse becomes sparse. This issue can be
addressed by employing kernels functions in regression to model the sample space
into higher dimensions. Usually, Kernels employing radial basis function are used in
most cases and the same is employed in the present paper and can be mathematically
expressed as
(, ) =
( )2
2 2
(4)
Here is the essential parameter in determination of the SVM regression model. The
Cost of non-separation in samples is denoted by C. The is taken as 0.5 for the
present problem. In this paper the code LIBSVM [9] of MATLAB[10] is used.
The damage location is introduced by creating a partition of size 10cm width and 5cm
depth. the damage was given by reducing the E value for that partition in intervals of
1% cumulatively till 50%. The results were simulated by imparting damage at one
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Along the cantilever beam few locations were chosen for the prediction of location
and Young's modulus (E) values, assuming no noise in the training data. Later random
noise was added to see the accuracy of prediction of values.
Figure 3 shows the pattern indicates natural frequencies is used as training data for the
regression model. Appropriate C (cost parameter) and (gamma) values are
chosen for the SVM regression model generations. There is no universal rule to select
the best parameters for SVM analysis and determined by trial and error. The values of
C and assume to be 512 and 0.5 respectively for the present case. The generated
model is tested on the values which were not in the training dataset. Table 1 shows the
prediction of the damage location and its percentage error. Table 2 shows the
prediction of Young's modulus obtained from the SVM algorithm for different level of
noise.
310 Detection of Damage in Beam from Measured Natural Frequencies Using SVM Algorithm
Error %
0.6
9.18
2.0
1.6
noise (%)
noise (%)
1.3825
predicted value
(1xE11)
1.3969
2
4
8
10
15
1.3972
1.3969
1.3964
1.3955
1.3952
2
4
10
15
20
1.3964
1.3894
1.3885
1.3871
1.3824
311
4 Conclusions
The SVM algorithm is found to be performing excellently to detect damages in
various locations of an isotropic cantilever beam from measured natural frequencies
only. The uniqueness of the detection with varying location and severity of damages
are preserved, thus giving confidence about its future application. However, the
algorithm has some difficulty in detecting multiple damages from measured natural
frequencies alone and incorporation of more information in the form of frequency
response functions, mode shapes etc. may be more appropriate.
References
1. Doebling SW, Farrar CR and Prime MB. A summary review of vibration based damage
identification methods, Shock and Vibration Digest, 30(2):91-105.1998.
2. Salawu OS, Williams C. Damage location using vibration mode shapes, in: Proceedings of
the SPIE, vol.2251, Proceedings of the 12th International Modal Analysis Conference, pp.9
33 941,1994.
3. Vapnik V. The Nature of Statistical Learning Theory. Springer, N.Y., 1995. ISBN 0-38794559-8.
4. Charles R. Farrar, Keith Worden, Structural Health Monitoring: A Machine Learning
Perspective by,ISBN: 978-1-119-99433-6,November 2012.
5. Charles RF, Hoon S, and Scott W. Doebling. Statistical Pattern Recognition, The
13thInternational Congress and Exhibition on Condition Monitoring and Diagnostic
Engineering Management (COMADEM 2000), Houston, TX, USA, December 3-8, 2000.
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Biological and Computational Learning, Artificial Intelligence laboratory, MIT,
Cambridge, USA., International Journal of Computer Vision 38(1),9-13,2000.
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support vector machine: Numerical and experimental studies. Structural. Control Health
Monitoring., doi:10.1002/stc.1773.2015.
8. Burges C. A tutorial on support vector machines for pattern recognition, In Data Mining
and Knowledge Discovery. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, (Vol. 2). 1998
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Transactions on Intelligent Systems and Technology, 2:27:1--27:27, 2011.
10. MATLAB R2013b, The Math Works Inc.