Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Corresponding author at: One Bethel Valley Road, P.O. Box 2008, MS-6083, Oak Ridge, TN 37831-6083, United States. Tel.:
+1 865 574 5158; fax: +1 865 574 4357.
Typical electrodes for lithium-ion batteries are composites consisting of agglomerated primary particles of active intercalation compounds (called secondary particles), binders, and conductive additives coated and calendared on current collectors.
Currently, the most desirable compounds for cathode materials are LiNi
x
Mn
y
Co
1xy
O
2
, LiMn
2
O
4
and LiFePO
4
based systems. Most of these materials are synthesized in-house through solidstate reactions [59,60], hydrothermal synthesis [61], solgel preparation [62], etc. Such active materials are also available from a
few comparemains stable up to 5.1 V and has high conductivity in EC/DMC (9.0 mS cm1
at 20 C) [22]. There is less concern about metal dissolution from cath- ode materials because of the absence of fluorine species.
Lower impedance has been reported for SEI films formed on anode sur- faces in LiClO
4
electrolyte than for films formed in LiPF
6
or lithium tetrafluoroborate (LiBF
4
) [36]. However, LiClO
4
is a strong oxidant and reacts easily with other organics because of the high
oxidation state of chlorine, and thus raises safety concerns [37]. LiBF
4
remains stable up to about 5 V vs. (Li/Li+) [38], but its application
is limited by the low conductivity in EC/DMC (4.9 mS cm1 at 20 C) [5]. The
nies, including Merck KGaA [63], Nippon Chemical Industrial [64], Samsung SDI [31], Mitsui Engineering and Shipbuilding
[65], Seimi Chemical [66], Sdchemie [67], Phostec Lithium Inc. [68], but there is little information on the respective synthesis
methods in the open literature. Graphite is still the major anode material and is available from Superior Graphite Company [69],
Tianeng Graphite Company [70], Hitachi Powdered Metals Co. Ltd. [71], and SigmaAldrich, etc. Many types of natural and
synthetic graphite are used and their electrochemical performance as anode materials depends on the crystalline make-up,
maximum heat-treatment temperature, and furnace processing atmosphere.
preferred salt has been LiPF
6
because of its rapid dissolution in car- bonate solvents and its low cost. The typical concentration
of LiPF
6
3.1. Active particle properties salt is 1 M in an
electrolyte system. Most liquid electrolytes com- posed of EC, DMC or EMC, and LiPF
6
are suitable for use in practical
Properties, such as particle size, shape,
morphology, distribution cells because they exhibit a conductivity higher than 103 S cm1
and crystallite size, affect battery performance [72]. A
wide range of at room temperature [22]. However, the flammability of these solparticle sizes can be found in the literature, from tens
of nanome- vents and their vapors can cause a major safety issue in lithium-ion
ters in primary particles to tens of micrometers in
agglomerates. batteries.
Many efforts have been made to tailor the particle size of cathode
1 M LiPF
6
in EC/EMC (1/1 wt%) High content (>10 wt%) is required to effectively suppress the flammability of
the electrolyte and results in severe degradation in performance. The capacity retention in full cell after 100 cycles follows:
HMPN > TEP > TMP (a)
Methyl difluoroacetate (MFA),
ethyl difluoroacetate (EFA) [46]
1 M LiPF
6
in EC/DMC (1/1) LiPF
6
/MFA shows the best thermal stability toward lithium metal or Li
0.5
CoO
2
, shifting the exothermic peak with lithium metal or Li
0.5
to 300 C. MFA had a better capacity than other fluoroesters. The cycling efficiency is about 80% after 100 cycle times by the
method Li on stainless steel Methyl nonafluorobutyl ether
(MFE) [47]
CoO
2
1 M LiPF
6
in EC/EMC (3/7 vol%) About 77% of the discharge capacity is achieved with MFE/EMC (8/2 vol%)
compared to that with 1 M LiPF
6
in EC/EMC (3/7). The discharge capacity can be improved by adding EC TFP, Bis (2,2,2trifluoroethyl) methyl phosphate (BMP) (2,2,2-trifluoroethyl) diethyl phosphate (TDP), TMP, TEP, HMPN [51]
1 M LiPF
6
in EC/EMC (1/1 wt%) The ionic conductivity of electrolytes decreases with increasing additive
amount and follows: TEP > TFP BMP > HMPN. According to the overall performance, TFP seems to be the best choice among
these additives
materials for specific performance targets [21,7379]. Generally, small particles have properties that are beneficial for high power
applications: large surface area, short diffusion length, and fast kinetics. In addition, small particles, especially nanoparticles, can
accommodate volume change with less risk of crack initiation, and their micro-scaled agglomerates and composite structures
provide minimal diffusion path lengths through the electrodes [3]. How- ever, because the electrode has a large surface area,
significant side reactions can take place between the electrode and the electrolyte, resulting in severe oxidation of the electrolyte
on the electrode sur- face. This poses a problem with regard to capacity retention and cycle life. Electrolyte oxidation may
generate solid products, which may form a passivating layer on the cathode, resulting in larger polarization of the cell [22] and,
consequently, cycle-life degrada- tion.
The effect of particle size on cathode performance is summa- rized in Table 2. It has been reported that capacity retention is
better for an LiMn
1.5
the discharge capacity decreases when the average particle size is increased from 1.1 to 3 m. The capacity of an LiCr
0.2
Mn
1.8
O
4 cathode increases with increasing particle size up to 50nm
but decreases with increasing particle size for particles larger than 50 nm [74].
There seems to be an optimal particle size for a given cathode material to achieve optimal performance. The correlation
between particle size in cathode materials and their power density and lithium intercalation kinetics was investigated in a
prospective thin-layer battery system. Vacassy et al. [81] have reported that an optimal particle size for LiMn
2
O
4
with respect to charge den- sity lies within a range of 0.50.8 m. The specific charge
capacity of powders with a large particle size distribution would be supe- rior to nanoparticles having a narrower size
distribution, which is ascribed to a better packing density of the powder mixture and enhanced particle interconnectivity inside
the cathode.
Grain size has also been reported to affect battery performance. Ni
0.5
O
4
cathode with a particle size of 70 nm
Matsuda and Taniguchi [82] investigated the effect of
the grain than it is for a cathode with a particle size of 1 m [21]. The
size of LiMn
2 discharge capacity of LiMn
1.5
O
4
particles on cycle performance while maintain- Ni
0.5
O
4
cathodes at low rates with
ing similar particle size. They found that a
combination of smaller nano-sized particles is higher than it is for cathodes with micro-
size distribution would be improved as compared with nanoparticle of narrower size distribution LiCoO
2
[95] 8.0 mb VGCFs became hydrophilic after being treated with H
2
O
2
, which help it disperse in the suspension and improved the discharge performance LiNi
0.5
Mn
1.5
O
4
[80] Nano size and 4 ma The electrodes with micro-sized particle have better discharge
capacity at 20 C, whereas the electrodes with nano-sized particle exhibit better discharge capacity at 10 C
a Average particle size. b Median diameter.
likely caused a portion of the capacity fading. Huang and cowork- ers [72] reported that LiMn
2
diffusion path and higher surface area of smaller graphite parti- O
4
with uniform spherical particles and
cles facilitate thermally induced delithiation and
generate more spherical crystallites showed better cyclability, while an irregular
heat [88]. Consequently, the thermal stability of
graphite electrodes particle morphology and the presence of faceted crystals led to less
decreases with decreasing particle size. optimal
electrochemical cycling.
The influence of the particle size distribution in a composite
3.2. Active electrode materials processing electrode
has been modeled for constant current discharge assum- ing that the intercalation ratio is the same for each particle [83].
According to the type of solvent used, the
processing of elec- The first discharge depth can be estimated using an average grain
trodes can be classified into two categories: waterbased (aqueous) size corresponding to the maximum of the volume distribution for
and organic solvent-based (nonaqueous) systems [91].
Because the constant standard deviation Gaussian, Gamma, and Fermi distribuvoltage of lithium-ion batteries is much higher than the
voltage at tions, and Gaussian distribution with various standard deviations.
which water electrolyzes, any water must be removed
from the The presence of a small fraction of large particles in a composite
electrode material. This results in stringent
requirements of below electrode with a majority of monodispersed small particles low-
2
O
4
+ PVA (MW 100000) + graphite (87/3/10 wt%) Lee et al. [95] LiCoO
2
+ graphite (KS-6) and VGCFs + SBR and SCMC (MW 250 000, DS of
1.2) (92.5/6/1.5 wt%) Kam et al. [193] Li[Ni
1/3
Co
1/3
Mn
1/3
]O
2
+ super P black + PVDF (86/8/6 wt%) Yao et al. [41] LiNi
0.8
Co
0.2
O
2
+ acetylene black + PVDF (84/8/8 wt%) Arai [48] LiCoO
2
+ graphite + PVDF (85/8/7 wt%) Doeff et al. [141] LiFePO
4
+ Kynar PVDF + SFG-6 synthetic flake graphite + acetylene black
(80/8/6/6 wt%) Yao et al. [65] LiFePO
4
+ ketchen black + PVDF (85/5/10 wt%) LiFePO
4
+ Ketchen black + CMC + PTFE (90/5/4/1 wt%); CuSn + Ketchen black
+ CMC (93/6/1 wt%) Wang et al. [158] MgO-coated LiCoO
2
+ carbon black + a polymer binder (87/9/4 wt%) Amatucci et al.
[157] LiCoO
2
+ super S carbon black + PVDF (85/10/5 wt%) Lee et al. [194] Li[Li
0.1
Al
0.05
Mn
1.85
]O
4
+ Super P carbon black + PVDF (85/7.5/7.5 wt%) Porcher et
al. [195] LiFePO
4
/super p carbon/PVDF (80/10/10 wt%) Ligneel et al. [196] Li
1.1
V
3
O
8
/CB/PMMA (73/8/19 wt%) Li et al. [197] LiFePO
4
/KS6/Super P/PBA/SCMC/PSSA (40/1.5/4.6/1.7/3.9/04 wt%)
PTFE, polytetrafluoroethylene; PVA, polyvinyl alcohol; VGCFs, vapor-grown carbon fibers; SBR, styrene butadiene; SCMC,
sodium carboxymethyl cellulose; PMMA, poly- methylmethacrylate; PBA, polybutyl acrylate; PSSA, poly(4-styene sulfornic
acid).
The primary need of the aqueous system is to obtain a stable and uniformly dispersed suspension. To this end, additional
additives, such as binders and dispersants, are required. For example, CMC and polyacrylic acid (PAA) have been tested in an
aqueous-based LiFePO
4
[106109], electrostatic spray deposition [110115], pulsed laser deposition [116120], radio frequency sputtering [121123],
spin coating [124126], screen printing [127,128], ink-jet printing [129,130], and the molten carbonate method [131]. A thorough
paste [94]. The primary function of CMC is as a thickening
overview of these techniques is provided by Li et al.
[132]. In addi- agent to prevent the nano-sized LiFePO
4
particles from precipition, techniques based on tape casting and slot-die
coating are tation and segregation during processing. PAA is a dispersant for
under development in our research group at ORNL to
fabricate LiFePO
4
and can increase the adhesion strength between the cathlarge-scale electrodes. The effect of variable
parameters, including ode composite layer and current collector [98].
the suspension formula and drying conditions, on the
electrochem- Swelling of CMC was found to be critical to the stability of
ical performance of electrodes is being investigated
and will be anode graphite suspensions. The maximum swelling ratio and the
tion of carbon anode materials [148]. Extensive efforts have been attempted to improve the thermal stability of lithium-ion batteries, such as adding a flame retardant to electrolytes [34,4143] or encapsulating the particles of active materials [143]. One strategy is coating the graphite surface, which can effectively suppress the irreversible intercalation of the solvated species and the
side reactions leading to the formation of an SEI layer [149155]. For example, graphite coated with thermal-vapor-deposited
carbon showed a significant decrease in initial irreversible capacity loss and an increase in coulombic efficiency [143]. The
carbon coating on graphite particles suppresses the decomposition of PC on the anode and subsequent exfoliation of graphite.
Mild deintercalation of the carbon-coated natural graphite at elevated temperatures leads to a lower heat evolution than that of the
unmodified graphite [148]. Such coatings increase the thermal stability of the graphite anode and improve the discharge capacity
and capacity retention [156].
Another issue for cathodes is the dissolution of tetravalent ions from the active materials into the electrolytes [157]. For
example, the dissolution of tetravalent ions, such as Mn4+ and Co4+, could degrade the cathode by causing a loss of active
material and by forming an inactive phase, such as Co
3
bly process. If a lithium-ion battery is short-circuited, the separator should also be designed to stop ionic flow and prevent
thermal runaway. This is often accomplished by melting all or parts of the separator, filling the pores and fully preventing ions
from flowing from one electrode to the other. Thus, the battery reactions are suppressed. A good overview of separators is
provided by Arora and Zhang [167]. Separators in most batteries are made of either nonwoven fabrics or microporous polymeric
films [167]. The non- woven fabrics consist of a single polyolefin or a combination of polyolefins. They usually are made by
adhering or hot-welding fabrics together [168]. However, it is difficult to fabricate a thin (25 m) nonwoven fabric with desired
physical properties. Thus, microporous polymeric films made of polyethylene and polypropy- lene are preferred as the separators
in commercial lithium-ion batteries. Recently, composite films consisting of components with different melting temperatures
have been developed [169171]. The low-melting-point component acts as a thermal fuse while the high-melting-point
component provides physical integrity [168].
Separators in lithium-ion batteries are manufactured through wet processes [172] and dry processes [173]. Each employs one O
4
, in it [158,159]. Extensive
or more orientation step to impart porosity and/or
increase ten- efforts have been made to modify cathode surfaces to enhance their
sile strength. The dry process involves melting a
polyolefin resin, cyclability. Most surface modification involves coating the cathode
extruding it into a film, annealing, and forming
micropore initiators particles with an oxide, such as Al
2
O
3
[160], B
2
O
3
[160], SnO
2
[161],
and micropores through orientation at low temperature
and high MgO [63,158], or TiO
2
power and high energy batteries, respectively [2]. Therefore, the potential for reducing costs of lithium-ion batteries lies in
achieving low cost materials and materials processing. It is especially impor- tant to lower the cost of cathode materials since
they make up over 70% of the total cost for high power batteries [2]. To this end, novel methods that can synthesize large
amounts of cathode materials with low cost raw materials need to be developed. Development of novel cathode materials with
higher capacity and/or a wider state of charge is an alternative solution which reduces the required amount of cathode materials
and, thus, the battery size. In addition, improvement in processing of cathode slurries can also signifi- cantly reduce the cost. The
cost of LiNi
x
[11] H. Buqa, A. Wursig, J. Vetter, M.E. Spahr, F. Krumeich, P. Novak, J. Power
Sources 153 (2006) 385390. [12] J. Vetter, P. Novak, J. Power Sources 119 (2003) 338342. [13] L. Wang, Y. Huang, D. Jia,
Electrochim. Acta 51 (2006) 49504955. [14] S.K. Jeong, M. Inaba, R. Mogi, Y. Iriyama, T. Abe, Z. Ogumi, Langmuir 17 (2001)
82818286. [15] A. Abouimrane, I. Belharouak, K. Amine, Electrochem. Commun. 11 (2009)
10731076. [16] D. Guyomard, J.M. Tarascon, J. Electrochem. Soc. 139 (1992) 937948. [17] S. Surampudi, D.H. Shen,
C.K. Huang, S.R. Narayanan, A. Attia, G. Halpert, E.
Peled, J. Power Sources 43 (1993) 2126. [18] N. Takami, T. Ohsaki, K. Inada, J. Electrochem. Soc. 139 (1992) 18491854.
[19] S.Y. Huang, L. Kavan, I. Exnar, Gratzel, J. Electrochem. Soc. 142 (1995)
L142L144. Mn
y
Co
1xy
O
2
is $90 kg1 (Toda America) and it is $108 dm3 (SigmaAldrich) for
NMP. The
[20] T. Ohzuku, Y. Iwakoshi, K. Sawai, J. Electrochem. Soc. 140 (1993) 24902498. [21] M. Kunduraci, G.G. Amatucci,
Electrochim. Acta 53 (2008) 41934199. [22] J.M. Tarascon, D. Guyomard, Solid State Ionics 69 (1994) 293305. viscosity of
cathode dispersions can be dramatically decreased with
[23] D. Guyomard, J.M. Tarascon, J. Electrochem.
Soc. 140 (1993) 30713081. desired mixing methods and appropriate mixing sequences. This can reduce the amount of NMP
and, which in turn reduces the pro- cessing cost. The mixing methods and mixing sequences are even
[24] M.H. Lee, Y.J. Kang, S.T. Myung, Y.K. Sun, Electrochim. Acta 50 (2004) 939948. [25] S.-T. Myung, M.-H. Lee, S.
Komaba, N. Kumagai, Y.-K. Sun, Electrochim. Acta
50 (2005) 48004806. [26] Y. Ein-Eli, S.R. Thomas, V. Koch, D. Aurbach, B. Markovsky, A. Schechter, J. more important for
anode processing since it usually requires a larger amount of NMP.
Other areas with potential to reduce overall battery cost include
Electrochem. Soc. 143 (1996) L273L277. [27] T. Zheng, Y. Liu, E.W. Fuller, S. Tseng, U.V. Sacken, J.R. Dahn, J.
Electrochem.
Soc. 142 (1995) 25812590. [28] Y. Ein-Eli, S.R. Thomas, R. Chadha, T.J. Blakley, V.R. Koch, J. Electrochem. Soc. chemistries
and/or electrode designs for lower electrode area and smaller battery size, higher coating speed for faster manufacturing process,
etc. [191].
144 (1997) 823829. [29] A.C. Chu, J.Y. Josefowicz, G.C. Farrington, J. Electrochem. Soc. 144 (1997)
41614169. [30] M. Aklalouch, R.M. Rojas, J.M. Rojo, I. Saadoune, J.M. Amarilla, Electrochim.
Acta 54 (2009) 75427550.
6. Summary
[31] J.-H. Lee, J.-S. Kim, C. Kim, D.S. Zang, Y.-M. Choi, W.I. Park, U. Paik, Electrochem.
Solid-State Lett. 11 (2008) A175A178. [32] J. Guo, L.F. Jiao, H. Yuan, L.Q. Wang, H.X. Li, M. Zhang, Y.M. Wang,
Electrochim. There is little doubt that materials processing and material development are critical to improving lithium-ion battery
perforActa 51 (2006) 62756280. [33] E. Peled, D. Golodnisky, C. Menachem, D. Bar-Tow, J. Electrochem. Soc. 145
(1998) 34823486. mance. Much effort has been
made in fabricating each component of lithium-ion batteries. However, it is far from enough. More work is required to optimize
the processing conditions and to under[34] Q. Wang, J. Sun, C. Chen, J. Appl. Electrochem. 39 (2009) 11051110. [35] Y. Ein-Eli, S.F. McDevitt, D. Aurbach, B.
Markovsky, A. Schechter, J. Electrochem. Soc. 143 (1997) L273L277. [36] D. Aurbach, Y. Ein-Eli, B. Markovsky, A. Zaban, S. Luski, Y. Carmeli, H. Yamin,
stand the effect of the processing on battery performance. For
J. Electrochem. Soc. 142 (1995) 28822890.
example, there is controversy in understanding the role of surface coating in improving the cyclability of lithium-ion batteries.
Fur[37] G.H. Newman, R.W. Francis, L.H. Gaines, B.M.L. Rao, J. Electrochem. Soc. 127
(1980) 20252027. [38] M. Ue, A. Murakami, S. Nakamura, J. Electrochem. Soc. 149 (2002) ther work is needed to improve the
cyclability, lower the costs,
A1572A1577. and reduce the environmental
hazards associated with the manu- facture of large-scale batteries for hybrid and electric vehicles. To
[39] G. Li, Z. Li, P. Zhang, H. Zhang, Y. Wu, Pure Appl. Chem. 80 (2008) 25532563. [40] H.P. Zhang, P. Zhang, Z.H. Li, M.
Sun, Y.P. Wu, H.Q. Wu, Electrochem. Commun.
9 (2007) 17001703. that end, a shift from a
nonaqueous system to an aqueous system
[41] X.L. Yao, S. Xie, C.H. Chen, Q.S. Wang, J.H.
Sun, Y.L. Li, S.X. Lu, J. Power Sources for fabricating composite electrodes might significantly reduce the battery cost and
environmental effects. Comparable results can be obtained from an aqueous system such as those in conventional
144 (2005) 170175. [42] K. Xu, M.S. Ding, S. Zhang, J.L. Allen, J.T. Richard, J. Electrochem. Soc. 149 (2002)
A622A626. [43] X. Wang, C. Yamada, H. Naito, G. Segami, K. Kibe, J. Electrochem. Soc. 153 batteries. However, how to
stabilize aqueous solutions and reduce the amount of remaining water are key points and have yet to be fully demonstrated.
(2006) A135A139. [44] S.S. Zhang, K. Xu, T.R. Jow, J. Power Sources 113 (2003) 166172. [45] K. Kim, S. Ahn, H.-S.
Kim, H.K. Liu, Electrochim. Acta 54 (2009) 22592265. [46] J.-I. Yamaki, I. Yamazaki, M. Egashira, S. Okada, J. Power Sources
102 (2001)
288293. [47] J. Arai, J. Power Sources 119121 (2003) 388392. Acknowledgments
[48] J. Arai, J. Electrochem. Soc. 150 (2003) A219A228. [49] T.-H. Nam, E.-G. Shim, J.-G. Kim, H.-S. Kim, S.-I. Moon, J.
Electrochem. Soc. 154
This research at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, managed by UT Battelle, LLC, for the U.S. Department of Energy under
contract DE(2007) A957A963. [50] E.-G. Shim, T.-H. Nam, J.-G. Kim, H.-S. Kim, S.-I. Moon, Electrochim. Acta 53
(2007) 650656. AC05-00OR22725, was
sponsored by the Industrial Technologies and Vehicle Technologies Program for the Office of Energy Effi- ciency and Renewable
Energy.
[51] K. Xu, M.S. Ding, S. Zhang, J.L. Allen, T.R. Jow, J. Electrochem. Soc. 150 (2003)
A161A169. [52] K. Xu, S. Zhang, J.L. Allen, T.R. Jow, J. Electrochem. Soc. 149 (2002)
A1079A1082. [53] M.S. Ding, K. Xu, T.R. Jow, J. Electrochem. Soc. 149 (2002) A1489A1498. [54] O.P. Korobeinichev, S.B.
Ilyin, T.A. Bolshova, V.M. Shvartsberg, A.A. Chernov, References
Combust. Flame 121 (2000) 593609. [55] H.F. Xiang, H.Y. Xu, Z.Z. Wang, C.H. Chen, J. Power Sources 173 (2007) 562
564. [1] Y. Nishi, J. Power Sources 100 (2001) 101106. [2] J. Gainese, R. Cuenza, in: Report ANL/ESD-42, Argonne National
Laboratory,
Argonne, IL, 2000. [3] C. Daniel, JOM 60 (2008) 4348. [4] D. Howell, FY2006 Progress Report, Office of FreedomCar and
Vehicle Technologies, U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC, 2006. [5] S. Ahmad, Ionics 15 (2009) 309321. [6] T.-F. Yi, R.-S. Zhu,
X.-D. Zhu, J. Shu, C.-B. Yue, A.-N. Zhou, Ionics 15 (2009)
779784. [7] J.G. Thevenin, R.H. Muller, J. Electrochem. Soc. 134 (1987) 273280. [8] G. Eichinger, J. Electroanal. Chem.
74 (1976) 183193. [9] S. Zhang, Q. Liu, L. Yang, J. Electrochem. Soc. 140 (1993) L107L121. [10] J. Yamaura, Y. Ozaki, A.
Morita, A. Ohta, J. Power Sources 43 (1993) 233239.
[56] Z. Wang, Y. Hu, L. Chen, J. Power Sources 146 (2005) 5157. [57] H. Nakahara, S.-Y. Yoon, S. Nutt, J. Power Sources 158
(2006) 600607. [58] D. Aurbach, K. Gamolsky, B. Markovsky, Y. Gofer, M. Schmidt, U. Heider, Electrochim. Acta 47 (2002) 14231439. [59] J.F. Martin, A. Yamada, G. Kobayashi, S.I. Nishimura, R. Kanno, D. Guyomard,
N. Dupre, Electrochem, Solid State Lett. 11 (2008) A12A16. [60] D.Q. Liu, Z.Z. He, X.Q. Liu, J. Alloys Compd. 440
(2007) 6973. [61] D.Y.W. Yu, K. Donoue, T. Kadohata, T. Murata, S. Matsuta, S. Fujitani, J. Electrochem. Soc. 155 (2008) A526A530. [62] T.-F. Yi, C.-L. Hao, C.-B. Yue, R.-S. Zhu, J. Shu, Synth. Met. 159 (2009)
12551260. [63] J.S. Gnanaraj, V.G. Pol, A. Gedanken, D. Aurbach, Electrochem. Commun. 5
(2003) 940945.
[64] H. Li, Z.X. Wang, L.Q. Chen, X.J. Huang, Adv. Mater. 21 (2009) 45934607. [65] M. Yao, K. Okuno, T. Iwaki, T. Awazu, T.
Sakai, J. Power Sources 195 (2010)
20772081. [66] Y.H. Chen, C.W. Wang, X. Zhang, A.M. Sastry, J. Power Sources 195 (2010)
28512862. [67] S.F. Lux, F. Schappacher, A. Balducci, S. Passerini, M. Winter, J. Electrochem.
Soc. 157 (2010) A320A325. [68] A. Guerfi, M. Kaneko, M. Petitclerc, M. Mori, K. Zaghib, J. Power Sources 163
(2007) 10471052. [69] J.-H. Lee, S. Lee, U. Paik, Y.-M. Choi, J. Power Sources 147 (2005) 249255. [70] X.L. Li, S.H.
Yoon, K. Du, Y.X. Zhang, J.M. Huang, F.Y. Kang, Electrochim. Acta
55 (2010) 55195522. [71] H.F. Xiang, C.H. Chen, J. Zhang, K. Amine, J. Power Sources 195 (2010) 604609. [72] H.
Huang, C.H. Chen, R.C. Perego, E.M. Kelder, L. Chen, J. Schoonman, W.J.
Weydanz, D.W. Nielsen, Solid State Ionics 127 (2000) 3142. [73] D. Tonti, M.A.J. Torralvo, E. Enciso, I. Sobrados, J. Sanz,
Chem. Mater. 20 (2008)
47834790. [74] L. Pascual, H. Gadjov, D. Kovacheva, K. Petrov, P. Herrero, J.M. Amarilla, R.M.
Rojas, J.M. Rojoa, J. Electrochem. Soc. 152 (2005) A301A306. [75] V.P. Tysyachny, E.M. Shembel, R.D. Apostolova, V.M.
Nagirny, K.E. Kylyvnyk,
N.I. Eskova, Solid State Ionics 169 (2004) 135137. [76] C.-H. Lu, S.-W. Lin, J. Power Sources 9798 (2001) 458460. [77]
D. Choi, P.N. Kumta, J. Power Sources 163 (2007) 10641069. [78] G. Meligrana, C. Gerbaldi, A. Tuel, S. Bodoardo, N.
Penazzi, J. Power Sources
160 (2006) 516522. [79] S. Jouanneau, W. Eberman, L.J. Krause, J.R. Dahn, J. Electrochem. Soc. 150
(2003) A1637A1642. [80] X. Fang, Y. Lu, N. Ding, X.Y. Feng, C. Liu, C.H. Chen, Electrochim. Acta 55 (2010)
832837. [81] R. Vacassy, H. Hofmann, N. Papageorgiou, M. Grtzel, J. Power Sources 8182
(1999) 621626. [82] K. Matsuda, I. Taniguchi, J. Power Sources 132 (2004) 156160. [83] F. Dalard, D. Deroo, D.
Foscallo, J.L. Merienne, J. Power Sources 14 (1985)
209213. [84] K. Zaghib, G. Nadeau, K. Kinoshita, J. Electrochem. Soc. 147 (2000) 21102115. [85] K. Zaghib, F. Brochu,
A. Guerfi, K. Kinoshita, J. Power Sources 103 (2001)
140146. [86] J.T. Chen, H.H. Zhou, W.B. Chang, Y.X. Ci, Acta Physico-Chim. Sinica 19 (2003)
278282. [87] W. Jiang, G. Nadeau, K. Zaghib, K. Kinoshita, Thermochim. Acta 351 (2000)
8593. [88] Y.-S. Park, S.-M. Lee, Electrochim. Acta 54 (2009) 33393343. [89] T. Tran, B. Yebka, X. Song, G. Nazri, K.
Kinoshita, D. Curtis, J. Power Sources 85
(2000) 269278. [90] D. Bar-Tow, E. Peled, L. Burstein, J. Electrochem. Soc. 146 (1999) 824832. [91] S. Saeki, J. Lee, Q.
Zhang, F. Saito, Int. J. Miner. Process. 74 (2004) S373S378. [92] E. Ligneel, B. Lestriez, A. Hudhomme, D. Guyomard, J.
Electrochem. Soc. 154
(2007) A235A241. [93] K.M. Kim, W.S. Jeon, I.J. Chung, S.H. Chang, J. Power Sources 83 (1999)
108113. [94] J.-H. Lee, J.-S. Kim, Y.C. Kim, D.S. Zang, U. Paik, Ultramicroscopy 108 (2008)
12561259. [95] J.-T. Lee, Y.-J. Chu, F.-M. Wang, C.-R. Yang, C.-C. Li, J. Mater. Sci. 42 (2007)
1011810123. [96] W. Porcher, B. Lestriez, S. Jouanneau, D. Guyomard, J. Power Sources 195
(2010) 28352843. [97] P. Nahass, W.E. Rhine, R.L. Pober, H.K. Bowen, W.L. Robbins, Ceramic Trans- actions, Materials
and Processes in Microelectronic Systems, in: K.M. Nair, R. Pohanka, R.C. Buchanan (Eds.) American Ceramic Society,
Westerville, 1990, p. 355. [98] J.-H. Lee, U. Paik, V.A. Hackley, Y.-M. Choi, J. Power Sources 161 (2006)
612616. [99] J.-H.L. Lee, Y.-M. Choi, U. Park, J.-G. Park, J. Electroceram. 17 (2006) 657660. [100] K.L. Lu, R.M. Lago,
Y.K. Chen, M.L.H. Green, P.J.F. Harris, S.C. Tsang, Carbon 34
(1996) 814816. [101] J. Hilding, E.A. Grulke, Z.G. Zhang, F. Lockwood, J. Dispersion Sci. Technol. 24
(2003) 141. [102] D.R. Macfarlane, M. Forsyth, P.C. Howlett, J.M. Pringle, J. Sun, G. Annat, W. Neil,
E.I. Izgorodina, Accounts Chem. Res. 40 (2007) 11651173. [103] J. Sun, L. Gao, Carbon 41 (2003) 10631068. [104] Y.
Wang, J. Wu, F. Wei, Carbon 41 (2003) 29392948. [105] F. Mizuno, A. Hayashi, K. Tadanaga, M. Tatsumisago, J. Electrochem.
Soc. 152
(2005) A1499A1503. [106] W.-G. Choi, S.-G. Yoon, J. Power Sources 125 (2004) 236241. [107] P. Liu, S.-H. Lee, C.E.
Tracy, J.A. Turner, J. Power Sources 119121 (2003)
305309. [108] S.-I. Cho, S.-G. Yoon, J. Electrochem. Soc. 149 (2002) A1584A1588. [109] S.-I. Cho, S.-G. Yoon, Appl.
Phys. Lett. 82 (2003) 33453347. [110] W.-S. Yoon, S.-H. Ban, K.-K. Lee, K.-B. Kim, M.G. Kim, J.M. Lee, J. Power Sources
9798 (2001) 282286. [111] Y. Yu, J.L. Shui, Y. Jin, C.H. Chen, Electrochim. Acta 51 (2006) 32923296. [112] C.H. Chen,
E.M. Kelder, M.J.G. Jak, J. Schoonman, Solid State Ionics 8688
(1996) 13011306. [113] C.H. Chen, E.M. Kelder, J. Schoonman, J. Mater. Sci. 31 (1996) 54375442. [114] C. Chen, E.M.
Kelder, P.J.J.M. van der Put, J. Schoonman, J. Mater. Chem. 6
(1996) 765771.
[115] T. Uchiyama, M. Nishizawa, T. Itoh, I. Uchida, J. Electrochem. Soc. 177 (2000)
20572060. [116] J.D. Perkins, C.S. Bahn, J.M. McGraw, P.A. Parilla, D.S. Ginley, J. Electrochem.
Soc. 148 (2001) A1302A1312. [117] P.J. Bouwman, B.A. Boukamp, H.J.M. Bouwmeester, H.J. Wondergem, P.H.L.
Notten, J. Electrochem. Soc. 148 (2001) A311A317. [118] K.A. Striebel, A. Rougier, C.R. Horne, R.P. Reade, E.J. Cairns,
J. Electrochem. Soc.
146 (1999) 43394347. [119] R. Baskaran, N. Kuwata, O. Kamishima, J. Kawamura, S. Selvasekarapandian,
Solid State Ionics 180 (2009) 636643. [120] K.A. Striebel, C.Z. Deng, S.J. Wen, E.J. Cairns, J. Electrochem. Soc. 143
(1996)
18211827. [121] B. Wang, J.B. Bates, F.X. Hart, B.C. Sales, R.A. Zuhr, J.D. Robertson, J. Electrochem. Soc. 143 (1996) 32033213. [122] W.-S. Kim, J. Power Sources 134 (2004) 103109. [123] C.L. Liao, M.T. Wu,
J.H. Yen, I.C. Leu, K.Z. Fung, J. Alloys Compd. 414 (2006)
302309. [124] Y.H. Rho, K. Kanamura, J. Electrochem. Soc. 151 (2004) A1406A1411. [125] T. Matsushita, K. Dokko, K.
Kanamura, J. Electrochem. Soc. 152 (2005)
A2229A2237. [126] J.P. Maranchi, A.F. Hepp, P.N. Kumta, Mater. Sci. Eng. B 116 (2005) 327340. [127] M.S. Park, S.H.
Hyun, S.C. Nam, J. Power Sources 159 (2006) 14161421. [128] M.-S. Park, S.-H. Hyun, S.-C. Nam, Electrochim. Acta 52
(2007) 78957902. [129] J. Huang, J. Yang, W. Li, W. Cai, Z. Jiang, Thin Solid Films 516 (2008)
33143319. [130] Y. Zhao, Q. Zhou, L. Liu, J. Xu, M. Yan, Z. Jiang, Electrochim. Acta 51 (2006)
26392645. [131] I. Uchida, H. Sato, J. Electrochem. Soc. 142 (1995) L139L141. [132] J. Li, C. Daniel, D.L. Wood III,
Cathode processing for lithium-ion batteries, in: C. Daniel (Ed.), Handbook of Battery Materials, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim,
Germany, 2010. [133] R.W. Hart, H.S. White, B. Dunn, D.R. Rolison, Electrochem. Commun. 5 (2003)
120123. [134] G.T. Teixidor, R.B. Zaouk, B.Y. Park, M.J. Madou, J. Power Sources 183 (2008)
730740. [135] H.-S. Min, B.Y. Park, L. Taherabadi, C. Wang, Y. Yeh, R. Zaouk, M.J. Madou, B.
Dunn, J. Power Sources 178 (2008) 795800. [136] D. Golodnitsky, M. Nathan, V. Yufit, E. Strauss, K. Freedman, L.
Burstein, A.
Gladkich, E. Peled, Solid State Ionics 177 (2006) 28112819. [137] A. Singh, J. Jayaram, M. Madou, S. Akbar, J. Electrochem.
Soc. 149 (2002)
E78E83. [138] J.W. Long, B. Dunn, D.R. Rolison, H.S. White, Chem. Rev. 104 (2004) 44634492. [139] J.H. Ryu, B.G.
Park, S.B. Kim, Y.J. Park, J. Appl. Electrochem. 39 (2009)
10561059. [140] B.L. Cushing, J.B. Goodenough, Solid State Sci. 4 (2002) 14871493. [141] M.M. Doeff, J.D. Wilcox, R.
Kostecki, G. Lau, J. Power Sources 163 (2006)
180184. [142] J. Kim, B. Kim, J.-G. Lee, J. Cho, B. Park, J. Power Sources 139 (2005) 289294. [143] M. Yoshio, H.
Wang, K. Fukuda, Y. Hara, Y. Adachi, J. Electrochem. Soc. 147
(2000) 12451250. [144] S. Huang, Z. Wen, X. Yang, Z. Gu, X. Xu, J. Power Sources 148 (2005) 7277. [145] J.T. Son,
K.S. Park, H.G. Kim, H.T. Chung, J. Power Sources 126 (2004) 182185. [146] P. Yu, B.S. Haran, J.A. Ritter, R.E. White, B.N.
Popov, J. Power Sources 91 (2000)
107117. [147] A.K. Shukla, T.P. Kumar, Curr. Sci. 94 (2008) 314331. [148] Y.-S. Park, H.J. Bang, S.-M. Oh, Y.-K. Sun,
S.-M. Lee, J. Power Sources 190 (2009)
553557. [149] H.-Y. Lee, J.-K. Baek, S.-W. Jang, S.-M. Lee, S.-T. Hong, K.-Y. Lee, M.-H. Kim, J.
Power Sources 101 (2001) 206212. [150] I. Kuribayashi, M. Yokoyama, M. Yamashita, J. Power Sources 54 (1995) 15.
[151] W. Qiu, G. Zhang, S. Lu, Q. Liu, Solid State Ionics 121 (1999) 7377. [152] J. Gao, H.P. Zhang, L.J. Fu, T. Zhang, Y.P. Wu,
T. Takamura, H.Q. Wu, R. Holze,
Electrochim. Acta 53 (2007) 13801384. [153] M. Yoshio, H.Y. Wang, K. Fukuda, T. Umeno, T. Abe, Z. Ogumi, J. Mater.
Chem.
14 (2004) 17541758. [154] H.-Y. Lee, J.-K. Baek, S.-M. Lee, H.-K. Park, K.-Y. Lee, M.-H. Kim, J. Power Sources
128 (2004) 6166. [155] H.Y. Wang, M. Yoshio, J. Power Sources 93 (2001) 123129. [156] L. Zou, F. Kang, Y.-P. Zheng,
W. Shen, Electrochim. Acta 54 (2009) 39303934. [157] G.G. Amatucci, J.M. Tarascon, L.C. Klein, Solid State Ionics 83 (1996)
167173. [158] Z.X. Wang, C.A. Wu, L.J. Liu, F. Wu, L.Q. Chen, X.J. Huang, J. Electrochem. Soc.
149 (2002) A466A471. [159] Z. Zhang, D. Fouchard, J.R. Rea, J. Power Sources 70 (1998) 1620. [160] J. Cho, Y.J. Kim,
T.-J. Kim, B. Park, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 40 (2001) 33673369. [161] J. Cho, C.S. Kim, S.I. Yoo, Electrochem. Solid State Lett.
3 (2000) 362365. [162] G. Ting-Kuo Fey, C.-Z. Lu, T. Prem Kumar, Y.-C. Chang, Surf. Coat. Technol. 199
(2005) 2231. [163] J.S. Kim, C.S. Johnson, J.T. Vaughey, S.A. Hackney, K.A. Walz, W.A. Zeltner, M.A.
Anderson, M.M. Thackeray, J. Electrochem. Soc. 15 (2004) A1755A1761. [164] E. Endo, T. Yasuda, A. Kita, K. Yamaura, K.
Sekai, J. Electrochem. Soc. 147 (2000)
12911294. [165] B.W. Cho, W.I. Cho, H.S. Kim, U.S. Kim, S.C. Nam, G.S. Yoon, Y.S. Yoon, Korean
Patent (2001). [166] H. Liu, C. Cheng, Zongqiuhu, K. Zhang, Mater. Chem. Phys. 101 (2007) 276279. [167] P. Arora, Z.
Zhang, Chem. Rev. 104 (2004) 44194462. [168] D. Ihm, J. Noh, J. Kim, J. Power Sources 109 (2002) 388393.
[169] S.-J. Gwon, J.-H. Choi, J.-Y. Sohn, Y.-E. Ihm, Y.-C. Nho, Nucl. Instrum. Methods
Phys. Res., Sect. B: Beam Interact. Mater. At. 267 (2009) 33093313. [170] J.-Y. Sohn, J.S. Im, S.-J. Gwon, J.-H. Choi, J. Shin,
Y.-C. Nho, Radiat. Phys. Chem.,
78 (2009), 505508. [171] A. Subramania, N.T.K. Sundaram, A.R.S. Priya, G.V. Kumar, J. Membr. Sci. 294
(2007) 815. [172] S.S. Kim, D.R. Lloyd, J. Membr. Sci. 64 (1991) 1329. [173] Hs. Bierenba, R.B. Isaacson, M.L. Druin,
S.G. Plovan, Ind. Eng. Chem Prod. Res.
Dev. 13 (1974) 29. [174] K.S. Takita (JP), Kono, Koichi (Saitama, JP), Takashima, Tatsuya (Saitama, JP), Okamoto,
Kenkichi (Saitama, JP), Tonen Corporation (Tokyo, JP), United States, 1991. [175] T. Sarada, L.C. Sawyer, M.I. Ostler, J.
Membr. Sci. 15 (1983) 97113. [176] Japan India News, 1996, p. 91. [177] M.L.W.O. Druin (NJ), Loft, John T. (Springfield, NJ),
Plovan, Steven G. (Livingston, NJ), Celanese Corporation (New York, NY), United States, 1974. [178] H.S.B.H. Bierenbaum (NJ), Daley,
Lawrence R. (Dover, NJ), Zimmerman, Daniel (East Brunswick, NJ), Hay, Ian L. (Summit, NJ), Celanese Corporation (New
York, NY), United States, 1974. [179] H.O. Kurauchi (JP), Akazawa, Tetuo (Osaka, JP), Kawabata, Akira (Osaka, JP),
Ube Industries, Ltd. (Yamaguchi, JP), United States, 1997. [180] A. Michiyuki, Japan Patent, Japan (1996). [181] A.W.-c.
Hashimoto (JP), Yagi, Kazuo (Waki-cho, JP), Mantoku, Hitoshi (Wakicho, JP), Mitsui Chemicals, Inc. (Tokyo, JP), United States, 2000. [182] W.-H. Seol, Y.M. Lee, J.-K. Park, J. Power Sources
163 (2006) 247251. [183] J.M. Ko, B.G. Min, D.W. Kim, K.S. Ryu, K.M. Kim, Y.G. Lee, S.H. Chang, Electrochim. Acta 50 (2004) 367370.
[184] A. Manuel Stephan, D. Teeters, J. Power Sources 119121 (2003) 460464. [185] K. Gao, X. Hu, T. Yi, C. Dai,
Electrochim. Acta 52 (2006) 443449. [186] K. Yamamoto, H. Tanaka, M. Sakaguchi, S. Shimada, Polymer 44 (2003)
76617669. [187] S.-J. Gwon, J.-H. Choi, J.-Y. Sohn, S.-J. An, Y.-E. Ihm, Y.-C. Nho, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res.,
Sect. B: Beam Interact. Mater. At. 266 (2008) 3387 3391. [188] M. Kim, J.-Y. Shon, Y.C. Nho, T.-W. Lee, J.H. Park, J.
Electrochem. Soc. 157 (2010)
A31A34. [189] J.Y. Lee, Y.M. Lee, B. Bhattacharya, Y.-C. Nho, J.-K. Park, Electrochim. Acta 54
(2009) 43124315. [190] S. Tsuneda, K. Saito, S. Furusaki, T. Sugo, K. Makuuchi, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 32
(1993) 14641470. [191] D. Howell, in: Annual Progress Report 2009, Office of FreedomCar and Vehicle
Technologies, U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC, 2009. [192] D. Zhou, W. Li, C. Tan, X. Zuo, Y. Huang, J. Power
Sources 184 (2008) 589
592. [193] D. Kam, K. Kim, H.-S. Kim, H.K. Liu, Electrochem. Commun. 11 (2009)
16571660. [194] K.-S. Lee, S.-T. Myung, K. Amine, H. Yashiro, Y.-K. Sun, J. Mater. Chem. 19 (2009)
19952005. [195] W. Porcher, P. Moreau, B. Lestriez, S. Jouanneau, D. Guyomard, Electrochem.
Solid State Lett. 11 (2008) A4A8. [196] E. Ligneel, B. Lestriez, O. Richard, D. Guyomard, J. Phys. Chem. Solids 67
(2006)
12751280. [197] C.C. Li, X.W. Peng, J.T. Lee, F.M. Wang, J. Electrochem. Soc. 157 (2010)
A517A520.