Text-Book

Brief

OK

-^'MENTAL
LOGIC
PHILOmy

$ 1 2

COPPENS, S. J.

CHARLES

By REV.

(Discount is allowed

"

Schools.)

to

Jan. 14, 1893.

Philadelphia,
My

Father

Dear

received

I
Mental

Coppens
from

It is

earnestly recommend

its

in

use

needed

Publication

I received
*'

lyOgic and
for

their

as

well

as

Father

Coppens,

of

course

Logic and

printed with

of

those

of

"

I consider

in

go

it most

ful
use-

have

who

those

general.
of Monterey

and

will

It embodies

clear, concise

Angeles.

Los

which

book

philosophy.

division

attention

the

and

for

work

precious

address

advantage

in

produced

has
student

etc.- -which

fix the

my
work

Bishop

Mora,

details

paragraphs,
and

time, and

of Philadelphia.

Archbishop

of great

Metaphysics, expressed

fail to arrest

cannot

English

for

care

accentuation

the

and

think,

we

of the

requirements

to

I read

for Catholics

as

t F.

the

sending

"

text-book,

studies,

present

Co.:

kindly

Philosophy

colleges

our

finished

your

Mental

"Log^cand

on

colleges.

our

Society
note

the

at

t P. J. Ryan,

Catholic

work

admirable

publisher your
just the work

your

"

Philosophy

questions, diversity

to

maice

of the

reader.

of

type,

text-book,

Needless

to

is

and

language,

of

up

all

meet

thorough

say,

and
the

has
the
been
author,
Encyclical of the Holy Father
inspiration of the learned
feel
We
whole
work.
the
the
philosophy of St. Thomas
permeates
and
/Iw
it will meet
with
assured
in all our
schools
a hearty welcome
colleges."
and

Maria.

If

to characterize

were

we

would

we

the

terminology,
to

Father

cannot

in every

for

day
but

of

need,
for

the

jfraduation."CAwrcA

and

present

is eschewed

English

some

discussions.

the

supplies

prove

the

Philosophy

technical

Coppens
fail to

it

call

great

service

Simplified

Father

for

this

not

reader

Progress.

in

Coppens

treatment,

in

tence,
sen-

style and

possible ; and we are indebted

equivalents to philosophical Latin which
of metaphysical
to the
reader
principles
as

far

as

praise is superfluous.

But

general

of

work

only in the
who

has

Coppens'

Father
for

class-room

stepped

over

advanced

the

threshold

work
dents,
stu-

of

LOGIC

Father

text-books

which

we

himself

years'
it,

once.

will

prove

course,

and

manual

articles

are

"Oratorical

and

will

they

side

is

dry.
The

latter

views

of

grateful
that

Catholic

"

and,

aim

present

"class

use

men

The

and

work

is

fault

Apart

of

of

in

this

IHlot.

Rhetoric

in

but

this

with

its

dialectic
in

seen
means

no

philosophy.

book,

only

that

all teachers

make

usual

elegance

Publication

Catholic

of

style,

yet

by

the

"

work

new

mental

to

way

"

have

we

in

will

and

attractive

logic

to

out

the

reading

Society

it.

We

and

of

similar

conceive

American

this

brief

"a
is

out

teaching
thoroughly

of

outline

that, in
is

the

consequence,

in the
with

circles,
mental

from

give

to

point

might

we

parts, it

clear, orderly,

loyal

to

the

Review.

teachings
and

aim

his

out

great

unfamiliar

the

to

"wora^n."

in

these
detect

to

7%^

of

an

that

reflected

of

press-work

only

Dublin

pupils

logic

find
with

compendious,

are

of

prepared

text-books

use

encoun-

knowledge,

is devoted

Manuals

brief.
is

what

in academies

Catholic

make

logic

the

of this little volume,

to

recommending
soon

the

fullycarried

has

^ocirinc."

conformable

our

of

the

little too

scholastic

school

without

be

treatment

of

and

Review.

Coppens

seem

exact

The

side

Stonyhurst

philosophy."

would

statement

two-thirds
the

The

for

to

philosophy
of time

arguments."

combined

thoroughness,

two

year

knowledge

necessary

Jesuit has systematized the matter

is printed and
The
work
set

Father
sound

brief

characterized

Company.

the

really able

reading

one

of

system

should

him.

to

has

in

only

possible cost

without

student

disappointed.

critical

The

American

easy

the

pursue

magazines

or

understood

young

give him

will

and
be

not

The

English.

very

Review.

newspapers

to be

the

of

least

Coppens'
acquainted with Father
Composition," will be prepared to

best

the

read

not

that

pleasure

the

at

who

devote

can

mastery

loss

the

Ecclesiastical

to

book

order

of

model

and

"to

his

who

Those

topics

This

increase

also

of

those

to

who

thorough

the

supply

to

it is well

fallacies.

their

and

in

failed

on

subjects, and

the

more

impossible

It is almost

tering

guide, and

students

both

others

to

American
a.-p^\ica.i\on."

severe

his

much

anxious

are

aid

valuable

most

having

who,

or

heretofore,

safe

very

for young

subject matter,

the

urge
at

safe,a

philosophy. Theit
understood
and
better
will
be
appreciated for this help, of
who
begin the study of philosophy to avail
may
everyone
the
have
not
slightest misgiving that the small
Indeed, we

considering

I^tin

will be

book

Coppens'

....

one,

PHILOSOPHY.

MENTAL

AND

to

modest

L,atin
the

outline

schoolmen."

institutions"
which

we

Catholic

extremely

Quarterly

It

; and

take

that, in the hands

philosophy

of the

words
brief

is

sound

chiefly

good

phy
philosofor

meant

add, for

pleasure

popular

Review.

author, is simply

will

we

great
of

of

in

use

director, it would
with

our

in

heartily

young

a.

Ok. ".

TEXT-BOOK

BRIEF

(5.

LOGIC

Philosophy.

Mental

Author

of

"A

COPPENS,

CHARLES

REV.
Practical

Introduction

to

is the

Restorer

Rhetoric'^

and

of

the

Sciences/'

LEO.

UNIVERSITY
Of

YORK

NEW

SCHWAETZ,

"

The

Composition.'^

Oratorical

"Christ

English

SJ.,

KIRWIN"
42 Barclat

Street

"fe FAUSS

XIII.

Art

mmn

Copyright,

1891,

by
THE

Tpaauferred

to

ALL

CATHOLIC

KICHTS

CO.

SOCIETY

PUBLICATION

CATHOLIC

SCHOOL

RBSERVED.

BOOK

CO.

PREFACE.

These

pages
of

in

contribution towards

modest

the

complishment
ac-

importantpurpose. They are written

desire repeatedly
earnest
an
expressedin

an

compliancewith

the solemn

of

utterances

Supreme Pontiff Leo

venerated

our

active,"he says, "the enemies of religion

what clouds
teach the unlearned,the young especially,

XIII.
are

are

"

to

The

more

their intellect and

corrupts their morals,the

more

should you

and
onlyva well-adapted
solid method
of instruction,
but a method
in perfectconformity
with the Catholic faith,
as
regardsMental
especially
which
the rightteachingof all the other
on
Philosophy,
sciences in a great measure
depends a Philosophywhich
establish

to
yourselves

exert

not

"

shall prepare

the way
at its overthrow."

for Divine Revelation

ing
instead of aim-

Holy Father in his Encyclical"Inscrutabili" at the opening of his Pontificate. What

losophy
this Phishould be, he soon
after explainedin a special
Encyclical On the Higher Studies." It should be the
Philosophyof the Schoolmen, the system founded upon the
which was carried to its perfection
teachingsof Aristotle,
by
Thus

spoke

the

"

St. Thomas

placein

in the thirteenth century, and

most

the present

says,

"

of the Catholic

day.

St. Thomas

"

Among

which

Collegesand

Universities

the doctors of the

stands forth

315265

by

has held its

to

Schools,"he

far the firstand master

of

Preface,

all

this

To

continues,
his

that

"

this

philosophic

field

for

of

an

infinityof truths, an

to

draw

study,

from

at

the

same

used

he

succeeded

in

of

past

succession

to

this

Of
in the

brief outline
of the

of

Philosophy

attempt

It

which

teachers

tems
systhe

to

weapons
to

are

class

The

crop

in

up

use

in

author
to

before

the

of

lent
excel-

is too

reference

propagation

THE

August

20,

189 1.

ferent
dif-

similar

and

sincerely hopes
the

ings
teach-

for

Manuals

Catholic

of

Academies

Its

Latin
the

to

chiefly meant

of

present

with

Manuals

works

as

the

perfection.

conformable

it is

text-books
;

unfamiliar

collection

contribute

their

composed

; but

that

pupils.

College,

he

error,

AUTHOR.

luminous,
vo-

for

fessors
pro-

that

his

of

Philosophic learning.

Detroit

As

erroneous

tongue

rival

to

English

invaluable

will

germs

results.

excellent

EngHsh

was

of

viz.: for

efforts

all the

many

Philosophy

Series

though

future

refuting

which

pupils

to

present

published

was

institutions, for

modest

not

Schoolmen.

purpose,

and

in the

few

sound

Stonyhurst

exist

there

very

widest

the

rich

victorious

errors

the

very

of time."

end

to

in

process

the

the

to

out

for

with

and

supplied

against

does

mine

of

sphere

themselves

single-handed

and

Philosophy

simply

time

proper

truth

Latin, but

is

within

intellectual

the

little volume

aim

the

ages,

of

things, opening

of

Encyclical

the

speculations

exhaustless

combating

champions

and

containing

and

extended

Doctor

conclusions

principles

and

reasons

Angelic

the

add,"

must

we

sound

CONTENTS.

OF

TABLE

PAGE

Introduction,

LOGIC.

BOOK

Chapter

I.

Simple

Article
'*

"

II.

Chapter

Article

Article
'*

"

"

**

**

"

I.

DIALECTICS.

I."

and

Apprehensions

The

of

Nature

II.

Distinctions

III.

Judgments

Judgments

Simple

regarding
and

Apprehensions;
Ideas

II

II
.

12

i8

Propositions.

Reasoning:
I.

II.
III.

IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.

The

22

Categorical

Syllogism

Syllogisms

I.

Constructing

"

2.

Criticising Syllogisms

The

Hypothetical

Syllogism

of

Demonstrative

Other

Species

Probable
Indirect

Reasoning;
Reasoning

Fallacious
Method
Exercise

Reasoning;
in
in

Reasoning
Reasoning.
5

22

;
;

23
26

30

Arguments;

....

36

....

38
40

....

32

...

42

45

Contents,

LOGIC.

CRITICAL

II.

BOOK

PAGE

I.

Chapter

The

I.

Article
'*

II.

"

III.

Chapter

IL

Chapter

III.
Article
"

Truth

Falsity

of

of

of

The

49

Regard

with

to

Truth

...

56
62

Certainty:
....

Powers

Cognoscive

our

Intellect

Article

III.

I.

2.

$3.

Immediate

4.

Memory

5.

Reasoning

65
66

Consciousness

Primary

62
;

Particular;

in

68

Ideas

Analytical

Judgments;

70
.

72

73

Sensation;
%

51
.

54

Certainty.

up

Certainty

Attaining

Sketch

Make

that

Existence

Mind

the

Elements

Means

II.

of

48

Certainty

and

States

The

I.

of

Nature

74

The

Inner

Sense

The

Outer

Senses

75

%
IV.

Article
"

Chapter

V.

IV.

The

2.

77
....

87

Authority;
Common
Ultimate

Sense;
Criterion

90
of

Certainty.

94
...

INTRODUCTION.

of

causes

That

Practical

follow

far

This

certainty.
science

Philosophy
3.

Human

another

one

is

reason

arises

which

he

the

path

parallel
be

as

foundation
and

precious

of
to

guarded

reason,

high
by

the

fact,

that

conflict
for

advantage

foolish

the

of

man

to

not

the

avail

often

difficult

road

of

clear

is
of

of

Christian

trace

supernatural
and

infallible

(b)

which

foundation
a

of
of

part

building,
two

means

contradict

cannot

is

evident

Revelation.

himself.
to

and

Logic,

are

which

our

unerring

us

truly

as

the

they

with

men,

tions,
investiga-

safety,

it is the

part

first

process

give

can

Hevelation

to

in

found

never

were

is

of

these

with

us

It

losophy,
Phi-

applies

What

(a)

scope

because

Divine

matter

the

or

Ethics.
all

mind

structure.

is manifested

truth

is

studied,

moral

reason

which

of

task

be

the

as

guide

powers

double

and

mental

the

it may

that

first

must

examining,

theory

conduct

or

in

reason.

Mental

which

moral

guide

our

by

natural

our

the

Philosophy,

be

begin

must

must

How

is to

in
or

portion

highest

by

terminates
Theoretical

That

Moral

or

reason

we

reason

called

the

knowable

are

which

practice, directing

to

Since

2.

is

investigates

they

as

Philosophy

Metaphysics,

principles
styled

far

as

knowledge

or

by

of

portion

which

science

in

things

all

speculative

is

is the

Philosophy

1.

Hence

philosopher,
For, knowing

correctly,

to

must

of
that
run

Revelation,

he

will

teachings

of

the

Introduction,

Faith
far

against
from

of

and

eternal

noblest

and

exalted,

the

secure

from

its

it
ends

and
aim

unvarying

most

process

or

of

important
the

of

the

the

to

which

its

final

intellectual,

most

other
laws

from

not

but

they

for
it

shackles

novelties,
studies

the

their
should

is

Philosophy
is

purpose
and

sciences.
of

the

truth.

sciences.
for

Faith,

Thus,

looks

thought,

human

purely

principles,
purposes

of

principles

theories.

intellect

Philosophy

originality

at

false

his

error.

foundation

their

of

liberates

the

Among

4.

the

it

does

pursuit

vain

enslaving,

ignorance

^or

the

its

the

investigations,
directed.

most

teachings

These

be

the

receive

and

I.

PART

LOGIC.

is

Logic

5.

truth.

of

in

things
called

the

causes

6.

the

It

rules

Formal

be

Dialectics

or

of

or

mental

Applied

the

of

or

{SiaXiyonaiy

action,

Logic.

truth

is

of

properly
the

truth,

rules

but

also

Material

considers

which

in

and,

action,

or

is

only

portion

reasoning

matter

tainment
at-

so.

That

mental

in

studies

reliability

of

observed

Logic
which

Critical

forms

do

the

knowledge

not

attainment

they

in

Logic

causes.

the

mind

the

considers

parts.

two

or

to

in

why

comprises

modes

their

the

mean

we

it

mind

reasons

directs

science

because

the

or

with

science,

direct

which

By

connection

which

science

the

particular,
is

discussing,
I

discuss)

attained,

Logic,

that

criticising
also

the

called

tion
porthe

styled

BOOK

DIALECTICS,

treating

In

7.

is

and

To

to

readily
this

to

on

reasoning

in

how

purpose

and

properly

I.,

of

simple

reasoning

of

before

explained.
apprehensions
itself.

Logic,
few

such

the

shall

We

and

we

shall

preliminary

reasoning
therefore

judgments,

confine

details

other

all

therefore,

others.

of

exclusively

almost

book
text-

themselves,

reasonings

false

the

of

purpose

correctly

reason

shall

Formal

on

understood

be

in

we

aside,

main

the

to

flaws

works

only,
be

of

pupils

Setting

insisted

must

Dialectics,

detect

practical

ourselves.

II.,

teach

of

usually

here

of

treat

matters

itself
process

treat,

and,

in

in

Chapter
Chapter

as

can

Of

THE

UNtVERSITY

CHAPTER

consider:

shall

8. We

The

2.

most

T/ie nature

i.

of simpleapprehen-

important distinctions regarding ideas,and

Judgments, together

3.

JUDGMENTS.

AND

APPREHENSIONS

SIMPLE

sions.

I.

with

the

expression of

in

them

propositions.
The

I.

Article

Nature

Simple

of

Apprehensions.

Simple apprehensionis the act of perceivingan object

without
ing
affirmingor denying anything concernintellectually,
of a thing as if with
it. To apprehend is to take hold
the hand;
an
apprehension^as an act of the mind, is an
mind
take
intellectual graspingof an
cannot
object. The
an
object physicallyinto itself;but it knows an objectby
in a manner
suited to its own
takingit in intellectually,
nature,
forming to itself an intellectual image, called a speciesof the
of forming this mental
act
object. The
image is called a
and
the fruit of it,the image itself,
is the concept,
conception,
word
to
idea,or notion of the object. The
j/w^/*?added
apprehension emphasizes the fact that the apprehension
9.

neither

affirms

affirms

nothing

idea of the
10.

the

nor

and

denies
denies

the

existence

of the

object;

nothing,it simply conceives

it

the

object.

This

intellectual

sensible
of

image, or
material

imagination,
by

means

image should not

phantasm, which
objects,and
of the

be
is

which

material

confounded
a

material

is formed

organ

of

the

with
sentation
repre-

by

the

brain.

Dialectics,

1 2

tinction
images is great, and disbetween
them
is of vital importance in Philosophy.
conceive
a
instance,I intellectually
triangleby apprehending

The

difference between

For

these

two

figure enclosed by three lines

angles. My notion or idea contains
who
and every one
J it is very precise,

and

three
more

conceives

thus

having
nothing

this and
conceives

angle
tri-

it

But
when
I
exactly the same
way.
I cannot
help imagining it with sensible
imaginea triangle,
material accidents,
as
being of such or such a size and shape,a
foot long at one
The
time, a mile long at another.
picture
be vague,
be blended
various picturesof trianglesmay
may

togetherj but it can

as
triangles,
my

idea does.

True, phantasms
writers ; in

fail to trace

the fundamental
for

unknowable

phantasm
not

and

unknowable

of

'

them

and
; it is

perniciousphilosophy. Thus,
that

the

God,

makes

them

unthinkable

nor

by English

Berkeley,Hume,

soul

unthinkable,* because
This

of them.

ideas

'

difference between

instance,Huxley maintains

etc., are
no

any

sible
pos-

imaginationis 2, phantasm.

called

school

of their

error

This

often

are

whole

fact, the

their followers

universal,representingall

be

never

form

can

simply unimaginable,
know

we

we

of man,

what

we

(On the difference between

speak of them.
ideas and
phantasms see, further.Logic by Richard Clarke,
S.J.,c. vi.)
ideas are expressedby words, or oral terms; the ideas
Our
when

mean

we

themselves

are

Article

II.

often

II.

Logicians
with

present purpose

go

called

terms.

Distinctions
into

respect

much

Essay

on

notice
Science

Ideas.

regarding

detail

on

ideas ; it will be

to

to
briefly
*

mental

and

few

varietyof
sufficient

of them.

Morals.

for

tinction
disour

Simple Apprehensions

lies between

first distinction

idea

concrete
all

men/

flowers';

or

and

abstract

this

g.^

gold.'

to

13

ideas.

concrete

belonging

quality as

Judgments.

subject,e.

expresses

and

some

subject,

abstract idea expresses

'heavy/ 'virtuous/ 'fragrant.* An
drawn
forth, as it were
a
{abstraho,
qualityby itself,
the subject to be separatelyconsidered,
draw away), from
g.y heaviness,' virtue,' fragrancy.'

e.g.,

'

'

e.

distinction

second

12.

'

exists htt^^on

singular,
particular
singular if it expresses a
book,* 'that army/ 'that
,

and

ideas.

universal

idea

An

is

single object, e.g., 'this

gold,' James,' the Angel Gabriel,' the
meaning this one
country.
idea is particularif it represents one
An
without
determining which, e. g.^ a man,'
definite

'

'

United

States,'

or

objects

'

'

Nero,'

'

is universal

idea

An

to

common

how
'

^
three books,'
spirit,'

those

animal

'

and

conceived

are

in

called

universal
in

universal

of

five ways

idea.

note

of

'

all

to

The

matter

no

respects ; e.g.,

man,' and

'

notes

or

them,

other

common

idea

army,'

an

men

each

of them

designates

note

term

they

object.

an

ideas

the five heads

of these

one

of

All

notes

are

the universal

corresponds to a
anything knowable
13.

'

in each

differ in

objects may

rational

'

it expresses

when

'

states.'

some

objects, found

many

much

'

more

be

can

ranked

under

predicables,because
that

universal

five

heads,

it is

idea

is

to

many

always in
predicated

object.

an
I.

What

is

apprehended

found

in

each

all in

them

nature,
without

to

the

essence

which

be

them,

exactly the

For
men

of

those

of

as

common

and

'

rational

therefore

same

sense,

those

may

the

animals

be

the whole

objects,/. e.,

objects cannot

instance,it is

objects,
predicableof

nature

'

unless

exist
or

nor

essence

all

that

be

ceived.
con-

of all

I conceive

an

Dialectics,

objectas being both

conceive

defined

of

essence

This

and

of

animal,'I

common

constitutes

class

'

species. The

all that

as

rational

all.

at

man

is called

class

do

not

of

essence

species,therefore,is
the

nature

common

objects;e.g.^

man,'

or

'rational

animal.'
idea

universal

The

2.

may

part only of the

express

ceive
objects. Thus, when I conanimal,'I conceive only a part of man's nature,
in other species of objectsas well,viz.,
part found

nature

to

common

many

in

brutes.

from

man

which

and
3. On

the

the

idea

of

part

it distinguishes

that

universal

Now,
is

what
the

the

two

ent
differ-

to

common

genus

belong

of man's

brutes, but

brute.

the

which

to

other

in

seizes upon

speciesis
is the genus,

is

found

it is not

nature, and

concept

'

Rational

e.

g,,

'

animal

species man'
'

'brute.'
the other

hand,

universal

the

concept

which

presses
ex-

fers
species difpeculiar note by which one
from
another
species of the same
genus is styled
the specific
difference;e.g., 'rational' is the specific
difference of the speciesman
from
as
distinguished
the

the

speciesbrute.

When

4.

results
essence

the

in

property

power

exist

cannot

of

or

such

something

expresses

necessarilyfrom

so

exists but
a

concept

the

without
an

attribute

laughing,'

'

of that
the

that

such

note

essence.

to

power

or

that the

essence

very

it,and

essence,

that flows

note

never

is called

Thus,
express

'

the

one's

be found
but
thoughts by articulate speech,'cannot
and they
and rational,
in a being that is both animal
its compound
from
natural
result as
consequences
nature.

The

use

of them

may

be

imaccidentally

Dialectics.

organisms/ as

'sentient'
'

animals

of

not

natures

or

man

for,"while

the

have

men

'

'

'man

his

is

called subaltern^subordinate
ramification

trunk

of

the
species,

branches

individuals.

(See

In

16.

the
page

connection

from

these, very
and

the

is not

erties
prop-

degrees of

but

genus,

different

same

in accidental

but

different

very

lowest

the

or

The
are

intermediate.

of

the

have

essence

into

highest genus

speciesis presentedto

The

tree.

proximate or lowest genus.

the highest and
the lowest

speciesbetween

15. This
and
genera

same

in kind

differ not

animal

and

be

'

brutes

and, flowing

perfection.Therefore
genera

'

essences,

specieswill

and
non-sentient/ animals
plants.'Of
have
two
species, rational and
irrational,'
various
brute.'
We
have
species of
brutes,'
*

'

these

species;

the

genus,

all
properties,
;

subordinate

new

we

and

'man*

but

and

the

contains

tree

in the

eye

the

subaltern

Porphyrian
and

genera

the top
specificdifferences,
17.)

with

universal

ideas

the

exhibits

explain,
the very
of
matters
as
highest importance in Logic, the
comprehensionand the extension of an idea. Comprehension
all the notes
the total signification,
means
comprehended or
contained
the
*

in
*

notes

animal

'

thus, the concept

and

rational

'

'

'

man

animal

'

comprehends
itself

means

material substance.'
sentient,living,
Extension
idea

the
*"

idea ;

an

must

we

'

man

to

all

extends

or

and

of

and

vice

versa

apprehended,the
all ;

thus,the

the

because

extension

animal

all brutes.

greater the comprehensionof

of individuals

number

applies;

that

is all men,
men

total

the

means

It

'

idea

an

the

more

comprehension than

animal

the

'

species

the

that

man.'

that

the

qualities

will possess

extension

more

concept

less is its extension^

numerous

has

which

still,
extending

apparent

is^the

fewer the individuals

genus

of the

is wider

is thus

to

Animal

but
'

has

them
less
more

Simple Apprehensions and

/. e., substance
matter

or

is sentient

body,
or

is
is

corporeal

organic

insentient,

THE

or

or

Judgments.

incorporeal; corporeal substance,

inorganic

an

organic

body

etc.

PORPHYRIAN

TREE.

or

17

called

organism

Dialectics.

extension

than

; it has

men

less

fewer
signifies
When

than

notes

which

it

in

'

mean

distributed

meaning

same

of two
of

word

when

as

is
we

size

of any

different

shape.

or

then

to

blow

analogous ;

thus

the

wood

out

for the

2.

the head.

on

same

with
word

of which

creature.'

i.

case

e,g.^

are

or

them,
'

box

is

When

the

'

stand

may

used

is

term

to
applied,now
the meanings

another, the

one

cases

Terms

receptacle
meanings are entirely

3.

box

men

capable
the meaning
When
is called univocal;

between
'

all

'

say

words

to

the

the word

of the

one

objectsin exactlythe

term
'

extension, it

gold.'

many

box

When

connected

but

and

of

when

as

different

are

the

same,

man.'

we

animal

every

some

to all its

connection

any

styledequivocal;
case,

'

than

undistributed;

acceptations:

exactly the
give the name

when

are

acceptation.Now,

or

without
different,

is appHed

term

three

or

/. ^.,

"

'

widest

is

(No. 12)
'

term

then

man

every

the
or

or

apply. Thus,

in California

found

its full

animals

more

animal

it denotes

ideas
expressingparticular

'gold is

are

because

rational

can

creatures,'we

are

'"

is taken

distributed

is said to be

there

comprehension,

term

objectsto

man,' because

often

for
to

is

term
a

be

case

made,

the box-tree.
III.

Article

17. A

judgment

affirmingor
The
the
that

Judgments
may

denying

the

be

Propositions.

and

defined

as

agreement of

an

two

act

of

the

mind

objectiveideas.

two
ideas,and consequently
judging compares
objectsrepresentedby those ideas,and affirms or denies

in

mind

they agree

with

one

another;

e.g.^

'modesty

is

worthy,'
praise-

If, as in these
worthy of man.'
to exist by
examples,the agreement or disagreementis seen
consideration
or
the mere
analysisof the ideas compared,
the judgment is analytic; it is also styled a priori,i. e.^
*

ebriety is

not

Sijnple Apprehensions

reason,

pure

be

may

called

the obvious

Judgments.

19

experience; ox pure, i. e., formed by

learned
not
by sense-perception;or again, it
accordingto
necessary, absolute,or metaphysical,

antecedently

formed

and

to

of those

meanings

But

terms.

if the

agreement

disagreement is discovered consequently on experience,

e. g.,
gold is malleable,'the judgment receives the opposite
of synthetic,a posteriori,
contingent,
experimental,
appellations
or

'

conditional,and physical,
ing,
judgment of either kind is arrived at by reasonor
it is mediately evident ; if the agreement
ment
disagreethe aid of reasoning,the judgment is
without
is seen

If

18.

'there

that

is

'ice

That

immediately evident.
a posteriori
judgment;
is immediately
for it,'

is

cold,'is

immediate

an

nothing without

reason

of the
the sum
priori; that
right angles,'is known
angles of a triangleis equal to two
mediately
mediatelya priorij the physicallaws are known
a posteriori.
is called a proposition.
in words
19. A judgment expressed
the
its matter, and
The subject a id predicatetogether are
affirmation or
negation its form ; the copula is always the
in the present indicative,expressed or
verb
implied :
to be
I

one

'

see

is

That

equivalentto

'

He

seeing,'

am

said

'

'

to

is

He

said,'etc.

who

propositionbe negative,it is

word

affect

reflection to

negation:
is not

'

'

known

'

see

No

happy

the

copula.

criminal
man

is intended

word

what

'

is
'

Now,

happy

necessary

it often
to

be

that

tyrant has

affected
'

means

peace

by

the

criminal

'

no

tive
nega-

requiressome

'

man

means

'

having peace.'
it is of the highestimportance for corIn propositions
rect
20.
and
attend
extension
to the
reasoning that we
carefully
af the terms
used and of the ideas for which
the comprehension

tyrant is

not

they stand.

one

Dialectics,

20

I. If

consider

the extension

of the

tion
subject,a proposiis styledsingular particularot universal,
according as its
universal idea (No.
or
particular,
subject expresses a singular,
we

The

12).

the

is

man
'

meaning
*

creature,'

is

man

every

expressingthat

of the term

form

be

must

is

man

creature,'

(forhere
and

'

that

II.

If

of the
1.

'

is generous

man

consider

we

is

man

not

means,

man

creature,' all men

'

no

propositions
; while
'

considered.
carefully

'

man

'

but

'

creatures,'
versal
all uni-

is particular

some

man'),

one

singularproposition.

and

the

comprehension

predicate,we have the followingrules :

the predicateis taken in its
In an affirmative
proposition
full comprehension,but not [exceptin definitions)in
its fullextension.

that

gold has

for in

these
must

instance, gold is a

For

metal.

We

have

the

expressedin

subject;e.

animal,' i. "f",*any rational

In

predicateis taken

'

common

with

it does

subjectdetermines

is

man

well

not

as

the

diamond

is contained

deny

metals, since it

lustrous,etc., as

predicate,
fined,
thing de-

the

as

holds

reverse

comprehension. For instance,

; but

g.,

the

are

rational

true,i.e.^ the

in itsfull extension,but not

denies that the diamond

not

animal.'

negativepropositionthe

of metals

which

extension

same

the

means

except in definitions,'

say

defining words,

the

metal

a
constituting
metal,but

all the notes

that it is every

2.

Thus,

are

slain

every man,
is

leading,
be mis-

necessary,'are

was

extension

the

idea may

is not

metals.

quantity

in the whole

that it has

is

in itsfull
metal

'

class

in
qualities

substance,material,
extension

The
of

of the

proposition
; its
tive
its being affirma-

quality depends on its form, i. e., on

or
negative.
In reasoningwe
must
distinguishbetween
21.
and categorical
propositions.

hypothetical

Simple

The

hjrpothetical
of

agreement

dently

on

affirms

declared

be

to

conditioned

is
is

{b)

called

the

Thus,

true.

certainly

If
*

true;

parts,

other.

condition
If

If

knew

ing
expressthe

antecedent,

God

old,

get

you

part

is

connection

well,

other

true,

the

would

you

will

you

is

which

of

one

The

or

the

you

and

subject

two

the

wise,'

be

false.

be

may

of

which

categorical,

kinds

of

consequent.

or

proposition
him,'

is

three

consisting

possible

alternative.

or

of

condition

the

condition

the

be

may

depen-

but

between

agreement

condition

conditional,

The

{a)

the

any

hypothetical

The

love

denies

or

the

deny

with

or

the

from

21

or

absolutely,

condition,

or

distinguished

without

predicate

the

is

It

affirm

not

predicate

and

supposition

some

Judgments.

does

proposition

subject

alternative.

directly

and

Apprehensions

disjunctive,

The

disjunctive

by

the

or

uncreated.'

which

particle
The

'

'

or

as,

is

proposition

clauses

incompatible

connects

being
if

true,

is

either

it

leaves

created

no

ternative
al-

unmentioned.

{c)
or

'created

conjunctive,

The
hold

and

true,

at

which
the

independent.'

same

denies
time

that

two

as,

things
being

cannot

can

ist,
ex-

be

CHAPTER

II.

REASONING.

is

Reasonings

22.

called

judgments,

the

mental

act

or

from

conclusions,

other

deriving

of

process

called

judgments,

premises.

principle underlying

The

is

conclusion
whoever
the
"

truth

of

Every

but

Mother
must

the

is

is

son

is

Reasoning
judgments;
is

premise

is

words

All

categorical.

called

categorical
of

are

It

desirable

subject

is

but

analytic

are

and

mixed,

if

one

Reasoning

pressed
ex-

be

Syllogism.

from

that

His

see

them.

judgments

are

sobriety

is

first

the

two

categorical,
that

denies

predicate.
virtue

categorical

consisting

remembered
or

the

to

argument

an

if it affirms
with

in

reduced

be

may

propositions
will

to

propositions

two

contained

Categorical

connected

If all the

follows.
is

so

honored

argumentation.

The

syllogism

propositions

first

synthetic.

other

reasoning,

this

pleased

synthetic,

are

the

argumentation

syllogism.

is

if the

they

called

I.

Article

23.

if
and

analytic

in

it

styled J"ure,

empiric,

the

therefore

mother

is

He

grants

third, since

the

his

see

therefore

in

instance,

to

the

thereby really grants

premises

pleased

whoever

honored,"
grant

the

premises

the

that

is

reasoning

in

For

Son

good

of

truth

conclusion.

the

good

Christ

contained

implicitly

grants

valid

all

the

21.)

therefore

three

the

third

syllogism

proposition

absolutely

(No.

of

the

"All

is

ment
agree-

virtues

sobriety

is

Dialectics.

24

denies
that

predicate of

certain

denies

that

third

form

certain
that

being

In

the

fourth

will

then
since

been

affirmed

stone

is matter;

be

to

whole

that

being

said

that

In these

four

forms

and

the

reasoning is

of

the

universal in

the

the full

from

fifth

The

form

being

has

that
;

the

extended
the

; therefore

order
to

in
note

is

"

have

Every

j therefore

universal

founded

The

that
is

derives

of the
:

need

major

stone

be

not

its

validity

predicate.
it has
the

predicate;
said

is matter;

this stone

wide

major affirms that

The

that

sition,
propo-

the

upon

being

but

is extended."

premises, this

all the

firms
af-

minor

in that

comprehended

affirms

of the

the first.

clusion
con-

belongto

not

matter

predicate,i. "?.,that

conclusion
This

minor

the

predicate.

is not

major

thus

reasons

certain

"

the

of that class

fifth form, which

certain

Thus,

the

subject.

comprehended

notes

note.

does

major

stone."

comprehension

if the

predicate;

individuals

Angel

is affirmative.

class,and

that

is not

extension

minor

syllogismarises

possess

of that

were

''

being has

an

denies

stone."

of

all the

A
predicate. Thus,
fore
Angel is a spirit
; there-

an

Angel

an

form

certain

conclusion

that

predicate of

denies that

class

cate
predi-

affirms that

for if it

conclusion

denies

major

just explained the

cases

affirms some

said

is not

the

affirms

being.

minor

said class

fnifior

predicate; the

spirit
; but

three
A

the

have

not

Angel

an

of

is

would

is not

stone

that

The

class ;

being has

class,it

thus

reasons

whole

said

the

of that class
predicateof that same

same

class

is

being

of

whole

cate
predisaid

has

all matter

is

By changing

fifth form

is

ducible
re-

Reasoning,

is

A=C,

"
.

if

in

to

equal

are

to

thing are equal to

third, B ; therefore

Similarly,from
reasoning : '' Two

other."

third

third

bat

other;

is

these

In

27.

and

constantly in
it with

the
two

arguments
and

these
the

premises are
things equal
therefore

B=C;

equal

are
we

have

which

is

form

not

of

and

the

equal

reasoning

the

lowing
folto

B;

to

major

they are
abridged form,

an

assume

must
useful,that we
practically
In fact,many
logiciansreduce
abridged forms, which they call

so

two

each

to

equal

each

to

equal

is not

so
so

plain
ex-

all
the

negativesyllogism.

syllogism,/. "r.,
is based
on
affirmative,

affirmative

The

28.

the

specialcare.

and
affirmative

second

things

usually suppressed, because

use

syllogismsto

Any two
other; but A

they

equal to B, and
not
equal to C.
two
specialmodes

propositionsare
obvious

most

argument,

"

each

is

therefore

the

thus

of
things,one
other unequal, are

the

and

thing

read

full,would

The

the first form.

applicationof

an

expressed

equal

the

are

constantly
argumentation and the most
reasoning so familiar in Mathematics, A=B, B=C,

The

used.

five forms

of these

of

modes

obvious

second

first and

The

26.

25

to

third

are

that
the

to each

equal

in

which

both

principlethat
other

A=B,

A=C

negative syllogism,/. ^., that in which one premise is

the principlethat two
on
negative,is based
things^one oj
is equal and
the other unequal to a thirdsare
which
unequal
The

to

equal

be

to

The

29.
in

other:

each

A=B

; B

is not

C ; therefore

is not

C.
purpose

of

comparing
bring A and

premisesis to
as
equal or unequal

the

equal to

to

each

A
C

with

B, and

together in
other.

B
the

and

with

C,

sion,
concluare

to

brought together; they are therefore called the extreme

terms, and B, which
brings them
together,is the middle

Dialectics.

26

term.

The

extreme

subject
its

containing
that

of

predicate,the

the

major

minor

still,
practicallythe

first

and

together
term

not

form

without

are

formallyfalse

All

"

virtue ; therefore

minor

with

when

the

ositions
prop-

the

the

sequence,

or

consequent

both

the

called

clusion.
con-

or

the

and

matter

following is materiallytrue,

The

virtue

premise ;

syllogism;

the

is its form

them

and

major premise^

of

matter

valid

flaw.

the

is the

confounded

syllogism is

30.

is

between
be

to

extreme.

extreme

the

are

connection

proper

styled the minor

The
premise

is

expressed is usually
the minor
premise. All

second

the

major

extreme

containing the

major,

conclusion

the

is

good

intemperance

is not

is

intemperance is not a
good." The following
Gloomy
things are

materially false, formally true :

hateful; but virtue is a gloomy thing; therefore
"

virtue

is

hateful."*

"

CriticisingSyllogisms.

2.

31. In the mathematical

is

danger

no

of

error

letters,there is need
that for A

suppose

metal," for C
B=C,

of

but

when

great

''

silver,"for

instead

yellow," and

Silver is

of

the

certain

for the

mistakes.

avoid

to
"

ideas

substitute

we

care

I substitute

I write:

A=C

.*.

**

there

formula,A=B,B=C,.'.A=C,

Thus,
certain

"a

formulas,A=B,
metal;

but

tain
cer-

sion
yellow ; therefore silver is yellow," the conclucertain metal
is taken
in two
is not legitimate
a
; for
and consequently 'silver' and
different significations,
yellow'
not
thing,but to different things. To
are
compared to one
metal

is

'

Exercises

like the

following will

syllogismsproving the following

to

be hated

treasures,

by
Bad

his
books

fellow-man,
are

theses:
Theft

be found
The

music should be encouraged, Jealousy

Saints

should

injurious,Riches
cannot

to

be
are

be of great
deserve

to

advantage
books

are

lasting possessions,The

please God,

No

Construct

be honored, No

punished, Good
not

time

is useless.

man

is

valuable

study of

Reasoning.
and

avoid

discover

to

eight rules

be

must

terms

2.

Nor

let the consequent

least

At

5. Two

negatives

6. From

The

I.

There

must

be

only

three

terms

with
is

there

terms

three

by using

middle

the
especially

chewing

Therefore

Rule

Nor

2.

have

term

let the

else there

premises;

You
I

not

are
a

am

for
*

any
'

man

*some

is

man

at

habit

This

be

pared
com-

twice,

occur

rule is often

different

two

to

man

lated
vio-

meanings,

is necessary

consequent

premises;

to

man.

extend.

term

conclusion
more
as

in

Let

than

no

in the

the conclusion

I am;

not

are

you

in

all,' ^ you

particularin

man.'

must

We

habit;

what

is distributed

man'

rules.

man;

Therefore

'A

the

other

rule

meaning in the
would
really be

in

is contained

than

term

in

is necessary

bad

wider

bad

as

ideas, and

things may

term.

terms

attend.

important

most

the

two

each

as

term
is

Chewing
But

that

fourth

this

to
^

of

most

of the

one

three

representing three

terms,

for

room

no

side.

the weaker

only

are

third; and,

show,

can

ideas ; this is the

three

it.

negations flow.
take

terms,

and

evidently need

premise you'llprovide,

virtuallycontains

it

distribute

must

no

let conclusions

8. And

admit

term

consequent

no

affirmations

universal

7. A

Rule

premise

extend.

term

the middle

ne'er

one

this attend

only three,to

are

lowing
fol-

applied:

The

4.

of all :

syllogistic
reasoning,the

1.

3. Conclusions

32.

in

errors

27

the
are

the minor

man.

for

consequent;
not

any

; it means

at

man
'

it stands
all ' ;

certain

but

man,'

Dialectics.

28

Rule
rule

Conclusions

3.

is

evident,as
the

compare

the

middle

could

We

was

President;

Lincoln

was

of

term

This

do

but to

nothing

not

to

argue:

President

was

premise

one

be

must

admit.

Illinois;

Lincoln

least

term

distribute

must

ifi its widest

used

of Illinois.

meaning

it.
in

The
least

at

of the

taken twice
term
were
premises. If the middle
particular
meaning, it might denote different objects;as :

one

in

Some

monks

Luther

Notice

that

that

the

fact

not

follow

are

unequal.

they

equal to
unequal,

to

are

7.

Eternal
but

equal

not

each

to

Columbus
was

to

it follows

that

graced;
dis-

disgraced."
From

that

If the

does

they
two

two

they

g.,

was

third, it

other,nor

that

e.

show.

can

negationsflow
declare

ing,
mean-

City,'etc.;

of America

equal

third; whence

in its widest

consequent

no
affirmations
affirmative,they

each

the

From

6.
are

are

two

that

premises

Rule

negativesno
things are

Two

5.

is taken

discoverer

the

learned.

very

America

discovered
therefore

Rule

was

singular term

monk;

Luther

Columbus

Rule

learned

very

Cicer^,'Columbus,'

as

were

was

Therefore

"

has

Lincoln

At

4.

middle

conclusion

extremes.

Therefore

Rule

the

ne'er

are

things are
equal,not

other.

universal

no
particular,

premiseyouUl provide.
conclusion

will follow.

If both
For

ises
prem-

jects
their sub-

affirmative,
particular(No. 20), and if both are
predicatesare particular(No. 20); thus all their terms

are

their
are

and
particular,

should

be

distributed

the

by Rule 4.
(No. 20),but

middle
If

one

that

is not

term

is

distributed

as

negative,its predicate

is not

enough

we

need

it
is

then

Reasoning.
universal

two

terms,

middle

for the

one

29

For
predicateof the conclusion.
therefore
be negative (Rule 8), and
reason
predicate(No. 20). We cannot

that

the

Some

Inquisitorswere

Some

good

Therefore

Rule

that, if

is

meaning

is

men

let conclusions

And

8.

will

universal

cruel.

were

take

the

weaker

The

side.

clusion
premises is negative,the conis
is particular,the conclusion

of the

one

if

negative;

thus

for

Inquisitors;

good

some

conclusion
have

must

one

cruel;

were

men

and

term

one

is evident : it regards the

first assertion
particular. The
negative syllogism explained above
(No. 28). As to the
two
cases
occur
second, if one
:
premise is particular,
may
If

I.

both

affirmative,they

are

since

term,

middle

distributed

; and

term

middle

the

for

term,

subject and

one

distributed

particular.The

contain

can

therefore

the

both
of

must,

term

tributed
disonly one
predicatesare
course,

be

must

their

least

at

once

conclusion

the

subject of

be

must

universal

and
proposition,

premise is negative,there may be

the premises,viz.,the subject of the
the predicateof the negative one

of these

is

the

If

particular.2.

be

distributed

two

33.
*

These

for

will

rules

Criticise the
"

1.

The

But

"

the souls

Blessed

The

3.

one

the

for

the

subjectof

syllogisms having

are

the poor
are

in

and

by spiritists
are

with

the souls of the dead."

are

poor

in

physical laws

Darwin

they deal

up

spirit
;

blessed

the Apostles

spirits;

spirits;

are

beings conjured

Huxley

Therefore

thus

all

to

by spiritists
are

up

the

Scientists deal with

But

and

followingsyllogisms:
of the dead

Apostles

Therefore
"

term,

particular.*

apply

beings conjured

Therefore
2.

middle

be

again

same

"xercise.

"

negative conclusion;

the

conclusion

the

in

terms

needed

predicateof

one

are

spirit."
;

scientists

nothing but physical laws."

Dialectics,

30

categorical
premises,even

though

propositions. The

may

but

in

of the

stress

while it

is distributed

'

is not

rule

the

Hence

II.

which
God

they

the

alone
are

not

conclusion,

affirmative

Hypothetical

The

cially
espe-

is

tion
proposi-

compound,
God

not

is

not

violated.

hypotheticalsyllogism

an

"

in the

"

Article
34.

say,

; therefore

predicate of

the

we

major premise. But the major

is
Whatever
a
negative part,

contains

eternal."

God

not

are

Attend

premises in

when

Thus,

eternal

be

to

seems

in the

and

Angels

the term

eternal"

this kind.

compound

lies.

argument
'

on

reasoning of

part of the

is eternal, but

seem

found,

all correct

that

to

will be

they

observed

rules

premisesbe compound
at first sight to be violated,
careful
inspection,to be

the

is

Syllogism.
whose

one

major

is

it always is
hypotheticalproposition(No. 21); and such
have
that
when
the syllogismis not categorical. We
seen
there

three

are

kinds

hypotheticalpropositions:

of

and the conjunctive. Hence

the disjunctive^
ditionalj
three speciesof hypotheticalsyllogisms.
syllogismsderive their force
35. I. Conditional

affirmed
so

connection

between

certain

condition

that,if

must

is

condition

this
"

Monopolists
rich

Some

"

Many

Many

6.

"

The

Mr.

are

men

men
men

Therefore

proud

rich

are

oppress

are

certain

free-traders

Mr.

the

to

proud."

wish
reduce

C. is

to

the

poor."

reduce

the tariff;

the tariff:
free-trader."

there

from

con-

are

an

consequent;
consequent
does

consequent

the poor;

the rich oppress

C. wishes

Therefore

a
verified,

rich ;

are

monopolists

Therefore
5.

and

not
thereby known
validly conclude
may

argument

4.

is

condition

Therefore, if

admitted.

be

exist,the
Hence

the

be

to

in

two

not

verified.
ways

Dialectics,

32

3.

The

minor

affirmthat
**

major premise;

"

and

child

the

No

one

of the

we

clusion
con-

has
God

and

But

Species

his

Martyrs loved
neighbor,'^or '^But

their
did

he

hate

firming
validlyby afthe minor, and

reason

"

conjunctive

incompatiblepredicatesin

Other

III.

love
can

denying the other in the conclusion

God; therefore they did not hate
Nero hated his neighbor,therefore
Article

not

are

can

this premise

From

neighbor."
one

as

but one, the

conjunctive syllogism

The

III.

members

father is."

the

Therefore

37.

one

mother

the

But

all the

deny

may

the

not

love

God."

Demonstrative*

of

Arguments.

usuallyunderstood,*is an
38. I. The Enthymeme, as now
of the premises being understood
eUipticalsyllogism,one
ful
(iv Ov^w, in the mind) ; e. g.y The world displaysa wonder"

adaptationof
of
"

displaysa

Whatever

of

is the work

an

end ; therefore

an

it is the

work

major is understood, viz.,

to an
adaptation of means

The

intelligentMaker."

an

end

to

means

wonderful

inteUigentmaker."

To

criticise the

have

only to supply the omitted

the ordinaryrules of the syllogism.
and
premise,
sorites {doopo^,a heap) is an abridged series of
The
39. 2.
than
tliree
syllogisms; it is an argument consistingof more

validityof

an

enthymeme
then apply

we

comes
predicateof the first bethe subject of the second, the predicate of the second
the subject of the third,etc., till the conclusion
joins

so
propositions

the
"

the first with

subjectof

Man

ever

is free is

mere

matter;
The

the

the

predicateof

; whoever

is accountable

"

that

connected

is accountable

is

whoever
intelligent;

therefore
word

was

man

be

cannot

derived
differently

and

the last

premise.

is free ; who-

inteUigentcannot
mere

matter."

explained by Aristotle.

be

Reasoning,
To

40.

such

test

connected

reasoning, it

thus
syllogisms,

"Whoever

is accountable

is

2)2)

should

be

into

resolved

free; but

accountable; therefore

is

man

is free."

man

"Whoever

is free

is

intelligent
j but

is

man

free; therefore

is

man

intelligent."
"

Whoever

cannot
intelligent

is

therefore

be

cannot

man

be

but

matter;

mere

is

man

intelligent
;

matter."

mere

dilemma

The

twofold
a
assumption)is an
{8ti-XTJ/xii"x^
which
offers an
two
adversary the choice between
argument
is
from
of which
conclusion
each
more
a
or
alternatives,
drawn
againsthis position. The alternatives are called the
41.3.

of the dilemma.

horns
a

Protestant

parent

answered

He

If Protestantism

judgment

own

from

me

ought

is

right,every

to

prevent

be

must

and
If

Catholic.

guided by
should

you

not

his
vent
pre-

Catholicityis right,you
but

me,

whom

one

Catholicityis right.

or

one

religious
matters,
judging for myself.
not

reasoning of

Protestantism

in

only

not

the

was

preventingfrom becoming

was

Either

"

Such

to

even

follow

my

example."
42.

from

be

To

the
conclusive,

dilemma

must

leave

no

escape

the alternatives

presented; thus, the dilemma

just quoted
be conclusive
not
againsta Pagan ; for he would
follow
major. Besides, the partialinferences must

would

deny the
from
strictly
often

their

respectivepremises;

retorted.

be

young

sister from

devoting herself
argued thus : Either
"

life before
; if

you
a

short

She

pleasures
;

if

if

long

the
have

long life,
you

life,
you

retorted

you

cannot
*^

one,

If
I

a
can

may

his

strivingto dissuade
exclusive
pursuit of

man,
to

else the argument

still a

will

forego

get far
short

on

life,I

get far

long

on

or

but

countless

the
shall
the

path

ness,
holishort

ures
pleasness.''
of holi-

forego

path

few

ness."
of holi-

Dialectics.

34

4. When

proofsof the premises or of one of them are

inserted in a syllogism,
is called an
the argument
epichirema
is rather
ical
orator{kitix^ipi a"^ hand, ready for use),which
an
form of the syllogism than a distinct species of reasoning
43.

e.

;
to

do

g.,

Education

"

when

so

derives

severed

from

all its force

from

should

education

be

moraHty ; but it fails

since morality
religious
teachings,
promote

religious convictions

therefore

religious."

5. Induction

44.

account
on
requirescareful consideration,
lows
It folapplicationto the Physical Sciences.
the reverse
of the syllogistic;
for it argues not
but from particularsto univerto particulars,

of its constant
process

universals

from
sals.

of

be

45.

then

of the

true

hold

examines

conclude,

every

singleobject of

All the

"

Induction

all ^e

class has

certain

of

propositionis true

it may

of every

"

whole

individual

is true

not

examine

every

of such

objects,and

sufficient number

circumstances,

class ; but

of

be

the very

always accompany
examined.

fore
class;there-

As

owing
them,
as

to

of

nature

long

singleobject of

it certain

make

to

cannot
to

of

be

studies,does

be due

induction

Whatever

predicatedof the whole class."

46. Incomplete induction,the ordinaryprocess

observed

tain
cer-

of the

zone

Complete

is true' of the

class

of the earth's surface

zones

life."
capable of supportinghuman
this syllogism:
vests for its validity
on
individual

single

class.

are

every

clude
con-

whole

universallythat

enunciates

may

of

true

properties;for instance,after exploringevery

earth,we

we

incomplete.

induction

Complete

in which

argument

an

by experienceto

class holds

completeor

and
class,

as

is found

that what

objects

defined

be

It may

may

should

even

any

any
the

that

class,but

the property
cause,

objects,and
cases

remains

Physical
a

varied
sufficiently

accidental

in such
doubt

under

of

or

but

therefore
as

have

not

actio,
must
must

been

whether, perhaps,

Reasoning,

35

be

owing to some
tific
cannot
accidental circumstances,induction
give trulyscienis excluded, the arguall such doubt
certainty
ment
; but when
constantlyobserved
peculiarity

the

is conclusive.

reasoning : Whatever
of objectsmust
nature
"

of

certain

property

property

always
action

or

flow

experimentsto

then

It rests

or

action

flows

is known

by

fear of

their very nature, and

bodies

of

The

formulate

to

varietyof
the

to

cases

tendency

therefore

law

law

all

that

from

west

solar

planetsand

to

exclude

all doubt

east

Thus, Laplace

the

; while

parts of the
it is

solar

perform

eagerness
sufficient

system

as

the

of

in

revolve

some

motions

of

cause

it down

that

known

now

their satellites

laid

to

Heavy

"

the real

to

as

we

due

be

must

the natural

formulate

we

observed.

phenomena

natural

this

in most

found

unsupported fall to the earth."

in their
only danger is that scientists,
a
generallaws, will not always examine

when

47.

that

error

but

variety
certain objects;
For instance,

them."
always accompany
heavy bodies when left unsupported have been
varied
circumstances
fall to the earth,and
to

judge without

objects;

sufficient

nature

the very

from

those

accompany

it must

therefore

syllogistic

this clear

upon

the very

from

not

may

the

posite
op-

direction.

48. It is evident
far

that

it is contained

as

in the

Therefore

the fact that

nine

is

cases

no

certain

case, since

observed.

cases

without
itself,
But

we

have

conclusion

no

premises from
assertion

an

is

proof

valid, except
which

is found

to

that it will hold

this hundredth

case

is not

in

ninety-

in the hundredth

contained

Incomplete induction,therefore,cannot

restingon
scientific

evident that Materialists

furnish a scientific
syllogism,
things. Hence
proofsof many
a

Positivists

as

it is derived.

hold
true

in

in the

by
proof.
it is

(/.e., those pretended

philosopherswho admit nothing but matter and sensible phenomena)
when
are
entirelymistaken
they teach that the
and

Dialectics,

36
mind

has

except

far

as

as

facts ; that all

of

do

we

not

only that

it is

elsewhere

it may,

if it leads

our

knowledge

are

which

propositionon

philosophersmaintain
circle must
be round, but
be so on
this earth,while

of these
that

known

to

be

know,

we

the proposition,

But

square.

round,^*is self-evident,
independently of

induction.

and

observation

of

universal

Some

for all

circle is

"

always

and-

elements

any

know

even

ever,
propositionswhat-

vidual
generaHzed inditherefore,is only the generalreasoning,
izing

that all the

facts,or

universal

any

it has observed

only inductive,without
their certaintyrests.
that

of

knowledge

no

to
logically

is known

system

absurd

false

their system

as

consequences,

be

to

does.
IV.

Article
In all the forms

49.

is every

process
such
from

Reasoning.

explained,the
conclusion
certain;
far

argumentation so

reliable and

the

reasoning is called demonstrative; to distinguishit

all prudent
probablereasoning,which fails to remove

fear of
A

way

of

Probable

error.

one
syllogism

will,of
called

We

of whose

yield only

course,

dialectic,/.

discuss).

both

or

"f., open

shall here

the

to

consider

{pla\Eyo^lal,I
important speciesof

discussion
two

both
Hypothesis,
PhysicalSciences.

probablearguments. Analogy
chieflyin
appHcation,

ble
only probaprobable conclusion; it is

premisesare

of

and

frequent

reasoning)is an argument
Analogy {avaXoyo"",parallel
by which we conclude that a certain line of reasoningwill

50. I.

hold

in

case

Thus,

case.

to

one

great

because

because

extent

we

it is known
see

that

similar to those

the

to

hold

in

similar

actions of brutes

of men,

and

in

men

are

they

conclude, with very

we
prompted by certain feelings,
that in brutes also they are prompted by
strong probability,
are

similar

feelings.

Reasoning,

principles
underlying analogicalreasonings are

51. The
such

these

as

"

Similar

effects/' "Similar

causes

strong ;

though
differ on

properties suggest

other

at

alike

the very

hawk

be
But

again,and

been

ever

52. The
than

to

other

point in question.

the

egg

of

an

Such

of the Evolution

beautiful

eagle?

an

of the

evolution

are

of

cases

"

asks

one

may

of

many

Species.

butterfly
; why
the

butterflycomes

from

two

"

the
The
not

may

tist.
popular scienthe vile

grub

same.

Varieties

are

numberless, but

speciesinto

of

another

established.
scientifically
useial to
analogy is more
philosopher. It suppliesthe former

argument

the

the

ways,

speciesremains ever the

the same
speciesof animals

singlecase

has

governed by
thus obtained
probability
cause,
is deceptive,beargument

the

type within
no

the

in many

developed into
from

the

be

to

appear

times

analogiesurged in support
into a
vile grub is evolved
a

produce similar
similar
essences,''

to

apt

are

constructed
'^Things similarly
similar laws," etc.
Sometimes
is very

37

of

the

orator

with

the

It suggests much
ive
effecttopicsof Simihtude and Example.
reasoning a majori^a minori, and a pari.
In scientific investigations
analogy is often suggestiveof
to
solutions,which may afterwards be proved demonstratively
be

; tillthey

proved, they are

called

hypotheses.
is a propa supposition)
53. II. Apt hypothesis {yTt6^E6i^,
osition
if true, because
assumed
it accounts
as
provisionally
For instance,it was
plausiblyfor many facts.
formerlysupposed
correct

are

so

emitted
lightconsisted of particles
by luminous
the present hypothesis explains the phenomena of
by the vibrations or undulations of ether.
plausibly
hypothesisis so far confirmed by experiencethat it

that
bodies

Hght

;
more

When
leaves
be

an

That

an
no

reasonable

doubt

as

to

its correctness, it

a thesis.
hypothesisa id becomes
an
hypothesismay be probable

and

ceases

to

truly scientifiCi

Dialectics.

38
it is necessary:
the facts in
any

question.

is

truth

Sciences,by

for,as

thereby known

discoveries

of

the
a

false
cause

have

been

energiesof

in the

retarded

the
On

important
Physical
the

other

false hypotheses,

by

wild vagaproofs,numerous
ries
discountenanced
tribunals,and
by the Roman
from
the learned diverted
wasting themselves

pursuitof

idle fancies.
V.

Article

54.

Numerous

ingenioushypotheses.
much

well-estab-

tillsupported by stronger

while

the

false.

cannot

into wrong
directions.
To point out
investigations
assumptions is to render most important services to
of progress.
For one
Copernican theory retarded

led

such

contradictories

made, especiallyin

hand, science has often been

which

portion of
certainlycontradict

not

two

be

to

been

have

means

it do

considerable

hypothesiscontravenes

be true, whatever

Hshed

explaina

That

2.

truth ;

well-established

both

it

That

i.

Reasoning, whether

or

probable,is styled

proving the thesis,it simply aims

some
objectionsagainstit,or at establishing

clearingaway
other propositionfrom
at

Indirect

inferred.

form

the

The

to

absurd

thesis

of the

various

assume

reductio

showing

of argument

that

consequences

ad

forms

absurdum, is
denial

the

thus

be*

may

of the

we

argue

necessityof admittingcertaintyfrom the fact that

self.
himdenial of all certaintyleads a man
to stultify

negative argument points

go

instance

the

absence

of

Mere
sertions
asopponent's assertions.
nothing," Quod gratis asseritur gratis
an

for

negatur^^ are

out

"

all proof from

The

the truth

reasoningmay

theses leads
the

which

self-contradiction, or

The

1.

nt,.

demonstrative

of

when, instead

indirect

2.

Reasoning.

Indirect

"

received
or

axioms

example

of discussion.

adduces

test

case

in

Dialectics,

40

tinguishingthe

true

the chief forms

which

from

Article

false,
we

the

shall

fallacious arguments

VI.

Sophisms

point

now

apt to

are

out

assume.

Fallacies.

or

which, under
56. A sophism or fallacy is an
argument
the speciousappearance
of truth,leads to a false conclusion.
The
pression,
deceptionis caused either by some
ambiguityin the exor
confusionin the thoughtsexpressed.
by some
57.

fallacies

The

I.

chieflytwo

are

The

1.

arisingfrom

in

immortal

ambiguous middle, uses

different

two

; but

soul ; therefore

We

immortal."

the

it denotes

life in

dle
mid-

soul is

The

"

g.,

word

soul,in

human

animal

any

answer

the

of

meanings

two

principleof

e,

there

four terms.

are

2.

the

minor

has

something

has

by distinguishingthe
soul.' In the major
the

meanings;

animal

brute

animal

brute

sion
expres-

equivocation,or
term

ambiguity in the

fallacyof composition and division confounds

what holds of thingsseparate with what holds of them
It is absolutelyimpossible that the
united ; e. g.,
The

"

live and
of

live

should

dead

dead

be

composition
;
those

made

58.

II.

to

Fallacies

true

the

at

in the

dead

can,

that

sense

they cannot

time, i. e., in

same

it is not

but

now

live

is

"

true

by

in the

the

the

of division:

sense

power

sense

of

God,

be

again.
result from

confusion

of

thought

in six

:
chiefly

ways,
I.

fallacyof

The
with
and

an
we

the

accidental
eat

what

property;
we

confounds

accident

buy

e.

g.,

; therefore

"

We
we

essential

an

buy
eat

raw

raw

meat,
meat."

Reasoning,
What
but
2.

the

not

is

What

",

g.^

overboard
hence

so;

certain

ought
be

major would

"

sense

to

is

in

true

qualified

quid) ;

his cargo
; but

did

The
indemnify the owner."
if the captain were
absolutely

true,

entrusted

him

to

only,/. e.,

as

; but

not

necessary

crew.

irrelevant conclusion, ignoratio

elenchi^or missing

3. An
the

is

word, ^simplici-

to

vessel and

save

buy,

we

respect {secundum

willingto destroythe cargo

if he
is willingin a way
means

of the

throws
sea-captainwho willingly
ought to indemnify the owner

"

what

as

rawness.

with what

confounded

under

or

of

in the proper

true

essence

same

accident

same

ter^ is often
sense

the

has

eat

we

41

point,proves what is not in question,refutes what

Evolutionists
rately
elabonot
objected; as when
prove
in various ways
resembles
that the body of man

the bodies

of

brutes

"

fact which

sensible

no

man

denies.
4.

or
sists
begging the question,conpetitioprincipii,
in taking for granted the point which
is to be
proved ; when this very point is used as a premise in

The

the

reasoning,the fallacyis called

5. The

fallacyof

or
non-sequitur,

e.

g.y

"

of sequence,

want

which

There

is

exists

perfectionof plants and

perfectare
6. The
causa,

when

undue
assumes

evolved

not

the Reformation

scientific progress.

contained

firom the less

is used

wonderful

cause

is assumed
This

called

when
in the

the

clusion
con-

ises;
prem-

gradationin

the

more

perfect."

false cause,
what

circle.

often

animals; therefore

assumption, or
as

vicious

false consequence,

the

is drawn

is

not

to

be

fallacyoften

non
a

causa

cause

the

cause

arises

pro
; as

of
fi-om

"^

42

Dialectics.

the

fact that

hoc

causality
; post

59. Order

is

of parts with
is the
All

60.
which

or
acquisition

reasoning must
need

not

science is expected to prove

starts

with

out

of parts for any

arrangement

the communication

knowledge.
begin with undoubted
premises,
to be supportedby reasoning: no
its first principles.Thus, Geometry
of

number

of

from

axioms,

which

science is derived

by logicalreasoning. Such
for granted; but
taken
arbitrarily

mind

the

As

conclusions

it draws

before

the whole

axioms

not

are

they are selfno

proof. Thus, too, in Philosophy the
self-evident and need no proof.
must, of course, apprehend the premises

blindlyor
evident,they need
first principles
are
61.

purpose

or

themselves

Reasoning.

in

is a suitable arrangepractical
; method
ment
In reasoning,
view to a practicalend.

whatever, theoretical
the end

Method

proper

for

is mistaken

propter hoc*

ergo

VII.

Article

time

in
priority

mere

fi-om

them,

we

in the

that

say

logicalorder, i.e., in the order of thought,the premises are

But in the ontological
order,
always priorto the conclusions.
of being, a truth stated in the premisesmay
/. e., in the order
be reallyposterior
truth expressed in the conclusion.
to the
is the

Such
*

1.

"The

therefore
3.

the

but

laws

in the

restrict

libertyof

"The

the

is

press

libertyof the

the

Inquisitionwas

press

the

blessing;

should
cause

but

be

not

of much

effect to

an

its

followingarguments:

liberty; therefore

the

laws

restrict

the

Inquisitor;therefore

cruel."

"

"

Galileo

6. "The

decisions

condemned

was

Supreme
are

not

Saints

the

to

Court
be

often

are

by
of the

Roman

United

regarded."

blessingsshould

of much

cause

cruel ; but

restricted;

the

is

Popes approved the

cruelty."

St. Peter

tribunal ; therefoie

States

be

not

restricted."

cruelty; but

Inquisition
; therefore the Popes approved
The
often
Spanish Inquisitorswere
4.
5.

from

reason

fallacies contained

the

out

Liberty is desirable;

we

is desirable."

what
2.

Point

Exercise.
"

whenever

case

Arbues

the

was

Pope

fallible tribunal

is

Spanish
not

therefore

fallible."
in-

its

Reasoning,
from

say

cause,

beautiful

for the effect is

the

skill of the

the

pictureto

posteriorto

43

is

cause,

painter;
dependent on the

cause.

thus

Reasoning

62.

priori,since

effect

vice versa,

posteriori,and,

called

from

causes

to

is

cause

reasoning

to effect is
reasoningfrom cause
are
ontologically
prior to their

effects.

63.

It will be noticed

have

not

and

when

meaning
exactlythe same
apphed to judgments.

experience,while
64. While

in

priori and

relations between

priorto

being

the whole

qualities. If
and
said
then
and

the

consider

we

from

prioriand

posteriori

when

appliedto reasoning
judgment a priori,as

its effect.

to

cause

formed
independentlyof
(No. 17),is one
a reasoning a
prioriis one proceeding from

explained above
a

that the terms

the

two

other,in

only one

first

are

study

thing,studyingthe

its parts, between

and

we

sider
reasonings we conposteriori
of which
is ontologithings,one
cally
ings
analyticaland syntheticalreasona

acquainted with

of it strive to

discover

relations between
substance
the

and

whole

its parts,

its

being
we

are

analyze the subject {dvaXvaa^ I take apart): we

the parts first,
proceed analytically.But if we know
to

put them

together

{6vvHE6L"i,

analyzes a

mineral

to

to

find

the

whole,

proceed

we

thetically
syn-

chemist
putting together).
discover its simple ingredients;the
The

The synthetic
simplesinto compounds.
apothecary combines
geometricianputs together lines and angles to find the properties
while
of surfaces
and
the
solids;
analyticalgeometrician

finds the

particularmathematical

relations

imphed

in

general formula.
metaphysicianconsiders an idea as a whole, and
65. The
the notes of it as its parts. For
instance,knowing that an
oak

is

tree, he examines

the notes

involved

in the

concept

Dialectics.

44

*tree,'and

finds

that
analytically

is

oak

an

substance,

On the other hand, seeing that the

material,vegetable,etc.
human
he concludes
body is a substance,extended, living,
sensitive,
it is of

that
synthetically

obvious
e.

is

g.y

that the idea

substance, but

when

we

to the

universal,and

dd.

to the

and

one

while

thin

then

have

we

reasoningto

is a

substance

versa

the notes;

than

substance,'for

we

tree

every

Therefore,

tree.

proceed from

the

particular
^^w
synthetically

reason

particular.
use

either

analysisor synthesis,or

Thus, in this treatise

the other.

the union

explainingideas,next

first

judgments,
of

vice

science may

every

'

we
analytically,

reason

the universal

the

not

than

it is

Now,

nature.

analyzed is less extended

is less extensive

'

tree

animal

an

the

combination

now

tics,
Dialec-

on

into

of ideas

judgments into
used synthesis
; and, in analyzingthe
discover the rules that must
guide it,we
of

ments,
argunature

have

used

studies,better
analysis. This latter process is,in most
for the impartsuited for the investigation
of truth,synthesis
ing
of truth to

67.
speak
These

While

treatingof

of the

distinctions

scientific methods,

are

evidentlydistinct

from

to

it treats

Botany, because

different class of

objects. When
Geology, Geometry,

it is proper

various sciences.
existing between
tronomy
distinguishedaccording to their objects; thus.As-

is
of

others.

sciences

treat

of

the

and Geography, all of

object,as do
which study the earth,tlieyview that objectdifferently;
and
the view they take of their objectsis called their formal object,
the objectitselfbeing called the material object.Sciences
mal
therefore more
are
correctlysaid to be specifiedby their forsame

objects. It naturallyfollows
as
more

more

or
or

noblest

less noble

less
of

worthy

all,since

in
of

that

proportion as
man.

it views

all

science

is esteemed

its formal

object is

Theology is therefore the

known
its objectsas they are

Reasoning.

45

viz.,by the supernaturallight of Divine

highestlight,
Revelation.
Philosophy is the noblest of the merely human
intellectual in
sciences,since its formal objectis what is most
and their relations to the
all things,viz.,their very essences
the

by

highestgood.
into
come
teachingsof any science can never
conflict with the true teachingsof any other science ; for truth
tive
considered is something absolute,not merely relaobjectively
(i%. The

true

; it is that

between

which

is.

sciences,it

two

the

In

will

teachingsis not
conflicting

the

of

case

apparent

an

always be

found

demonstrated

that

nor

flict
con-

of

one

capable

of

demonstration.
VIII.

Article

"

69.

The

useful

most

of discussion

manner

it at

Exercise

exercise in

called

The

Reasoning.

in

philosophic studies

Circle.

We

length:
pupil is appointed to defend on
half an hour, any thesis that has

One
about

class;

shall here

plain
ex-

some

given day, during

been
explainedin the
others
are
appointed to object; and the whole
is to be conducted
in strict syllogistic
form.
The
is opened by the first objector,
who
challengesthe

two

discussion
discussion
defender

is the

to

the thesis.

prove

The

latter

begins by explaining
next
gives the proof

meaning of the thesis ; he

in a formal
syllogism,
adding,if necessary, the proof of
The
major or the minor, or both.
objector then attacks
the exact

thesis

or

its demonstration

of which
of the

proof.

words

of the

is

he

off"ersa

contradictoryto
defender

The

opponent;

syllogism the

the thesis

or

to

the

the
the

sion
conclu-

validity

repeats the objectionin the very

next, he

repHes separatelyto

each

of its propositions.
Let

us

theory

suppose

of

that the third

universal

thesis of

scepticism is

Critical

Logic the
self-contradictory
(No.
"

Dialectics.

46
is the

94)
"

of the
Then

discussion.

subjectof

defender,at

objector, explains and

first

the first objector

: "That

does

The

is

the

the

proves

mons
sum-

thesis.,

which
self-contradictory

not

deny the same

thing; but the theory of
universal scepticismdoes not affirm and deny the same
thing;
therefore it is not
The
defender repeats
self-contradictory."
then
"The
the objectionword
for word, and
adds:
major,
That
which does not affirm and deny
is not self-contradictory
the same
sal
thing,'I grant. The minor, The theory of universcepticismdoes not affirm and deny the same
thing,'I
affirm and

not

'

deny." Objector:
and deny the same
but the

it does

defenderrepeats
does

the

affirm

not

the minor:

I prove

that

does

not

affirm

affirms nothing whatever;

thing which
affirms nothingwhatever;
universal scepticism
affirm and deny the same
not
thing." The

theoryof

therefore

"

and

and
syllogism,

deny

the

The

whatever,' I grant.

same

adds

"

The

thing which

minor,

scepticismaflfirmsnothing whatever,'

major,

That

'

ing
affirms noth-

theory of universal
: "I
deny." Objector
doubts of everything

'The
I

theory which
affirms nothing whatever
cism
; but the theory of universal sceptiever."
doubts of everything; therefore it affirms nothing whatThe
adds :
Defender,after repeating the syllogism,
ing
major, The theory which doubts of everything affirms nothThe
versal
minor, The theory of uniwhatever,'let that pass.
I deny." Objector:
scepticismdoubts of everything,'
I prove the last minor : universal
scepticismis defined as

prove

my

minor

new

the

"

'

"

theory which
scepticism doubts
enthymeme,

and

is defined
: as
distinguish

of

adds
as

the

I grant ;

deny;

as

everything; therefore universal

everything." Defender repeats the
The
cism
antecedent, Universal scepti:
I
theory which doubts of everything,'

doubts

the

the

of

"

'

thing,
theory which pretendsto doubt of everythe theory which
reallydoubts of everything,
I
therefore
and
deny the consequent."

BOOK

II.

CRITICAL

We

70.
the

form

the

certainty of

this

and

the

purpose

we

The

2.

the

and

Logic

propositions,

/. "?., of

of

vaHdity
to

are

existence

the

The

reasoning

consider:

of certainty;^

4.

in

Dialectics, the
Critical

reasoning

of

in

studied,

have

LOGIC

ultimate

i.

3.

test

or

THE

firmly

adhere

all fear

of

error.

nature

of

The

states

elements

to

of

that

is defined

truth,

To
truth
our

make

as

and
minds

up

of

of

matter

nature

soning,
rea-

itself.

For

of certaintyj

of attaining

criterion

tainty
cer-

of certainty.

OF

CERTAINTY.

that

state

account

on

study

examine

to

are

the

govern

I.

NATURE

Certainty

71.

we

means

CHAPTER

which

process

The

The

laws

its nature,
its

of

mind

motives

of
we

must

opposite,falsityj

with

regard

certainty.
48

to

truth,

in which
that

exclude

examine

[b)
and

we

The

(c)

{a)

ous
variThe

The

I.

Article

Truth

49

Falsity.

and

and

mind

hetinefin.a
Truth denotes cnnfnrmity

72.

This

of Certainty,

Nature

an

ob^.

viewed :
differently
consider the knowledge of the mind as
When
1.
we
have
conformable to the object known, we
logical
truth; thus we speak of *true judgments,'*a true
etc.
of a fact or of a theory,'
understanding
/.e,, as
consider an objectas cognoscible,
2. When
we
conformable to real or possible
knowledge,we have
metaphysicaltruth. In this sense the truth of an
objectis reallyidentical with the very being of the
inasmuch as it has
for an object
is cognoscible
object,
truth.
being; therefore all thingshave metaphysical
consider language as conformable
to the
we
3. When
knowledgeof him who uses it,we have moral truth j
be

conformity
may

thus

we

say

true

account,'a

true

etc.
statement,'

truth.
Logictreats of logical
of truth. The
absence
mere
73. Falsityis the opposite
of truth is sometimes called negative
falsity
; but this is not
in the proper sense of the word.
We
never
falsity
speak of
for all thingshave metaphysical
truth:
falsity,
metaphysical
what itis,and cognoscible
such ;
even
a false coin is truly
as
of speechby which we
when we callit false,'
we
use
a figure
calculated to deceive.' Logicalfalsity
exists when
mean
there is somethingin the intellect which
is not conformable
moral falsity,
exists when
to the object;
there
or falsehood,
is somethingin the expression
conformable to what is in
not
'

the mind.
74.

Logicalfalsitymay

occur

in

in three

judgment

ways;
I.

The
the
or

\#

intellectmay

object
; as
it counts

six

when
stars

affirm

somethingwhich

is

it affirms that

matter

where

but five.

there

are

can

not

in

think,

Critical

50

2.

It may
the

3.

It

sun

affirm

may

real what

as

around

moves

deny

Logic,

what

is

only apparent;

e.

g.^ that

the earth.
g., the motton

reallyis, e.

of the

earth.

75. The

and

chieflyapplied to
mere
a
judgments and propositions. Still,
apprehension or
idea may
also be called true; for it contains conformity between
and
the mind
an
apprehensionis
object. But a mere
called a truth ; this expressionis confined
to
a
never
ment
judgor
a proposition.
be false.
as such, cannot
76. Thesis I. A mere apprehension^
Proof. A mere
apprehension,as such, is merely a mental image
have
of something real or possible(for we
cannot
an
image
of something absolutelyimpossible,
^. ^., of a
circle^
square
of a mere
nor
nothing); but every image, as such, i,e., in as far
conformable
to that of which
as it is an
image, is necessarily
fore,
it is the image ; else it would not be the image of it. Therefalse.
it is an image at all,it is true, not
inasmuch
as
resemble the person who
sat for it,but it
A portrait
not
may
represents what it represents, and so far it is a true image.
have
idea or
a
wrong
may
77. If it be objected that we
notion of a thing,e. g.y of a spirit,
conceiving it as a being
that our
concept of a being
composed of thin air,we answer
composed of thin air is a true idea; for such a being is
possible; but, if we go on to judge that such a being is what
than conceive an idea
do more
is called a spirit,
we
we
join
a
two
judgment. It is not then the
ideas, we pronounce
mere
apprehensionbut the judgment which is false.
have
idea to which no possiblebeing
But
not
an
can
we
corresponds,e. g., of a square circle ? We have ideas of
either imagine or
and
of
circle ; but we
cannot
square
conceive a square circle. If we proceed to form a judgment
that these ideas are
compatible with each other, the error is
'true'

terms

'false'

are

'

'

"

'

'

'

'

'

Nature

The

in

deny
the
of

judgmsnt,

our

that

CathoHc

honor,

ideas

which

ideas.

as

'

as

meaning

of

instance, a

conceives

man

sin,'and

commit

to

II.

not

reUgion,of

of

g.,

do

We

of

States

of

of

judges that

he

gence
indul-

an

this is the

doctrine.

in Catholic

the word

Article

ideas,e.

wrong

51

indulgences,of literaryexcellence,
in those ideas is due to the false
the falsity
ideas implicitlycontain,not
the
those
to

For

leave

apprehensions.

our

have

Church,

etc. ; but

jadgments

in

not

men

many

of Certainty.

Mind

the

Regard

with

to

Truth.

78.

Ignorance

I.

is not

is the

presented
is vincible

all ;

at

mind

thus,

of the stars

the number

whether

of

state

if it is in

our

which

to

is odd

ignorant

all

are

we

the truth

or

to

power

rance
Igno-

even.

it;

remove

else it is invincible.
2.

is the

Doubt

to

assent

for and

of

state

truth

or

not.

againstassent

for either side ; it comes

A

doubt
3.

4.

may

be

to the

mind

the

Opinion

of

is the

state

not

without

assentingare

called

be

for

drawn

from

matter

when
extrinsic,

of other

persons.

its

has

sons
rea-

ignorance.
side ; but

pronouncing

intrinsic

they are

when

for

judgment.

the

motives

consideration
drawn

ment,
judg-

motives

The

error.

the

ing
lean-

more

but
contradictory,

probabilityof

the

said to

are

which

mind

fear of

Probability is
assent

neither

to

reasons
no

sees
as

same

to

accompanied by suspicionor opinion.

Suspicion is the state of a mind

to
to
one
judgment than
stillpronounces
no
judgment.
but

inclines

doubt

mere

diOxl\i\.
sees
positive

negative doubt

hesitatingwhether

mind

from

the

of the
ments
state-

Critical

52

5.

Certainty
without

is the state

fear of

motives

by

have

we

have

fear of

"

e.g.^

The

prudence

bread

before

80.
error,

Since

of

had

be

is not

me
"

I may

such

called.

motives,

In

the

latter

free action

the

of

ing
consider-

intellect from

poisoned";

inconsistent

invincible

look

of

with

for the
tainty
cer-

dailyconduct.
of
possibility
with prudent

connected

error

ther
fur-

; strict

allow

concerning every step

the
latter,

without

we

that circumstances

is not

the

that bread

eat

prudently when

act

reason

prudence

there may

g.,

We

be

cannot

without

word;

to

action, e.

guidance

of the

sense

by

doubt,

of doubt.

examination."
best

proper

the

away

is excluded

error

distinguishspeculativefrom practical
former
regard the certaintyof knowledge,

the

of

the

truth

for reasonable

room

is excluded

turns

reasons

79. It is useful

judgments :

no

is excluded

error

will,which
all

leave

error

assentingto

certaintyimproperlyso

case, the

the

mind

If this fear of

certaintyin

if the fear of
we

of

error.

which

Logic,

is inconsistent
with strict
practicaljudgments; but all error
and there can
be no invincible error
connected
with
certainty,
certain.
judgments which are strictly
81. Error in judgments of any kind, speculative
or practical,

is

always
caused by
to

power
one
a

the

to

to free will.

objectivetruth

nor

It

of

cannot,

course,

the intellect be

can

be

sitated
neces-

since its very essence

consists in the
judge falsely,
knowing, i. "?., grasping,truth. There remains only

possiblecause
proposition. The
so

as

of

traceable

to fix

overlook

of

error,

free will of

its attention
all

viz.,man's

reasons

on

to

the

man

can

freedom
often

bend

of
probabilities

doubt,

firmlyadhering to it without
certainty,however, in the proper
78-s^

and
fear
sense

to

of

error

of

the

the intellect

proposition

thus form

embrace

a
:

false

ment,
judg-

this is not

word

(No.

The

Error

82.

Nature

for these states

of the

mind

neither

deny anything whatever.

Ignorance may be
be unreasonable,suspicionunfounded
doubt
may

pable,
cul-

nor

rash ; but

is

of these

none

properly called

be

predicatedof nothing but

so

styled,/. "f.,of

of

error

by

various
1.

proximate

ultimate
; the

sources

can

excludes

the fear

of all error, there

source

chief

are

to

without

examination.
false information

Imperfectteachingor

regardingfacts

principles.

Confusion

of ideas,whether
resultingfrom dulness,
/. "f.,slowness
between
to distinguish
things similar,or
from present inattention,
owing to fatigue,
negligence,
cares,

etc.

Passion,i. e., violent desire

our

5.

Error

of the will.

of
multiplicity
4.

which

i. ^., judgments formerlyassented

Prejudices,

and
3.

mind

of

the will is the

proper
2.

false.

and

opinionand certainty
improperly

that state

the force

Z^i'While
are

53

be predicated of ignostrictly
rance^

cannot
falsity

or

doubt,or suspicion
;
affirm

of Certainty,

will to accept

arrive at

Impatienceto
are

eager

to
too

or

act,

or

vain to

6. Another

sound

frequent

in many

is

persons

system

or

of the
so

of

of

which prompts
aversion,
is pleasingto us.

conclusion,either because
conceited

acknowledge
that

to
our

virtue

doubt

our

we

ment,
judg-

ignorance. From

is favorable

to

the

knowledge.
source
a

of

diseased

judgments

erroneous

condition

of

the

ous
nerv-

state
portion of it. This abnormal
give rise to a varietyof phantasms

body may
vividlypresented to

consideration

too

all this it is evident

of
acquisition

what

true

as

or

the

judgment.

the

reasons

mind
for

as
or

to

prevent

calm

tion
against the forma-

Critical

54
Article

84.

III.

We

mind

acts

have

of the

2.

have

exclude

combined:

here

certaintyproper
all fear

the

as

truth,on

to

of

Certainty.

up

of

account

Several

error.

of

state

elements

Subjectively,/.^.,
considering the
mind, we have a firm adhesion (a positiveelement),
the exclusion of all fear of error
ment).
(a negative ele/. "?.,considering the object known,
Objectively,

such

i.

manifestation

all fear of
the

Make

that

firmlyadhere

we

which

and

we

Elements
defined

in which

motives
are

The

Logic.

of

The

error.

manifestation

truth

is sufficient to

as

adhesion
subjective

objectivemanifestation

the
certainty^

of truth.
of the

is caused

It is called

truth

clude
ex-

by

subjective

being designatedas

certainty.
objective
the mind
reflects on
the
85. When
adhesion,its certaintyis called reflex

this

on

fact that it has

; when

this firm

it does

fact, its certaintyis direct.

not

flect
re-

Philosophical

certaintydoes not differfrom ordinary reflex certaintyexcept

in this,
that it notices distinctly
and scientifically
the motives
of adhesion
2i(i.If

that the

to

truth.

examine

we

truth manifested

1.

may

different

three
respectively

find

still further,we
objectivecertainty
be

of
to

names

which
species,

three

certainty
;

viz. :

the
Certaintyis called metaphysical when
because
is essentially
that a proposition
true

would

be absurd

; in such

give

case

mind
its
an

sees
tradictory
con-

tion
excep-

Virtue is praiseworthy,"
absolutelyimpossible
; e. ^.,
has three sides."
A triangle
essary,
Certaintyis physical when a fact is seen to be so necaccordingto the laws of material nature, that no
is

"

*'

2.

one

but
;

3.

e.

the Author
g.,

"

The

is moral
Certainty

of those laws

dead
when

do

not

can

return

the mind

sees

make

an

tion
excep-

to life."

that

something

CHAPTER

THE

EXISTENCE

Scholastic

89.
pretend

in

this
in

systems

subject

existence

to

face

with

mefi

having

the

adhesion

full

truths

not

are

of

use

many

we

are

that

to

them

this

adhere

men

adhesion

direct^ i.

analysis.
existence,
and

cause

certain.

objectively
cc.

I,

2,

on

which

We

have

call

any

to

and
to

Kleutgen's

3;

called

this

given

universally

science

Now,

cause.

found

in

man

direct

and

3d

and

in
and

adhesion
it

No

fact

undeniable.

more

because

therefore

as

wrong

Philosophy^

constantly
this

own

between

Treatise.)
is

relies

sophic
philo-

to

their

Fundamental

natural^

if it is found

and

right

call

We

connection

between

are

fact

certain.

consider

men

Balmes's

adhesion

natural

all

Philosophies

physical

any

effect

attend

(See

ural
nat-

undeniable

the

reflection

to

bodies, the

difference

effect, the

All

truths

those

objectively

as

of

and

direct

that

stating

only

instance,

For

thus

objectively certain.

as

"?., antecedent

existence

the

exhibit

reason

the

on

brought

once

stated

be

may

maintaining

yet

objectively certain;
all

which

at

are

rectly
di-

theories

entering

When
we

false

many

with

commence

fact

from

strikingly

certainty,

patent

to

We

of

undeniable

examining

experience.

all

to

Sciences

Physical

the

as

and

differs

which

Philosophy

face

90.

it

particular

the

of

begins,

ascertaining

contradictory

CERTAINTY.

OF

Philosophy

do, by

to

facts;

II.

is
must

science

we

universally
constantly
be

natural

man.

91.

Thesis

II.

This

natural

adhesion

of

all

men

Existence

The

truths

to many

as

of Certainty,

certain is {a)certainty
objectively
properlyso
indeed philosophical
certaintybut [c]capable

{b)not
of becoming such.
Proof : (a) Certaintyproperly so
called;

to

truth, on

of

it is

the adhesion

1.

// is

2.

// excludes

here

fear of
judgments.

these

fear of

3. This

error

truth.
objective

As

which

of is such

i, e.,

exclude

do

we

is excluded

by

St. Thomas

expresses

excluded

not

truth

by

at

truth,not

all,since
a

for it is antecedent

to

then

It is the

"

not

error

not

were

cluded
ex-

objectivetruth,it would

Nor

our

adhere

we

by

blind

to

be
to

power

the

necessity

intellect would

intellect is

an

to

power

direct adhesion

This

of

will,for

our

will.

againstour

even

judge falsely
; for

to

it :

of the

or
by the free will of man
by a
to judge wrongly. But
necessitycompelling man

blind
it is

of the

mistrust

not

either

excluded

be

{b)

the evidence

of it.*

sarily
only are necesthemselves
evidentlyas

If this fear

true."
objectively

by

manifest

also

therefore

the evidence

that they
property of first principles

true, but

all fear

rid himself

cannot

error

adhesion

firm

prove the minor:

We

in fact,man

firm j

called is

spoken

called.

certainty
properlyso

motives

of

account

But

error.

57

no

tellect
inthe

see

blindly.

act

is not

reflection

itself
philosophiccertainty;
and
analysis,while philosophic

is subsequent to both.
certainty
for,when
{c) It is capableof becomingphilosophiccertainty
;
and
contain
to
reflected on
seen
analyzed, it is distinctly

motives
*

The

earnestness
to

throw

sufficient

to

sceptic Pyrrho, when

as

if he had

off human

no

not

laughed

doubt

of

at

all fear
for

of error, and

fleeingfrom

fallingstone

thus
with

as

of its reahty,replied ingenuously: '' It is hard

If any

nature."

votary

of

philosophy should

begin

to

the
much

entirely

have

any

he would
need
and healthy exer.
rest of mind
certainty,
abstract reasoning,to convince him of objectivecertsunty.

real doubts of the existence

gisc of body,

exclude

Critical

58
element

is suppliedwhich

between

Logic,

constitutes the accidental

ordinarycertaintyand

distinct

perceptionof

difference

viz.,the
philosophiccertainty,

the motives

for adhesion

to

truth

(No.

8$).
92.

Objections;

several
reasoning supposes
things that have not yet been demonstrated; e. g.,
that
have
It does
not
we
understanding. Answer,
that
demonstration
or
anything that needs
suppose
could

2.

This

i.

reasonablybe doubted.
judgments in which

Some
false ;

g., that

e.

All

earth,we

the

caused

men

gave

did would
be

in the

that the

it

was

the

concurred

men

round
sun

distinguish
; they judged

questionwhether
that

moved

sun

judged

men

all

earth's

the

moved
about
or

earth.

around

were

swer.
An-

the

the scientific

the sun's motion

phenomena perceived,we deny ; few

this question any thought,and those who
naturallyjudge that the motion appeared to
the

If any

sun.

judged

that it was

in

the sun,

was
seen
they erred freely. All judged that the sun
in different directions successively,
we
grant. They
called that change motion,'and so do even
the learned
to-day,when theyspeak of the sun as risingand setting,
and they distinguishapparent
tive
real motion, relafrom
'

from

absolute

motion.

The

only escape from the thesis just proved is that

attempted by the Sceptics,i. e.^ by those few philosopherswho
can
pretend that man
reallybe certain of nothing. Sceptics
of two
who
refuse
kinds : universal or subjective
are
Sceptics,
existence ;
to admit
that of their own
at all,even
any certainty
zxid partialor objective
existence
who admit their own
Sceptics,
93.

and

nothing or

94.

Thesis

very

littlemore.

III. The

contradictory. Proof

theoryof
That

Universal

theory

is

is selfScepticism

self-contradictory

Existence

le

which

theory of
We

denies

and

affirms

universal

all ; at the

thingsas certain ; ^.
from doubt, that the
those

using them

he does

not

hold

grant that, for

the

thing;

same

Scepticism.

prove the minor

at
certainty

of Certainty.

Therefore

time it

same

Latinized

name

certaintyis something different

words used have
certain meanings, that
If the Scepticshould plead that
exist,etc.
those points as certain,he must
then
even
all he knows, he may
be saying and
even

false system
the solid

fabric of his

with

of

would

not

was

consider

must

in the

would

affirm
implicitly

by X"escartes,who,

Cartesius,wrote
He

teaches, which

Scepticism,we

recommended

century.
a

several

^., that

95. In connection
Doubt

that there is any

affirms
implicitly

meaning justthe contrary of what he

be an absurd
this
theory; but even
that the Scepticexists,
speaks,etc.
Methodic

is the

such

it is self-contradictory.

Scepticismdenies

but

59

middle

Sceptic;

but

thv.

under

of the

the
enteenth
sev-

he traced

out

studying the existence of certainty: destroying

basis of Philosophy,he substituted for it a weak
invention,and left Httle in the minds of his
own

followers but

of

confusion.

ruin and

He

maintained, {a) That

ing
speculationsby doubt-

philosophershould begin his

of everything,{b) Next, the philosopherwill find that
cannot
thought, and
help granting the fact of his own

every

will conclude

it his

from

think, therefore

own

existence

Cogifo,ergo

sum

he
he
"

am."

the would-be
[c)Hence
losophe
phiwill infer the general rule that whatever
is clearly
perceivedis true, {d) Then findingthat he clearlyperceives
the idea of God, he thence concludes
to the existence of God.
"

of his
veracityof God he infers the reliability
faculties. (/) Thence, at last,
he reasons
to the certainty
his knowledge.

(e)From
own

of

96.
That

the

Thesis

is absurd

IV.

Descartes'

which

Methodic

affirms and

Doubt

denies the

is absurd.
same

Proof.

thing;

but

Critical

6o

the

doubt

Logic,

in

in it the philosopher
For
question does so.
plicitly
imof reason,
and
at once
beginsby denying the reliabiHty

affirms
existence
all his

"

its

think,therefore

and
faculties,

faculties

stillhe

reliable.

as

circle : he proves
of

reliability
by using it

God, and

Besides,

Descartes

of
rehability
veracityof God

the

pretends to
guidance of those

the

the

his

prove

He

I am."

treats

to

in

moves

own

doubt
same

vicious

faculties

our

by the veracity
of our
reliability

the

by

etc.
faculties,

The

97.
that

Scepticsarises from

of

error

nothing is certain

reasoning. Now,
admission
whole
third

of axioms

equal to
follow

must

fi-om

is not

the science of
which

is greater than
are

which

each

are

Mathematics

and

are

supposition
by discursive
begins by the

self-evident;e.
"

all other

"

draw

its first

without

sciences,it

the
to

phy
Philoso-

of

science

it must

evident

g., that

things equal

two

The

other," etc.

premiseswhich

like Mathematics

demonstrated

part," that

similar process

their false

proof.
must

clusions
con-

sides,
Be-

admit

without

If the
of the reasoningprocess.
proof the reliability
firstpremisesand the reliabiHty
of reason
requiredproof,man

could

never

would

be

rational

make

the first start

in scientificstudies ; in

incapableof reasoningat
being.

all

he

would

not

fact,he
be

therefore,must, on enteringthe field

98. Every philosopher,
of science,
affirm with certainty
His own
existence;called
: i.
the firstfact. 2. The
principleof contradiction,viz.,that a
time ; called the first
be and not be
at the same
thingcannot
*

'

truth ; called
of the intellect to know
principle.
power
3. The
the firstcondition.
not
These
truths are
blindly admitted:
is no alternative
evident. There
they are seen to be objectively
between
admittingthem and admitting the self-contradiction
of universal Scepticism.
must
prove the reli99. Tp refute partialScepticism,we

Existence

The

of

ability
attained,

various

the

as

shall

we

which

arguments

we

scientific

explanations

because

they
for

have
the

reliability
while

proved
need

firm

of

will

of

taking

demonstration.

in

do
shall

the

proof

strict

means

their

the

in

will,

adduce

to

which

following

the

truths
in

what

distinctly

show

Certainty,

by

means

than

adhesion

of

certainty

may

chapter.

Still,

many

not

scientific

for

strict

is

granted,

be

cases,

the

rather

reasons

proofs,
in

be

explanations,
or

causes

question

reliability

6i

we

because

several

as

having

cases

no

CHAPTER

OF

MEANS

The

100.

and

ATTAINING

at

means

directly,our

disposal

our

cognoscive

own

CERTAINTY.

these

in

general

Of

4.

which,

in

its

of

I.

Article

The

I.

1 01.

of

knowledge

of

material

Sketch

outer

which

instruments

organs

of

sense.

102.

An

organ

is

the

Creator

by

in

and

for

intended

these

are

viz.,of

called

muscular

etc.

the

purpose
made

are

animals

of

organs

five

now

sense;

latter

split up
the

perceives

the

former

touch

into

perceives

resistance,

two

heat

exteriority,
62

understanding

Powers.

in

and

the

acquisition

objects by
ourselves,

means

and

peculiarly
exercising

of

such

five

of

are

structed
con-

tion
func-

In

organs.
these

organs

exterior

bodily objects;

outer

exterior

and

senses,
and

common

of
up

of

the

on

authority.

of

generally,

perception

the

the

parts

sight, hearing, smell, taste,

the

Physiologists

the

higher

the

and

living body

the

for

bodies

Living

of life.

previous

material

are

of

part

sensation

intellect, requires

first step
of

To

men.

Of

Cognoscive

Our

perception

is the

other

chapter

the

the

our

senses.

the

are

of

are,

cognoscive powers

our

from

certainty

called

man,

add

reliabilityof intellect, sensation,

of the

of

paxt[cvila.r
; ^.

shall

we

Oi

i.

proceeding

though

discussion

the

Intellect
all this

To

authority

treat:

certainty

faculties, viz., intellect

or

must

we

Of

2.

authority.

sense,

for

clearly

attain

to

powers

sensation, and, indirectly,the

explain

III.

cold,

or

senses,

touch*

the

tactual

roughness

extension.

or

skin

and
President

sense

and

smoothness,
McCosh

Critical

64

Logic,

it forms and retains of them

material images
objects,
The
used
for
called phantasms.
or
representations,
organ
is the brain.
The
these purposes
imaginationis the power of

material

forming

on
retainingthose images, of recallingthem
in wonderful
of combining them
thus
varieties,

and

occasions,and

forming new

phantasms

pictures,for

we

can

modifications

are
1

06.

IV.

portion of

should

We

retained,etc.

of

The

in

which
not

turn

to

be

pictureof taste, smell,etc.;they

have

no

some

kind.
This

sensile memory.

denotes

name

which

imaginative power

the

images

those

suppose

and

be recorded

may

retains

and

that
recalls

phantasms, but it adds a further function,viz.,that of

not
however, present sense-percepintellectually
recognizing,
tions
and
tasms
present phantasms as identical with former phanand former
sense-perceptions.By this faculty The
and the ass his master's crib,"as Holy
his owner,
knoweth
ox
the

"

Writ

it.

expresses

and
imagination,

inner

The

the

need

rather

various

same

which
faculty,

be

may

as

sense, the

common

sensile memory

but
distinct faculties,

as

sense, the

not

be

considered

functions

of

the

generallydesignatedas

the

inner

sense.

intellect,understanding, or mind, in the

different faculty;it
proper meaning of this term, is an entirely
of
its perceptions
confine
to the material qualities
does
not
V.

107.

objects,as
very

reads

essences

The

all sense-action
of

thingsmaterial
it forms

within),and

it penetrates

does, but

immaterial

and

concepts

or

into

the

it
{intus legit,

ideas

representing

Even
it
when
etc.
plant,' tree,' spirit,'
it need
considers mere
accidents,e. g., color,' shape,' size,'
not
simply consider this individual color, shape, or size,as
essences,

e.

g.j of

'

material faculties must

color,shape, and
ft forms

ideas

size ;

do,
so

but

it can

that,by

consider
a

power

as
qualities
representing

the

essence

of

peculiarto itself^

abstract

"

/.

"?.,drawn

of Attaining Certainty,

Means

the

from

forth,as it were,

strippedof their
The judgment.
VI.

thus

and

108.

subjectsin which
individuaHty.
Besides

intellect judges ; i. ^., it compares

their agreement

on

intellect is cdW^di

or

judgment

they

are

65
found

conceiving ideas,the
ideas

togetherand pronounces
disagreement. This act of the
it was
explained in Dialectics
two

(No. 17).
109.

and

is

Reason

VII.

facultydistinct

; it is the

judgment

the

not

intellectual

from

act

the

or

The

VIII.

intellectual memory

the intellect ; it enables

the sensile memory,

with mental
111.

of

Consciousness

and

former

is

which

objects of

greatlyassisted

associates

in

phantasms

is the

intellectual power
internal acts, whether
of intellect and

own

interior

our

function of

concepts.

IX.
our

ciently
suffi-

to

us

identityor difference between present

knowledge. The intellectual memory
by

is another

was

perceiveand reproduce ideas,

and to recognize
reasoningsformerlyelicited,

judgments,and

its action

of

process

derivingjudgments from other judgments; it,too,

explainedabove (No. 22).
no.

lect
intel-

; it will be

sense

more

of perceiving
will

fullyexplained in

or

the

followingarticle.
II.

Article
112.

intellect

The

universal

may

state

be reached

or

which

of the

sense,

StiU,sense

whose
no

is

matter
a

means

into communication

Intellect

in

Particular.

be called the
understanding may
certaintyis to be acquired; for
mind
and
therefore it
or
intellect,

except by the intellect.

begin to act, it must

those

But

by

means

certaintyis a
cannot

The

senses

how

by
with

be excited
are

very

can
perfect,

which
many

That

the intellect

by sensation ; and
imperfect remain
elicita

fore
there-

idiotic.

judgment.
the human
intellect is brought
objects of knowledge, and
never

Critical

66

the

Logic,

of sense-perceptionwill
reliability

in the

examined

be

article.

next

We

113.

justnow
knowledge

concerned

are

such.

as

the

with
We

certainty of
begin

must

tellectu
in-

this

study
attaining

that the firstcondition

for the
to mind
by recalling
is the capacityof the intellect to reach
of all certainty
truth.
need not, then, prove
We
the rehability
of our intellect. But
examine

here

must

we

capacityof

the

ideas

immediate

3. Of

shall examine

the

in detail ;

doing

than

in

prove

needs

"

This

reflection

bend

back),in
acts.

own

for
we

knowledge,

We

of the intellect

of

This
in the

sense

be mistaken

human

word

the

rather

certainty

of

feel.

But

not

for the inner

compound;

by

when

feel.

itself,
upon
beginning of

feel
we

before

we

scrutinize

self is the first act

on

be

of remembrance.

is elicited

and

and

to

be

study.

our

{a) In

the

feel,but,

to
{refiectere,

upon

not

course,

acts,

own

and

indicates

first think

should

our

think

we

of the mind

this reflection

It differs firomit

consciousness

only think

not

think and

reflection

perceptionof

perceivesthat

must

we

in the process

examined

the

mind

We

bending back
Reflection
is,of

our

103).

acting.

the

can

115.

4. Of

Consciousness,

I.

consists,as

knowledge ;
perceivethat

our

as

our
reflect,

we

its own

functions

first condition

the

our

reasoning process.

scientifically
explain

is the reflex

Consciousness

/. ^., of ourselves
when

Of

2.

proof.

no

114.

the

shall

we

this

'

consciousness

of these
reliability
so,

in

analytical
judg?nents;

5. Of

theses ; for

our

Of

included

or

truth,

certainty, i.

intellectual memory

the

is involved

the intellect to know

It involves

primary

what

sense,

confounded
Nor

should

with

flection
re-

ness
conscious-

explained above

(No.

subjectthat elicitsthe act :

sensation by
simple intellect,

the

the

{b) In

the

objectperceived:

con-

Means

sciousness
inner

perceives both

simple and

67

organic actions,

the

of perorganic actions only ; {c)In the manner

ception;
the perception of sense
terminates
in phantasms,
in ideas and judgments, affirmingthat
consciousness

sense

that of

the facts

exist,/. "f.,that
do.

we

reallythink

we

the

are

of

causes

feel

or

is not

consciousness

But

perceiveswhat
of

of Attaining Certainty,

the

as

we

function

e. g.^
feelings,

our

are

scious
con-

which

the

causes

made
known
are
pain or comfort experienced; such causes
us
by reasoning and repeated observation united,/'.e,, by

to

induction.

Thesis V.

116.
in

capacityto

our

Explanation.

The
know
We

truth.

here

truth could

that this

is included

Proof. That
which
without

but

know

the

whether

We

our

know

117.

of

the
for

It will be

Therefore

know

out
truth,with-

know

and

of

acts.

noti

or

could

we

never

"

only through consciousness

could

not

therefore,if

reallyknow

that

ness
conscious-

whether

we

knowledge.

noticed

that the field of consciousness

followingobjects of knowledge: i. Our own

we
perceiveourselves as being the subjectsof
acts

we

reliable.

were

we

consciousness

not.

It is

rehable,we

acts
eliciting

are

or

whether

intellectual acts ;

own

not

were

know

of
rehability

we

capacityto

our

but

intellect to know

our

consciousness

our

in

never

prove the minor.

know

we

could

we

capacityof

know

capacityto

our

proof (Nos. 97, 98);

no

same

exist unless

not

proving

not

are

truth; this capacityneeds

maintain

consciousness is included

reliability
of

sensations.

our

3. The

The

2.

existence of

our

existence;
ual
intellect-

our

existence
internal

covers

of

sense

our

and

tellectu
in-

of

its acts.
118.

It may
our

be

objected:

internal acts.

those

only of

which

We
we

i.

We

answer
are

are
:

conscious

not

We

claim

conscious.

of all

for
certainty

Critical

68

Many

2.

exist; e,

not

We

conscious

are

persons

Logic.

g., that

they

affections

of

ill when

are

which

they are

do
ill.

not

They are conscious of certain feelings,

from which
they infer by faultyreasoningthat they are
iU. Consciousness
reveals
only the existence of the
their causes.
not
feelings,
answer:

3. Lunatics

conscious

are

being kings,princes,etc.
of judging themselves
to

of

They are conscious

be kings,etc., and
they do judge so owing to their
diseased imagination. For lunacy supposes
ity
inabilan
between
to distinguish
imaginationsand real perceptions;
Answer.

consciousness

the

but

of

even

lunatic

is

reliable.
No

4.

can

one

diseased

imagination.

would
of

5. The

that his

know

proof
not

need

no

strict

proof,but

only

no

By primary

ideas

inborn

are

matenal
ideas

bodies ;

^.

images
or

scientific

objectsof sense
qualities
; the

planation
ex-

strictly
proved

in

do

we
:

us

have

we

whereas

of bodies

not

by

inborn

mean

sense

observed, we
*

proper

abstract notes.

objectsof

for

antecedentlyto

ideas

no

ideas;

form

we

form

phantasms

by

our

in
images of what is cognoscible
being,' substance,' size,'color,'etc.
and
individual,extrinsic,
are
necessarily
*

We

Ideas.

immaterial

^., of

universal and

Primary

2.

ideas

sense-perception.But
or

be

our

demonstration.

"
119.

pable
inca-

granted the rehabihtyof

point to be proved. Answer.

; for the first truths cannot

and

be

ticism
Scep-

for

takes

givinga

the intellect would

to

truth.

consciousness,the
are

If so, universal

Answer.

follow,and

knowing

is not owing
certainty

lect
intelthose
The

"

crete
con-

the intellectual idea

are

of Attaining Certainty,

Means

call

We

120.

'

primary

ideas

those

of

'

69

being,' truth,'
*

cause,' effect,'
etc.; all those, namely, that
'

in

perceptions. Of

commonest

our

these

stance,'
subvolved
in-

are

assert

we

truth,and that their objectivetruth is

they have objective
implied in the very capacity of our intellect to understand
them
makes
truth.
Kant
for7ns only, to which
subjective
that

nothing objectivecorresponds.
Thesis

121.

Our

VI.

primary

ideas

objectively
true, i.e.,

are

conformableto objectsreallyexisting.
able
not
objectively
true, not conformProof. If these ideas were
commonest
to
knowledge
objects reallyexisting,our
illusion ; if,for instance, being,' truth,'
be
would
but an
mere
substance,' etc., were
figments of the imagination or
know
could
of the intellect,
never
we
anything. Therefore
*

true.
objectively
be carefully
It must
noticed,however, that the object
122.
of a universal idea does not reallyexist as a universal object:
everythingthat reallyexists is an individual thing. Likewise,
abstract idea does not reallyexist as an
stract
abthe object of an

they are

object:
exists

there

abstract

real abstract

no

universal

and

exists

there

make

universal

or

universal

animal.

genus

Because
objectivelytrue?
animal
term
reallyexist in

be

may
notes

are

an

the

the word

idea

is

in nature

the

in the abstract

distinctive

abstract

formed,

any

real

by

the

the

would

qualities
the

idea

qualities
expressed

every

exists in the

individual

abstract

; but

and
intellect,

animal.

anything
abstract

objects of intellectual cognition.

idea

the abstract

Now,

123.

idea

viewed

nor

then, is

'

'

instance,

animal, which

How,

animal'

by the
Nothing, then,

cause,

but simply have

irrational,

nor

the

up

or

For

effect,substance, being, etc., just as

real abstract

no

be neither rational

that

existingbeing is concrete.

every

'

while

is the

denotes
the

the

word

same

as

manner

universal

the

universal

in which
denotes

such
its

Critical

70

Logic,

to many
applicability
objects. Thus, I form
animal
by attendingto the notes, which
'

individual

animal, viz.,

'

material

idea

the abstract
I

perceive in

with

endowed

substance

any

'

life and

feeling; these notes I draw forth,or abstract {abfor separate consideration,

straho),
or, if you wish, I withdraw
individual
of that same
my attention from the other qualities
animal
I am
which
notes
considering. Since these same
conceived
'

is

:lass.
ies

are

universal

In

as

as

direct universal
is

applicableto

but

many

of these

reflex

which
f

to

which

call them

I reflect besides

called

given to

mal
ani-

the

idea

also its

consider

reflex universal.

Nominalists

the

confused

the nature

call them

collection of

mere

individuals,

correspond; the Conceptualists

concepts

no

when

that

warmly disputed upon

:

'

'

beings, i. e.,

is then

of

my. concept

predicableof a whole
animal
denotes
only the qualiit is called a
its co?nprehension,

when

universals

are

'

up

Philosophershave

124.

but

idea

make

extension,the idea

names

my

animals,

i. e,, it is

concept,

that

notes

or

far

all

to

common

concepts,but they suppose

those

concepts

to be

mere

figmentsof the intellect to which no real objectscorrespond;

the
Exaggerated Realists supposed that u?iiversal beings
really exist corresponding to the universal concepts; the
Moderate
Realists maintain that some
responds
realityin objectscordoes
abstract idea, yet that such reality
not
to the
abstract or universal being without
as
an
objectively
in each individual
individualizing
notes, but it exists concretely
ing
object. The explanationwe have given in the two precedexist

is that

numbers

of the

proofsof our doctrine

belong to Psychology.
"
125.
axe

3.

Immediate

moderate

judgments

the

the refutation of other

and

tific
scien-

systems

AnalyticalJudgments.

Analytical judgments,

those

realists; but

in which

as

the

explainedabove (No. 17),

or
disagreement
agreement

Critical

72
3. Another

of

these

Logic,
is

judgments

false,viz., Out
"

of

"

was
nothing nothing can be made
\ for the world
This analytical
made
out of nothing. Answer,
ment
judgbe a material out
that nothingnesscannot
means
God
be made, while,in creating,
of which a thingcan

make

not

All

4.

any material ; He did

nothingnessthe material of His creation.

the world

made

judgments

our

the

Answer.

(No. 17.)
judgments are

5. No

certain ; for

To

Answer,

man.

err

to

in his

sometimes

6.

even
subjects,
Answer.
They formally and

elicited.

discover

and

"
is

Memory

the

knowledge, and

It is twofold

sensile
e.

"

pain

remember

The
-"

e.

power

subjects.

of

retaining and

it as
recognizing

g.^ of

felt
"

as

retains

memory

former

re-awaking
knowledge.

re-awakes

phantasms. In this
men.
(No. 106.)

those

well

intellectual
g.y of what

and

whip formerly seen or heard

it perceives a connection

and

between

3.

plicitly
im-

predicatesare

what

Memory.

4.

of

plicitly
ex-

The

I.

express

in tneir

contained

their

predicates
ments
though no judg-

in their

contained
be

128.

opinions,
yes;

in his certain

err

are

is natiu-al to

err

judgments, no.
Analyticaljudgments are useless;for

to

they presuppose

ments.
Now, the latter is required for empiricjudg-

deny.

former

for

empirical
;

are

They presuppose sensation before

conceive the ideas, we
can
grant; they compare
ideas by attendingto experienceand sensation,
we

sensation.
we

using

without

we

as

memory

retains

tasms
phanand
or

way

and re-awakes

of

ciation
asso-

brutes

ideas

read, thought,01
formerlysaw, felt,

Means

willed

129. The

the act.

by

judges

To

in

to

power

our

The

VIII.

Thesis

will has

associated
a

with

fruit may

former

the

reliability
of

know

our

the memory

could

is such.
not

think

forgottenbefore
thought could
remembered

to

our

with

in the

memory

certainty

object perceived

an

judgment,

all

recall

can

and

power

that
of

our

this
tellect
in-

in the

intellect's power

to

know

all connected

thought and all expression

be impossible. But
the reliabihty
of our
were
For, unless our memory
we
reliable,
connectedly,since one judgment would be
another
could be compared with it ; and no
be
could
be
expressed, because no words

thought would

memory

is contained

is included

That

truth,without which
of

tained
con-

truth.

know

Proof.

is

memory

is identical with

before, it is reliable in such

to

; the

truth.

recalled

object now

rehabihtyof

tion
percep-

recall its taste

Explanation. We do not maintain that we

former perceptions
our
; but simply that,when
recall a former
does
perception,and judges
that

be aroused

must

memory

in

share

no

recall the shortness of this present life.

eternitymay

130.

ideas

those

objectsof

the

spontaneously,the

act

perceptionin some
way
; e. g., the fragrance of

idea of

that the

when
spontaneously,

will ;

at

it

and

"

']i

tellectua
the sensile and the informerlyperceived. In man
work
togetherand assist each other.
memory
it recalls the
acts
voluntarily when
memory

were

past

of Attaining Certainty.

express

them.

often deceives us,

objected that our memory
it gives us, on
Not when
careful consideration,
answer
we
:
But
men
are
testimony,excluding all fear of error.
positive
often too
to
examine
careless,impatient,or presumptuous
131.

If it be

their recollections

properly.
" 5.

132.

When

we

attempt

Reasoning.
to

reason

in

order

to

prove

the

Critical

74

Logic,

of reasoning,we
reliability
evidentlydo not pretend to give a
strict proof; we
ing
simplygive a scientific explanation,show-

why it is
premisesmust

that

Thesis

IX.

133.

be

conclusion

certain

as

as

Whoever

derived
logically

the

from

premisesthemselves.

grants the premises of logical

reasoningcannot deny the coficlusion.

as
Proof. All logicalreasoning,
explained above
etc.),is

based

this

on

contained
the

grant

affirm and
he

premises
deny

affirms.

that
principle,

in the

the

and

Therefore

whoever

reasoningcannot

deny
Objections:i.

134.

us;

but

Iftheconclusion
would

in the

the

is implicitly

who

would

would

theorems

learned

preceding

is

know
it

at

this conclusion

by reasoning.

Geometry are derived

and
ultimatelyfrom

theorems

to

new

tained
conimplicitly

was

not

in the

by reasoning.

conclusion

arrived

of

contained

were

be

did

premises,we
particulartill we

all the

he

22,

thereby
cannot
deny what
premises of logical

grants the

knowledge of the
for,although the conclusion

Thus,

conclusion

one

The

in

(Nos.

the conclusion.

nothing new
premises,
Answer.

the

premises. Hence,
deny the conclusion
thing;

same

true

from
the

axioms.
2.

leads

Reasoning
Not

3. The

(See

when

into

men

it is materially
and

35, etc.; in

Answer,

formallycorrect.

proof given holds only for

All reasoning is reducible
Nos.

errors.

many

the
to

for
particular,

swer.
syllogism. Anthe syllogistic.
induction,No.

46.)
Article

135.
from

The

all

faculty of

III.

to

the

distinguishesall

sensation

vegetablesubstances

which, added

Sensation.

genus

; for
'

'

sentient

livingmaterial

'

is the

animals

difference
substance,'con-

Means

of Attaining Certainty,

stitutes the species

we

endowed

with

cognitivepower,

action, or

material

It

nerves.

action

can

be

exceed

the

cause

its organs
clear and

the

superiorto

therefore,as

Besides, any
both

of matter;

therefore

modification

of

it is evident

that

'

substance

is

individual

portion of

the

matter

living

the

no

effect would
power,

objects.
sense

portion
such,

are

individual

concrete

But

matter.

modification

pictureor

can

living

material

portionof

individual

concrete

by

of

objectsof

will be

of

power

individual

concrete

the

principlethat

material

sense-action

concrete
a

certain

sense

and

the organs

every

individual

is

matter

consist

agent, else

nothing higher than

know

137.

is

i.e.,

is elicited

knowledge,

substance, and

material

it can

is

sense

its

knowing;

animal

sense.

136. Now,

its

is an
By saying man
he is a livingmaterial

exactlythis,that

mean

and

animal.'

75

of

crete
con-

represent by

and
individual modification
nothing but a concrete
of matter
consists in such
perception of sense
; now,
hence
sense
can
representation,
perceivenothing but concrete

and

nature

own

individual

modifications

of matter.

sense
perceivesthe material modifications that
138. When
animal body, it is called inner sense ;
take place within its own
when
that take place
it perceivesthe material modifications

Inner
body, it is called outer sense.
fullyexplainedabove (Nos. 103, 104).

outside of its animal

sense

was

more

"
The

139.

feelingsor
a

inner

I.

sense

of the

Inner

does

not

Sense.

are

comfort

reasoningthat

prompted
; but
we

by our inner
pain or comfort
to

it is

have

seek

sense

causes
we

by

relief of the

only by

learned

the

to
testify

affections ; for

certain affection called

we

The

our

merely
animal

pain or

process

of

our

feel
stinct
in-

increase

of inductive

to
intellectually

refer

this

Critical

y6
certain

to
feeling

specialcause.

long experiencethat
from

of

want

X.

Thus

Inner

from

want

have

we

peculiarfeeUng

food, another

Thesis

140.

Logic,
learned

by

arises

of discomfort

drink,etc.

of

is reliable

its

;
perceptions
modifications
perceivedby it reallyexist.

i.e., the material

sense

in

is not
reliable in itr
Proof. To say that the inner sense
is the same
those identical affec
to say that
as
perceptions,
tions,or inner modifications of the animal body, which are
out
perceived,do not reallyexist. But this cannot be said withto be that whichabsurdity; for to be perceived means
"

'

'

is

perceived'or

then,
and

exist

'

exist ; which

not

objectof perception.'If,
exist
reallyexist,they would

the

is absurd.

sometimes
testifies to
Objections: i. The inner sense
the feelingof a pain in an amputated limb.
Answer.
It testifiesto the feelingof a pain,we
grant, and there
reallyis a pain ; but it does not testifyto the exact
of that pain. The feeling
cause
experiencednow
may
be similar

that

to

Then
lesion in that

experiencedbefore the
the feelingof pain arose

limb ; and

this former

judgingthat
limb
we

the

and

The
We

be

longer there. We
inclined,
by the force

3. The

their

the

putated.
am-

was

from

some

us

an

occasion

for

is

againowing to the
feel a lesion,
which

of

habit,to locate in

nerves

are

affected

is exposed

which
extremity,

sensitive.

very
inner

sense

fails to report all affections.

simply maintain

that

those

Answer.

affections exist which

report.

proof supposes

felt and

at

whereas

limb

imaginationreproducing

relation,affords

amputated limb,

it does

the

is no

which

may

now,

the present sensation

elsewhere,namely

2.

as

affections did

those

not

141.

*to

'

therefore

that the inner affections

must

reallyexist ;

but

are

really

perhaps we

of Attaining Certainty,

Means

yj

know
Answer.
W"
only imagine that we feel them.
that we
can
imagine a certain pain,
by consciousness
that we
feel
the pain of burning,and
for instance
can

these

"
142.

We

outside

of

by

taste, and

this

external

Two

perceive objects
sight,hearing,smell,

do the

How

2.

selves
them-

questionspresent

far is the

How

reliable ?

we

of

senses

different

very

subject: i.

senses

Senses.

(No. 102) that

the five outer

touch.

on

Outer

The

2.

stated before
us

difference between

vast

acts

two

is

that there

pain,but

that

testimony
work

senses

of

so

our

to

as

of the latter
testimony? The full treatment
questionbelongs to Psychology, that of the former to our
are
absolutelycertain
present study of Critical Logic. We
reliable

give us

facts,though

of many

satisfactorily
explain how
exhausted
with hunger and
the pleasure and
the restoration

cannot

we

they are brought about : a man

fatigueis absolutelycertain of
he derives from
wholesome
of strengthwhich
a
meal,
explainthe exact process by which the
although he cannot
and

senses

all
similarly,

expressed

on

6)

p.

any

in the
"

oiher

following

To

see,

view

brought

that

forth from

we

one

entire

the
know

is

give

describe

to

not

Very
fool

life,is
realm

to

of

Trinity (book
begets

Rev.

in

both, from the knower

us

I. T.

and

the

tend

human

to

and

intellectual

activity. Life
be

knowledge
the

thing

bodies,i. "?.,

perception is

{Cath.

to

law

is real.

itself,for

known.'

World,

something.

see

clearly held
of

external

our

imbecility. This

ix ), 'it must
the

by

Hecker

have

{a)We

to exist in

lunatic, is

or

these:

are

sense-perceptionand
of

words

of human

realityappliesto the
says St. Augustine on
whatsoever

if

case

objects in
cause
of these

the

both

objectiverealityof

often

senses

able

are

results;

accomplished.

facts in the

[b) We Judge

The

few

these

to

the outer

of outer

sensations

various

1887,

this is

obvious

The

143.

senses

certain that

are

in which

manner

men

information, though

reliable

contribute

digestivepower

the

"

of
'

that

well

Oct.,
To

act

objective

Wherefore,'
everything

knowledge

is

78

Critical

'

in substances

distinct from

peculiarpowers

of action

firmly without

fear

adhesion

bodies, and

their sensations
But

bodies

We

error.

that therefore

means

called Idealists.

Such

all sciences
facts and
sound

his

schools:

two

which

judgments

in
precisely

no

is

i.

that

imagining
Berkeley, the
ever

of

cause

the

all mankind.

difference
; and

inabilityof

Every

between

real

unsoundness
some

of

tinguish
dis-

to

men

mere
objective realities and
phantasms.
likelihood that any
philosopher of note ever

their

to

the

of

imaginations

mere

the existence

did violence

mind

own

no

philosophers

subjectiveschool,maintains

for certain

knows

consists

doubted

into

are

have

may

These

divided

are

ideas,which

know,

them.

know

ideas.

and

between

pet

of the

with the firmest

there is

not

"The

perceptions and

But

do

instead of restingon
solid facts,as
speculations,
should do, are in direct conflict with all known

mind

mind

of

reliable

Ego positsitself." 2.
school,makes God the direct
objective

phantasms

firm

our

are

we

and

phantasms
which, for all we

nothing but

leader of the

145.

that

of

They

leader

unrealities:

our

senses

objects.
philosophersargue

except by

there exists

that

of outward

some

Fichte, the

judgment

objectiveexistence

external

our

this

to

maintain
the

to

subjectivein us, and

objectivereality
correspondingto
are

adhere

{c)We

and

mind, having extension

our

this judgment is due

to

144.

of

Logic,

of bodies.

which

theory, by

good

own

Such

sense

they

earned

Human

Nature:

as

pretended to

in order
the

to

support
of

name

doubt
some

original

thinkers.*
*

writes in his Treatise

Hume

gammon,

hours

and

converse

of amusement,

strained,and
farther"

so

lieved that

no

readers

with

happy

am

I would

ridiculous

(vol.i. p. 467).

on

return

that I

Why

existed ?

to

cannot

did Hume

fnends

my

"

dine, I play

and

when,

these

speculations,
they

find

in my

and

it

Fichte

heart
write

to

if

of back"

game

three

appear

enter

books

after

into

so

or

four

cold,so

them

any

they really be"

Critical

8o

tial to

would
2.

give

falsely;this

does

in

so

Angel.
material body.
4.

us

be

Sometimes

us

e,
visions,

vision

the intellect

5. In dreams

mania

of
reflection,

the

it to

be, of snakes, demons,

they no
and

follow

not

see

mind

doubt

that

do

we

have

normal

when

not

that

the

reflex

rid

cannot

know

they

own

From

the

cannot

abnormal

reflect at

themselves,

they suppose

cannot

mind

rational

of

state

Answer.

sound

examine

not

etc.

perceivetheir

reasons,

perceive real

we

perception,as

on

disordered

we

apotu

even

assumed

considering. Besides,in

here

in the

not

are

we

Tobias

suspect the truth.

to

reason

are

beings.
of
6. Those
suffering

does

judge

merely subjective. Answer.

judgments ;
we

made

had

Angel

In dreams

our

which
certainty

fact that

Answer.

can.

He

that
judge irresistibly

we

certaintyof

g., when

The

is

sees

objects. Answer.

dreams

directly

not

againstHis own
perfectnature,
of
incapableof having certainty,

Answer.

an

Then

if he could

irresistiblepropensityto

an

leave

ticism
Scep-

truth.

knowing
see

universal

reasonable.

omnipotent

would

it would

3. God

thus

all the effects that bodies

us

cannot

and

be

not

produce on
He

become

would

God

judge falsely;and

to

man

Logic.

the

truth,it
besides,

condition

all,to

doubt

their visions.

7. From

any

act

which

infer the existence

of

is
the

only subjectivewe
objectivereality
; but

cannot
tion
sensa-

sensation is not
Our
only subjective.Answer.
and a percepmerely subjective
tion
; for it is a perception,
is the subjective
act of taking in an
object: a perception
is

without

an

object perceivedis

self-contra-

Means

of Attaining Certainty,

8i

takingin of nothing. Besides,

we
invinciblyjudge that our perceptionsare due to
objects(Nos. 143, etc.)
of our senses
far the reliability
how
148. To understand
what
have
tion
on
points sensaextends, we
only to examine
elicit judgments. As this is
to
prompts us irresistibly
diction

there

be

can

no

shall consider

questionof great importance,we

it with

some

detail.*
1.

We

be

statue

paintingin the
we
judge a
may

see

may

greater distance
on

as

such, does

object seen
unequally,as
as

Not

inform

not

sound
Do

it does.

than

occasions

those

us

distance

us

and
to

our

judge

from

come

whether

deceive

senses

all : in fact,the

at

it to

sight,

all the parts of the

in

painting,or
Neither
in a statue.
sight nor hearing,
distances : sight deals with color
about
equally near,

are

such, tell

with
and, consequently,
with

hearing deals
varieties.

the outlines of colored

sound,

Each

as

of which
has

sense

we

thus

objects;
less
perceivecount-

its

proper

own

objectof sense-perception(sensibile
proprium). The
objectof sightis color ; of hearing,sound; of
proper
smell, odor
and

of taste, flavorj

resistance.

perception of

The

between
distinguish

us

to

of

which

noticed

are

to

2.

As

over

small

space,

extension,outline

by

touch

*See
The Old Philosophy
Month, September, 1888.)

and

and

or

touch, temperature
resistance

varieties of
be

are
unyieldingor hard; some
uneven
or
are
rough; some
others
by curved lines; some

others

of

surfaces,some

yieldingor
even

or

bounded

extend

enables

soft,others

smooth; some
by straight,
over

large,

etc.

number, etc.,are perfigure,

ceptible
sight,they,and in general all

Relativityof Knowledge, by Henry

Brown.

(J'ht

82

Critical

those

qualitiesof
than

more

3.

one

Logic,

bodies

called

are

sense,

which
the

objectsof

commoii

sense-perception{sensibilecommune).
Sense does not
perceive color,sound, resistance,
etc.,
in the abstract; but it perceivessomething colored,

sounding,resisting,
etc.,in
4.

perceptibleby-

are

the concrete.

While

concrete
we
by our senses
perceivesome
body
as
colored,resisting,
etc., our intellect,,
by its power of
abstraction,
abstracts,or considers apart, various notes

marks

of

body, such as 'color,''resistance,'

'existence,'
'substance,'etc., and thus forms
Equality,'
or

that

abstract ideas; next, by its power

ideas and

these
and

of

pares
judging,it comobjectsperceived together,

the

judgments, such

pronounces

'this substance

as

is

etc.
colored,'' something resisting
exists,'

5. The

usually assist

senses

the

sound,
which

the

have

we

hand

the

what

inductive

by

readiness

by

sense

on

to

judge

hearing
and

presence

of

well-known

we

form
6. We
no

of
see

reason

work

of

the

the

or

earliest

associate
with

our

holds
be-

string

infancy
sense-

intellectual

our

qualitiesrevealed

another

familiar

the very

person

human

; from

to

voice

one

For

sense.

expressionof

tell its taste ; from

can

from

eye

perceivesthe

ear

rattle

and

objectof

the proper

the
a

another

the

perfectedour associations of phantasms

reasoning,till we have acquired great

have

we

the

figm-eof

one

other

; the

Thus
fingersmove.
learned by practice to

with
perceptions
acts

touches

the

eye

each

we

stance,
in-

know

countenance

the

the

of a fruit
firagrance
aroma
we
judge the

flower.
many
to

in the

to

reasons

judge, and

doubt, that the

same

way

as

our

senses
own.

on

many

of brute
Brutes

points
animals

perceive

Means

of Attaining Certainty,
and

the proper

various

from

do,

we

and

is

as

the

sense

often

are

and,

as

perfect

more

phantasms, derived
readilyand perfectlythan
senses, more
well exemplifiedin the scent
of the dog

brutes

ours,

objectsof

common

their instincts

and

their organs
than

the

83

cunning

associate

may

of the fox.

ways

perceive substance as such; /. ^., as

distinct from quality; but still,
crete
by perceivingthe conquaHties,it puts us into relation with substance.
of
is thus
What
intellectually
perceived on account
per
sense, is said to be indirectlysensible {sensibile

7. Sense

does

accidens).

not

sense

of

stone

thrown

do

do

Brutes

word

the

always do

not

the

itself. The

brutes

as

perfecta

and
some

It

reason.

of

power

the

dog

judgments
We

are

g.j the

it,and

they

will often bite the

wisdom,

has

given

associatingphantasms

and

to

man,

for whose

judges ; for he
is, however, only on

importance that

doubt.

associates and

both

proper

as

vantage
ad-

evidentlyintended.

they are
Man

the

throws

Creator, in His

is beneficial to themselves

8.

who

man

that

even

stone

all,in

at

they merely associate,e.

with

judge

not

well

find

we

stop

enough

them

to

be

to

consider

has

instinct
of

occasions
whether

our

exclude

founded

to

such

when,

on

all

careful

perceive that they give us evidence

of the objectivetruth.
That
gard
they may do so with rethe followingconditions
to our
sense
-perceptions,
be fulfilled : {a) We
be conscious
that we
must
must
in a normal
are
or
healthy condition ; else we can see
to suspect the testimonyof our
reason
senses.
(^)We
examination, we

must
e.

be

aware

that

g.j it all around

reason

to

our
us

suspect that

surroundings appear
looked
oiu:

normal

yellow, we should see

jaundiced, (c)
eyes were

Critical

84
We

find that

must

another

and

our

Logic,

hands

XIL

Thesis

149.

touch

to

reliable

are
conditions^

testimony; "f. ^., if a

perceivean unusual appearance,
care,

with

sight; or I even apply

surprise.
my

of the

external

senses^

regard

to

positionto

I shift my

excites

what

The

one

in their

constant

passingglance makes me
I look again with
dispelall possibleillusion
my

with

concordant

are

senses

actingunder

their

proper
their

proper and

objectsof sensation.

common

The

proper

conditions

here

explained. This thesis defines

reUable.
senses
are
perfectly
Proof. The senses
perceive nothing but

spoken
the

extent

have

just

to

which

the

reliable in their

are

the

been
outer

testimony if they

objectivetruth;

For, being physicalpowers,

case.

of

but

they work

such

is the

and
necessarily,

therefore
them

that

they can
only perceivethe objects presented to
perceive what does not exist ; i, e.^
; else they would
which does not
exist would be an
objectof perception;

which

is absurd.

150.

do not, then, claim

We

that is formed
what

the

sensible

occasion

on

senses

objects of sensation.
sensible qualities
exist

e.

those

are

The

is

judgment
but only for
sense-perception,

/. ^., the

the

sense,

in which

those

cases

; it may

mistake

the intellect is not

suspend

of

the

itself in

those

common

which

those

not

the intellect judges the

inhere.
qualities

of that substance, the intellect may

judge that to be an orange
g.f it may

wax

existence
and

proper

substance

every

apprehended, by the senses, as

qualities.From the knowledge of the qualities

perceivedby
substance

of

reallyreport,

qualitieswhich

distinct from

certaintyfor

of the

mate
forming its esti-

often

be

which

is

mistaken
a

lump

of

body. But even in such

into error, but it can
necessarily

picturefor
led

In

nature

its judgment tillall fear of

error

has

been

removed.

of Attaining Certainty.

Means

Objections

151.

The

: i

qualitiesare
fire

which
qualities

by
and

sugar

we

produce

in

real

have

correspondingsensations

us

; both

the

qualitiesthat

that

are

in

us

in

are

nominat
de-

are

analogically.Certainly
of
which
are
causes
qualities

terms

same

real

fire have

in the

is sweet,

sugar

bodies

those

the sensations

the

that

these

that

prove

perceived,but

say

that

mean

and

bodies

those

we

others

bodies

When

heat, etc.

of sweetness,

sensations.

our

know

We

2.

in the

not

hot, etc.,

and

Descartes

Answer.

senses.

tell us that sugar is sweet, fire

senses

hot, etc.,while

85

where

by
see

we

know

We

the

science that the

here

it;

the

by

exactlythere

sight deceives
sightnothing but the
the

; its place,size,etc.,

sun

is not

sun

inferred

are

swer.
An-

us.

color

of

inductive

by

reasoning.
3. But

of the

is not

sun

such

as

we

see

it

modified

do
We
by the atmosphere. Answer.
claim certainty
not
except for what we perceive; now,
we
perceiveby the sightthe color such as it is when it
reaches
of sight
our
eyes ; with anything else the sense
has nothing to do.
But the sightdistorts its objects
tower
; thus, a square
when

4.

the color

even

appears

round

in

the

reports only the colors

^ower; all

inference

as

distance.
of
to

the

Answer.

The

sight

different parts of the

its shape,size,etc.,

are

clusions
con-

of inductive

perfect
reasoning,which is often too imto give certainty.
be concordant
must
and
5. By admittingthat the senses
in their testimony,we
constant
imply that each sense

singlycan
a

while.

give

no

be

mistaken

Answer.
sufficient

All

in
we

ground

certain

imply
for

cases,

is that

at

least for

the

till we
certainty

senses

have

Critical

86

whether

examined

Logic.

all

conditions

the

complied

are

with.
6. When

see

stick

it touches

where

Answer.

me.

the surface ;

that I

Answer.

man.

but

accidents
I

which

the

see

be

must

mind
that

8. That

our

senses

we

suppositionthat
see

the evidence

of sense, when
to.

9. A

We

see

g.^

see

only ;
are

When

understand
;

the

e.

appearances

there

and, by attending

particularcase,

the

Answer.
need

we

my

of the

on

We

this

deny

but

common

and

feel heat

color,odor, taste, etc., may

and

cannot

we

the

senses;

subject except
the
at

reason

first know

must

we

major

all in

are

and

order

the proper

required conditions

color,we

the

his presence.

testimonyof

to

of

appearance

is constant

reason

the

the

be relied on,

fi^om

cannot

vicious circle.

that

in substances.

man,

occasion

may

this except

therefore

only ;

appearances

that

of

of nature

that the order

learn

of
reality

the

that

judgment, often absolutelycertain,

present
to

truth,viz. :

not

man,

for that appearance

forms

is due

man

of

circumstances

the

on

naturallyexist

cause

soon

the

apprehends

appearance

all the

to

Sense

of

intellect understands

our

sight deceives

my

report appearances

can

the appearance

see

it broken

see

if broken.

as

senses

our

here

sight reports

My

the stick appears

7. Then

into water, I

plunged

in
the
to

objects
attended

resistance immediately.

please one

man

and

must
displeaseanother ; therefore different men
hend
appreall do not
objectsdifferently
; therefore
hend
appreThe
them
correctly. Answer.
apprehensions
suit all alike. As the
but they do not
the same,
are
alike in structure, with
are
substantially
organs of men

Critical

88

153.
way;

Logic.
circuitous

in a stillmore
Authority givesus certainty
with
communication
into
for it brings us
of the

means

is said

reached

of other

statements
to

be

by

truth thus

The

persons.

believed^and

truth

called

authority is

an

certainty.Belief,or faith,is Divine or

human, according as the authorityon which it rests is Divine
with human
concerned
human.
In Philosophy we
are
or
of

motive

extrinsic

faith ; and

the

questionto

Thesis XIII.

The

considered

now

witnesses

authorityof human
perfectcertainty.
154.

be

relied upon

be

can

of
testimony

giveperfectcertainty.
conditions
i.
requiredare:

is,whether

under

men^

the

give

to

proper

ditions,
con-

can

The

sufficiently
open

are

or

That

accessible

the facts testified to

observation;

to

2.

That

be noticed
else they might not
they are of great moment;
carefully;3. That the witnesses are sensible men;
4. That
they are either undoubtedly sincere,or, if not, that they are
different characters,opinions,parties,
of sufficiently
many,
suspicionof collusion
interests,
etc., to exclude all reasonable
in the support of false statements.
Proof. That testimony
able
givesperfectcertaintywhich convinces us beyond all reason-

doubt

that

wish

to

The

could

witnesses

not

deceive

fulfils the conditions

testimonywhich
For

could

witnesses

did not

and

themselves

the

deceived

been
But

us.

such

is the

juststated.
have

not

have

been

deceived,since

tion
{a) The facts are supposed to be open, accessible to observaof great moment,
to invite careful
so
as
; {b) They are
examination; [c] The witnesses are sensible men, who do not
not
act rashlyand are
easilyimposed upon ; and, besides,they
of different

are

mistake
2.

known

in

They

opinions,characters,etc., so

not

as

to

make

common.

do

not

for certam

wish
to

be

to

deceive

us

sincere,and, of

since

either

course,

such

they
men

are

do

Means

not

wish

of Attaining Certainty,

deceive;

to

be

supposed to

Now, sensible
of

matters

combine

to

common

grave

certainlysincere,they

of different

many,

etc.
interests,
on

if not

or,

do

men

lie

not

led

interest

wantonly, especially

of

all,would

they

important falsehood, unless

into so disgraceful
them
a

an

are

characters,opinions,
parties,

importance; and, least

propagate

89

some

crime.

they are supposed to have no such interest in common.

to doubt
There is,consequently,
no
reason
testimony.
tjhieir
witness
gives only probability,
155. Objections: i. Each
But

no

number

Answer.

Even

and

of

but by
probabihties,

others

an

the elimination

show

may

in the present

by

special

case

tainty
cer-

of

accumulation
of all motives

for

doubt.

reasonable

is free

witness

Every

testimony of

attained, not

is thus

up

still leaves

several

or

is unfounded

that the doubt

2.

may

the

doubt,

to

certainty.
who
is certainly
intelligent,
give perfectcertainty;but

witness

one

prudent,and sincere
if the testimony of one
reasons

make

can
probabilities

deceive.

to

the conditions

know

from

case,

there

man

is free to

laid down

actual

no

was

Answer.

attempt

can

given

that, in
deceit.

at

suicide,and

still it

they will not all do so.

History contains many falsehoods.
defend all history.
not

Answer.

commit

We

Every

is

certain

that

3.

4.

At

least,we

traditions

past, because
We
when
was

died

on

changed
a

cross

preached
motive

to

do

so

; e.g.,
;

that

His

are

long
graduallychanged.

certain

be

that,in

know

we

not

often

can

certain of events

be

cannot

of such

we

He

know
rose

had

not

for certain

again;
; that

do

since
swer.
An-

events, viz.,

given instance,the

Resurrection

if He

We

tradition

that Christ

that

His

they had
risen;that they

ciples
disno

laid

Critical

90

down

their

lives in

this argument

(See

Logic.
their

testimony of

etc.
sincerity,

fullytreated

more

in

Schouppe's

Course

of ReligiousInstruction,p. 6.)
of testimony can
least,no amount

5. At

certain;for

it is

occurred,

while

that

did.

they

that

it is at
Answer.

they never

occurred

is that nature

6.

has

Lord

of nature

have

occurred.

no

though unlearned,
obvious

they

facts,of
natural

were

There
to

common

meaning

two

or

learned

will judge whether

men

Common

V.

power.

Sense.

unwavering judgments

many

minds

called

dictates

of

even

men,

testimony about

all natural

beyond

or

Sensible

reliable

they

fitjudges of

not

are

that

particular

that any

us

they

give

can

of sound

; all these

common

convictions

or

in

may

sense,

wider

/. "?., of that

intellect which

ideas,others

others

are

term

common

obvious
from

the
when

sense,

is taken
certainty,
those

intellect and

from

the

and
piinciples

not

for

men

all

be

assure

the

Some
to all men.
belongs in common
ness,
these judgments proceed from
the testimony of consciousbetween
others from the immediate
intuitions of identity

sense

of

are

morally certain

Answer.

which

Article

156.

not

is miraculous.

what

never

but

produce them,

to

it is

performed;

was

they

only morally certain

It is not
physicallycertain
certain
; all that is physically

power

could

that

most

has ; and

Still,
plain men
miracle

physicallycertain

miracles

make

in

more

combined,
sense-perceptions

deductions

of

perceptions of
considered
restricted

from

reason

as

But

the

specialmotive

of

the
a

senses.

meaning

to all sensible
judgments only,common
evident,and
immediately or intuitively

with the direction of moral

conduct.

intuitive

; it comprises

men,

which

which

are

arc

cerned
con-

of Attaining Certainty,

Means

followingare examples of
There
is a sovereignLord and

157. The
"

:
"

His

Him,"

evil,"

rewards

and

other,"

Brutes

"

their

find how

"

death,"
Friends

just cause,"

far the

"

rewarder

of

of

"

There

Children

must

each

help

must

use

things,"

reverence

body,"

our

killed for the

be

may

after

must

is the

He

"

will survive

parents,"

killed without

158. To
rehable,we

laws,"

soul

of all

Master
"

punishments

obey

be

cannot

Our

"

and

honor

His

obey

must

and

good
are

We

"

ments
judg-

common-sense

affairs," We

directs human

Providence

91

man,"

Men

"

etc.

of

judgments

common

are

sense

consider whence
carefully
they proceed and
what
evidence they give us of the objectivetruth.
should
We
of
that they proceed from the universal
not
consent
suppose
each of them
the
forms
men
individually
men;
agree because
must

judgments,but each one separatelydoes not form

because
all agree : universalityis a character,not a

them

same

cause

of them.

judgment on the authorityof

if their united
to us ; but we
are
testimony is known
influenced by another
motive of certainty,
viz.,common

159. True,
men

then

consent.

we

accept

may

Thus,

we

beheve

may

that

originally
happier condition,because
that effect ; but

to

very

different,
being formed

judgments
by

nations

most

each

of

one

from

tions
tradi-

have

common

an

sense

are

independentlyof

the

of others.

consent

160.

should

Nor

School

maintain,

by

the
the

suppose
Reid

from

writers

These

truths.

establish

we

proceed,as

sense

Hume

the

is fallen

man

weapon

and
mere

wished
of

common

of common
reliability

that

the

judgments

his followers

instinct
to

to

refute
sense
sense

of

mon
com-

the Scottish

believe

the

of

certain

Scepticismof

they failed to
by making it a mere
; but

blind instinct.
161. Whence,

then, do

the

judgments

of

common

sense

Critical

92

?
derive their validity

truth,which
sound

is

mind.

Logic,

From

evidence

the

presented with

sufficient

of

the

clearness

objective^
to

every

The

tively
objectivetruth in such cases is not intuido not
see
beheld; we
immediately God's existence^
the action of His providence;nor the soul as survivingthenor
body, nor one
being called virtue and another
vice; but,
startingwith premises supplied by sense-perceptionsand
intellectual action,we
obvious process of rea^
go through an
Boning,of which the evident conclusions are the dictates of
For instance,
seize upon
the fact
sense.
common
senses
my
of the world's
be a
existence,my intellect sees there must
for

reason

world

its existence ;
mind

itself,
my

reasoning that
fi-om it ;

there

and,

in
findingthat reason
by an obvious process

not

concludes
is

besides,since

cause

of the

also understand

we

belongs to its maker, we

the Sovereign Lord and

first

conceive
Master

of

world, distinct

that

the Cause

the

thing made

of this world

as

of all

The
etc.
things,
ments
judgof common
because
are
reliable,
sense, therefore,
they
evident conclusions derived from evident premises.
are
of certainty
162. This motive
distinct
is,then, not entirely
from
the motives
already considered; but it has a special
advantage, viz.,that it furnishes us with a summary
proof of
most
important propositions,the detailed study of
many
which would requirelengthyexplanations.
The
sense
art
judgments of common
163. Thesis XIV.
true.

Proof. According to the principlesthat underlie inductive

reasoning (No. 47), any constant, uniform, and unvarying
effect produced by any class of objectsmust
proceed from the
of those
stant,
objects;but these judgments are convery nature
uniform, and unvarying in man
; therefore they have
for
or

cause

the ve-y nature

essential to

man

to

of

form

man

these

in other

words, it is natural

judgments.

Now, it cannot

be natural

essential to

or

to be

to form

man

false

absurd j therefore

164. Objections: i.

has

these

judgments

are

Such

judgments

may

variable

are

causes

they

3.

all

of

consciences

2.

the very

the dictates of

stem

so

common

swer,
An-

laws, etc.
cause

all these

nature

of

duty

as

sides,
Be-

man.

impose

not

of

far

the

on

belongs

as

sense.

judgments might

from

the

passions of
Answer.
On the contrary, our
men.
passionswould
rather prompt us to deny these very judgments.
Huxley says that religionhas been developed from
instinctive belief in ghosts. Answer.
men's
Huxley's
theory unsupported
theoryis,as usual with him, a mere
These

by

proof.

The

opponent

of

valid

able

an

come

fact that

very

determined

so

adduce

religioncannot

any

for the conviction

plausibletheory to account
is a strong presumption in favor of our
4.

from

justso

sense

true

come

except

traditions,
etc., would

mere

to

to

proved

but
false,

have

the

men,

among

traced

be

can

exceed

effect cannot

versal
else uni-

been

not

human
education, prejudices,
tradition,
The

93

judgments ;

follow,which, however,

would

doubt

Certainty.

of Attaining

Means

Ignorant

cannot

men

such

judgments;

from

others.

therefore

Answer.

but
difficult,

not

pretended
account

5. Even

that

of its

easy
every

The

and

thought
a

can

Geniuses
than

more

name

often
after

proud

though it is not
give a philosophic
;

those

strive after

truth,in

minds

path,simply because
(See further Metaphysics^No.

beaten

thesis.

enough to form
they only receive them
reasoning in question is

reasonings.
great geniusesdo not always see

themselves

kind,
man-

well

obvious

mind

more

own

Answer.
of

reason

of

and

disdain

it is the

225.)

sions.
conclu-

ity
original-

order

to

to

follow

beaten

make

the

path.

CHAPTER

THE

ULTIMATE

The

165.

which

these

several

properly applied
reliable

not

have

under

in that

which

the.

possibility

objective
I

166.

We

of

of

judge)

of

existence

of

last

question

that

of
how

them,
cannot

our

I know
that

no

by

can

bodies

in

my

rule

by

is

test

or

beyond

conformable

other

of

the

to

called

the

For

exist,
I

which

words,

the

criterion

in

if I

that

answer

their

riot

their
exist

existence

criterion

the

answers

see

an

is

made

myself

and

existence,
as

bility
relia-

the

question
I

By

concerning

examining

instance,

does

this

criterion

perceive

94

when

rion
crite-

truth.

inquiry

ultimate
ask

universal

objective

further

need

or

and

that,

for

senses

that

ultimate

mean

room

knowledge.

perceive

perception;

last, we

or

we

the

evidence

certainty

that

been

entertain

to

ascertain

to

are

judge

to

that

it leaves

the

they

ine
exam-

have

to-

certainty.

is the

calling it ultimate,
applied,

rule

maintain

certainty

judgments;

that

error

must

we

need

we

are

Hence,

remair.s

purpose

when

senses

conditions

reason

this
very

This

truth.

{upivooy

our

case,

necessary

no

For

judge

to

all the

whether

doubt.

further

any

and

with,

given

any

judgments.

our

e.g.,

the

reasons

e.,

conditions.

proper

in

in

certainty except

objects;

the

case

undoubting

give

not

proper

philosophic certamty

complied

is

their

to

except

whether

by

do

sources

examined

of certainty^ i.

elicit firm

to

CERTAINTY.

certainty,

motives

us

intellect

our

OF

of

sources

furnish

chapter,

move

But

CRITERION

various

preceding

IV.

feel
and

object

I
of

evident

Critical

g6

Logic,

objectivetruth is absolutely
necessary, but only that, if I see
it,it muslhe^ else I could not see it; the truth is hypotheticallynecessary.
1

68.

Before

criterion of

ultimate
writer

has

modem

so

confused

himself

scarcelydisputed; but this

question of certaintythat many

was
certainty

the

assignedand

philosophershave

Descartes

considers

ideas

clear

false criteria.

defended
the

as

But

true.

instinct is
these

criteria

it is not

questionwhether

look

in

France

and

reason

but

must

the

common

the

the

criterion in

test

Reign

show

we

that

its reliability
by

consent

are

agreed upon

and

oar

reason

during the
to

of

any
to

human

an

of

Terror,

how

we

whether

can

we

can

men

strove

trust

cannot

rule.

had

reason

its

point,unless

ascertain

thing

objectivetruth.
merely external

comparing
But

men.

sense,

objectivetruth. In fact,
no
merely internal test
; now,
the external thingsexist,
since

Lamennais, indignant that

De

adored

for

School

such

or

or

the

with

necessarilyconnected

Others

Thus,

all internal

are

ideas

that such

prove

a pledge of
necessarily

settle the

can

should

they

test

great

Reid, and the Scottish

principleof certainty
; while
generally,
relyultimatelyupon what they call common
blind instinct to consider
a
by which they mean
as

is the

time, the fact that evidence

Descartes'

our

been
to

reason,

judgments
know

relyon
exist and

credit
dis-

that
our

what

with
men

senses

they

ultimate; for we need

further criterion to judge of its existence and its reliability.
a
truth is the
The evidence of the objective
169. Thesis XV.
criterion of certainty.
universal
ultimate and
Proof. It is such if it fulfilsthe followingconditions : i. To
be inseparable
be a reliable test of truth,the criterion must

say ?

from
2.

To

No

the
be

merely

truth,so

external

that

ultimate,it

further test.

3. To

must

test

can

exist

it cannot
leave

be

no

doubt

be universal^it must

without
to

be

be

the
removed

truth.

by

to
applicable

manifest

the truth itselfmade

removed

be
the

by

no

truth is

have

case

and

so

evidence

ultimate
170.

deny

this.

agree

with

We

be

cannot

if

our

We

know

cannot

evidence

that
ascertaining

too,
err

the

deny.

we

when

he

manifestation

that

and

we

state, not

the

truth.

claim

reason

very

why

the

else

the

than

is the

anything

less
un-

Answer.

We

that

others

reliable,

not

that agreement.

insane

has

insane;

cannot

man

evidence

not

for evidence

in
is

besides, be

It must,

drunken,

by
This,

except

Answer.

us.

certaintyfor

for crazy,

that the

supposes

insane

he

see

universal,

see

were

not

an

; but

is

he

the

know

with

agree

evidence

of

not

of

Besides, even

wherein

us.

are

we

others

has

matters

normal

that

with

faculties

own

capable of seeing the

2.

agree
could

fact,we

us

certain of

to

to

this evidence

certainty.

that others
In

nothing

criterion of

i.

know

we

is

Therefore

evidence.

Objections:

It

i.

doubt

no

It is

3.

certaintyunless we
otherwise;but this

be

universal

and

of the

the mind

it.

to

objectivetruth,and

that

perception of

It leaves

2.

real

we

cannot

the

of

us.

the truth manifested

of
necessity

for in

to

test,since it enables

further

97

of
truth,since it is the intelligibihty

the

exist without

cannot

evidence

the

alone, fulfils all these conditions

it

objectivetruth,and

of Certainty,

certainty. Now,

of natural

motive

every

Criterion

Ultimate

The

or

.these cannot

membered
re-

in

man

his

sleepingmen
be

certain

is

because

reflect sufficiently
their
to examine
they cannot
judgments : they imagine that things are so, but they
cannot

see

3. Evidence

that

is

is the

minds;
4.

that

We

cannot

swer.

We

things

cannot

be

otherwise.

Answer.
True
only in our minds.
lightof objectivetruth perceived by
which is not cannot
be perceived.
be

can,

certain
as

our

that

we

have

evidence.

consciousness testifies.

dence
eviour

An-

Critical

98
Every

5.

that

is fallible. Answer.

man

have

infallible

no

Revelation.

Answer.

rationallytrust

We

those

is the

ultimate

if

attack

no

of

certainty. Answer,

knowing, but

His existence
to me
:
being known
with regard to me.
not
logically,
logically,
is the ultimate criterion of

the last questionasked

answers

Answer.

We

trust

9. Evidence

itself

Answer.

requires attention

motives

As

of assent,

for the existence

Evidence

does

instance,we

have

10.

Answer.

witnesses.
of

An

could

evident

It is the

judgment

13.

as

what

of

truth;

we

learn

evidence

be

may

the criterion of all

truths

false.

to

or

man's

are

that

not

certain

one's

own

estantism
Prot-

the criterion

evident.
are

Not

Answer,

cally
either intrinsi-

evident
directlyor indirectly,
extrinsically,

natural powers.

the

sequence.

certainty. Answer.

certain,but

Of natural truths all that

from

Answer.

make

in

are

for

us.

making privatejudgment
supernaturalcertainty.
Many

ditions
con-

necessary

intrinsic evidence

no

part of Protestantism

errs

of

conclusion

have

we

deceive

not

of

have

We
,

no

examination.

reasoningis evident,premisesand

if the whole
12.

evidence

itis

because

and

all kinds

reach

/.
it, but extrinsic,

witnesses
11.

no

tainty.
cer-

subjectiveevidence, yes.

of

not

of

it

is the ultimate criterion.

evidence

thus
reliable,
evidently

onto-

for
certainty;

the motives

about

the

not

is first

consciousness

our

evidence

of Faith.

first

8. Consciousness

not

of
rehability

the

the foundation

motive

through

could

we

had

we

is the first being existingand

He

matters

except

and

have;
who

thereby attack

reason

7. God

about

knowledge

Revelation

made

that it was
our

Not

evident.

are

6. We

Logic,

to

PHILOSOPHY.

MENTAL

TABLE

CONTENTS.

OF

PAQB

Introduction,

PHILOSOPHY.

MENTAL

BOOK

Chapter

The

I.

I.

Article
"

"

''

III.

II.

Chapter

III.

Chapter
Chapter

Being

Essence

and

Categories

III.

The

Extrinsic

Chapter

I.
II.

from
of

Attributes

The

The

.17
20

21

32

36

Accidents

42
of

of

and

Laws

Chapter

IV.

The

Constituent

Chapter

V.

The

General

50

World.

Perfection

that

The

the

Being

COSMOLOGY.

II."

Origin

Purpose

Being.

28

Perfections

Chief

Being.

Effect

and

HI,

Chapter

Beings

Derived

Accidents

BOOK

Chapter

of

29

Intrinsic

Cause

...

12

Substance;
The

V.

Principles

First

Being"

'*

Existence

II.

IV.

Term

Transcendental

The

I.

"

the

Possible

The

Article

Being

of

The

IV.

of

Meaning

XL

Chapter

**

Nature

ONTOLOGY.

OR

METAPHYSICS,

GENERAL

I."

Govern

55
of
the

of

World.

World.
of

Elements

Properties

the

Matter.

Bodies.

66
71

79

85

Contents,

BOOK

III."

PSYCHOLOGY.

PAOB

Chapter

I.

Specific

The

Nature

of

Plants

and

Animals.

90
.

Chapter

II.

Sensitive

and

Rational

Cognition

106

:
...

Article

I.
II.

**

Chapter

III.

Chapter

IV.

Chapter

Sensitive

Cognition

Rational

Cognition

Sensitive
The

V.

the

of

and

112

Rational

and

Nature

Origin

106

;......

Appetite

of

Destiny

123

Soul

Human
the

129
Soul.

Human

136
.

BOOK

Chapter

The

Existence

The

Essence

I.

Chapter

II.

I.

Article

Physical
The

II.

""

THEOLOGY.

IV."NATURAL

of

of

God
God

145
154

Metaphysical

and

Simplicity

Perfect

of

Essence
of

Chapter

The

III.

Attributes

Quiescent

Article
""'

"

Operative

The

IV.

I.
II.

III.

of

Attributes

154
.

.158
.

162

God.
.

Chapter

God.
.

of

God

169

God:
...

The

Knowledge

The

Will

The

Power

of

God

of
of

God

God;

169
171

175

Introduction,

abstraction
sal

and

knowledge,

Hence

this

is

such,

as

formal

while

'

moral

conduct

of

is

men

of

object

of

and

Metaphysics.

or

Mental

abstract

these

also
losophy
Phi-

truths

'Ethics/

styled

univer^

intellectual, is

Philosophy/

application

the

abstract

distinctively

Intellectual

therefore

the

science, being

denominated

the

generalization

to

'Moral

or

Philosophy/
4.

studies

Metaphysics
object

comprises

( Hodjuoi,
knowledge

things (
soul.

of

their

the

bodies

under

life).

Others

above

'

is

adopted.

which

vital

of
the

of

far

), as

Psychology,

treat

not

is not

to

human

title of

consider

oldest

which

soul,

treat

'Organology,'

all that

and,

The
even

is

which

division
now,

of

living
human

of

the

of

the

Angels,

by

tion.
Revela-

except

Psychology
of

organic

'Biology'

or

to

which

the

by

of

treats

separately

the

world

treats

confining

peculiar

beings;

of

is knowable

He

us

physics
Meta-

material

professedly

known

pal
princi-

Ontology,

classes

the

as

its

Special

2.

treats

Metaphysicians,

the

called

special

General

i.

general,

therefore

Theology,

God

Anthropology.'
the

in

principle ), especially

does

existence

parts:

to

Natural

and

means;

modern

study

of

peculiar

{ ""05,

Ti)vxr]y the

Some

head

);

Metaphysics

because

to

God

natural

merely

is

world

two

beings ).

( ovra,

Cosmology,

the

it is

such;

as

what

into

non-sensible

being

of

studies
it

the

'being/

science

the

or

is

divided

is

Metaphysics

man

we

most

under
have

{ftio^,
the

given

commonly

BOOK

GENERAL

5.
The

METAPHYSICS

of

nature

The

Categories,

important

relation

perfections

of

of

link

highest
unites

that

effect.

being.'

of

derived

I.

7. The
of
note

It

common

is not,

4.

of

used

when

to

all

that

we

can

to
can

3.

The

term

essence

and

ples
philosophical princi-

Term

the

as

become
actual

think,

the

being,
e,

g.y of

the

synonyme
mark

one

object
but

Being.*

is
participle,

it expresses

the

of

being.

of

substantive

as

for

primary

The

study

then, confined

possible being;

particular.

Meaning

The

being,

term

existing

the

in

meaning

The

i.

being

beings.

from

Article

important

most

BEING.

OF

NATURE

Possible

existence

the

The

beings, viz.,

I.

consider:

shall
2.

of

4.

beings.

THE

We

of

beings.

of

genera

5.

i.

attributes

all classes

CHAPTER

6.

examines:

It

transcendental

or

and

cause

'being.*

of

The

2.

ONTOLOGY,

OR

science

being.

The

3.

most

the

is the

Ontology

being.

I.

of

thought.

it includes

golden

or

also

stars, and

General

Metaphysics;

or

Ontology,

thingsonly possible.It is not confined to substances,

but is also applicableto accidents and relations ; e, ^., we
its
can
think,not
only of a tree, but also of its vitality,
color,its age, etc. Even a mere
negation,e. g., darkness,may
think of it. Yet, because
be called being, because
we
can
think of it except by way
of negation of somecannot
we
thing
darkness denoting the absence of light such
else
an
object of thought is not called a real being. But we call
real being whatever
be known
a
or
thought of positively
may
and by itself,
it is actuallyexistingor only
whether
possible,/. e.f capable of existing. That which is not a real
being, but the absence of a real being, is a mere
figment
of reason, or ^ns rationis,
it is called by the Schoolmen.
as
This same
is intrinsically
is applied to whatever
term
sible,
imposother

"

"

"

e,

g,,

circle.

square

being, viewed as such, is the formal object of

thing is used as an
Metaphysics. In English, the word
it is taken in a
for real being,except when
exact
synonyme
specialsense as opposed to persons, as when we say persons
and things.' Thus, we
thing,
say a tree is a thing, its size is someis not a real thing,
its t'ertility
is something; blindness
of something real,etc.
but the absence
common
9. Being is called a transcendental,* /. "f.,a note
thus transcending any
to all things,and
or
species.
genus
it must
be noticed that when
we
a tree is a being,'
Still,
say
its color is a being,' its age is a being,'etc., we
evidently
8. Real

"

take the word

being

'

in

somewhat

senses

being is
another; the term
analogously.
The
10.
analogy in this case
Hon
or
resemblance; for there
"Kant

attached

new

meaning

the reach of experience. He

to

the

terra

has thus created

taken

not

is
is

different from

not
more

univocally but

that of
than

propor-

mere

resemblance

viz.: Whatever
transcendental,'

'

confusion

one

of ideas in many

is beyond

minds.

The

the

between

meanings

Nature

of Being,

of

there

being ;

is

identityto

extent; it is the analogy oi attribution.

the note

because

being, and

expressed by

relation with
is called

attributed

merely

not

analogy

an

to

being.

another

being by

being

It is called
'

owing
the

But

of

intrinsic^
in every

is contained

one

to

mere

certain

some

trinsic
ex-

rationis

ens

proportion only, not

of

intrinsic attribution.
We

11.

also

must

Both

being.
logical
Logical being
and

mind,

mind

physicalbeing
is not

an

being ;

g.^ all

exist out

can

houses, the Angel Gabriel,

two

physicalbeing, and

also

of

the

mind

; but

only logicalbeing.
logicalbeing is real when

here

physical being, is

from

distinction

actual

being ;

only, e.

terms, have

distinct

third

mind

so

the
All

it

rationis.

ens

Logical, as
Logic.
12.

is real

edge,
knowl-

object of

mere

modifications

as

Physical being

house,

of its acts, mental

terms

exist in the

itself has

its acts, viewed

have

as

ideas.

g,, this

e.

viewed

can

abstract

Still the

etc.

it

real

be

may

being

therefore

universals,all
of the

is

physical and a
beings, but analogously.

distinguishbetween

lies between
*

means

and

actual

and
existing,'

objectof

the

possible
possiblemeans
possiblebeing

capable of existing.'Both actual being and

real being,provided they be not negative.
are
*

Thesis

13.

we

The

beingdoes

term

not

express

genus

of

classes of beingsare
the species.Proof i
different
is univocallypredicable of all its species; but being
genus
is not
univocallypredicable of all classes of beings,as
the

which
A

I.

have

of which

Proof

2.

into
that

explained( No.
the
If

we

different
examine

species,and

the note

which

being is
beings are

) ; therefore

classes
with

these

care

into

constitutes

of

how
a

the

not

the

species.

individuals

genus,

we

fied
classi-

are

shall

genus

perceive

difference between

the

General

lo

speciesis

something

in the

notes

marks

the

fs not

contained

and

in

the

not

Therefore

is

not

such

no

Since

being is not

g.^ substance

e.

be

to
a

being '

which

were

is

to

thing
it,some-

being.
being

not

Therefore

called

man

it in order

to

added.

be

can

'

it in

to

distinct from

nothing

most

at

resemblance

bearing some
14.

; it may

genus

is

there

difference

added

added

be

something

be

'

g.,

Therefore, if

would

included

not

which
rational,'
irrational animals,

e,

animal,but

brute.

that

and

genus,

rational and

in the genus

species would
being. But

the

to

difference between

genus, the difference

make

added

Ontology,

or

constitute that genus,

which

added

not

Metaphysics;

quasi-genus^as

genus.

different classes of

beings,
infinite being,etc.,

genus,

accident,finite and
beings; but they are called

and

determinations
speciesof
I thinfe of a substance, I do not think
being, /. e., when
a
being with something else added to it,but of a being
not

are

of

"

of

As when
a
man
clearlyor less vaguely understood.
looks through a telescopeand vaguely discerns something, he
and
knows
not
what; then, after focussinghis instrument
looking again,he sees the same
thing,recognizingit to be a
ship,and such an individual ship; so when we see being as
more

substance,we see no more

distinctly
; in short,being

than
has

being,but
received

not

we
an

see

it

addition

more

but

fully explainedin the

physics
excellent work
of Rev. Thomas
Harper, S.J., The Metaof the Schools^vol. i..Props. IV., V.)
The
idea
of being in general is not the
15. Thesis II.
a

determination.

( See

this

of the InfiniteBeing.
Explanation, This thesis

matter

idea

of

abstract

the

root

whom

of
we

truths

so

is

most

It strikes

far considered.

philosophicsystem advocated
shall refute more
directlyin

(Nos. 187, 188).

important application
by
our

the

at

the

Ontologists,

treatise

on

chology
Psy-

Proof
of

that

idea

The

I.

denotes

former

of

Infinite

the

of Being,

Nature

The

being

Being, or
being, no

any

1 1

general is very indefinite,

God, is very definite ; for the
how
matter
imperfect, the

in

Being.
perfectionin one
generalis an abstraction,having only

of all

latter the union

a
Being in
have
cept
physicalexistence exlogicalentity; for no being can
a
as
being. Now, the Infinite Being
singularconcrete
has physicaland
concrete
existence,existingnot in general,

Proof

in

but

2.

Proof
and

individual

an

is not

Being

3.

nature.

creature, but

of any

God

predicated univocallyof

even

only analogically
;

the

because

ing
be-

thingsis distinct from their actual existence,

beings may be actual or possible; whereas in God
would
distinct from
existence,for a possibleGod

of all other
for other

it is not
be

God

no

at all.

simply being,'is
simplicifer,
predicated of God and of being in general,but in different
is simply being,/. e., being without
significations
; God
any
out
non-being; being in generalis simply being,L ^., being withspecification.
True, the scholastic

then, do

How,

beings

which

'

ens

idea

get the

we

have

term

certain

of

?
infinity

We

perceive

of

perfectionand
perfectionand limit, or

amount

no

the
distinguishbetween
absence
of further perfection
ing,
of abstract; next, by our
power
all limit, and
thus
conceive
we
mentally remove
abstractedlyperfectionwithout limit,t. e.^ infinity.
16. Objections:
we

more;

I.

idea

The

being

in

conceives

being
of
our

God

in

God

of

is the

first

general is the first

idea
; therefore,the
general are the same.
is

our

first idea

idea

of

God

is first in

the

idea, but
idea
of

which
God

and

the

order

that
Our

being, but
of

of

mind

our

Answer.

first

idea

the

it

of

idea
is not

being

or

General

12

Metaphysics;

knowledge,
God

2.

is the first truth.

first truth
3. From

known

infinite:

to

Answer,

could

therefore

Answer,

we

or

idea

could

4. We

finite is

finite is

The

the

complex notion
both
being and
'

'

conceive

to

and

is

5. If God

In

is

possibleif
but

of

God

also

square

thing is

exists

of

power
is

infinite;for

infinite.

limits

'

all about

those

unite

us,

it is the
we

have

we

in

notes

two

the

Answer.

'

to

be

without

proved
II.

our

the

such

Possible

extrinsic.
notes

another; thus

one

the

unless

means

negation of the infinite ;

now
being with limits';

being is possibleif

intrinsic and

exclude

tuitive
in-

the

see

only

order

to

first

idea, we

not
can-

knowledge.
objectiverealityof our
of our
Critical Logic, the objectivereality

Article

form

the

knowledge

17. A

of

meaning

admitted

not

prove

Answer.

directly.

idea of finite.

the

conceive

finite

what

negation of

not

of the

infinite;but we can, by
form
the abstract concept
limits,

the

the

not

the idea

infinite

could

we

understand

only

; the

infinite.

first understood

we

our

the

all

of the

not

form
the

see

perception of
mentally removing

Himself,yes

In

never

the finite

From

to

us, no.

finite we

the

first revealed

not

logically.

first

not

is

He

but
ontologically,

Ontology,

or

it can

admission.

Being.

exist.

is twofold
Possibility

thing is intrinsicallyor

of

it consists

which

mountain

of

can

it ; now,

produce

infinite,
everything that

possibleto
extrinsically

God.

is

not

jewels is possible,

triangleis impossible.
externallyor extrinsicallypossiblewhen
that

do

ternally
in-

because

there

the power

intrinsically
possibleis

General

14

being
taken

shall

exist

can

of

Metaphysics;
together.
possiblesby

these

Ontology,

or

Various

views

false

various

have

been

philosophers,whom

we

refute.

now

Thesis

III. The

possibility
of thingsdoes not
formallydepend on the power nor on the will of God.
of thingsdepends
Proof To say that the internal possibility
that
formallyon the power or on the will of God would mean
22.

God's

such, or His will

as

power

1.

2.

Qo^^

is impossible.But

what

determine

cannot

power

the difference between

of

God

did

of

God

would

God's

extend

not

will the

not

be'

vanish

impossibleto

which

thus

the

at

and

contradict

should

be

same

universal

this

the power

each

other

thus

could

should

circle should

false,that

time;

else
difference,

possible;He

be

e. g., that
together,

truth

that

them, and

determine

will cannot

notes

to

be

be limited.

exist

He

will

theless
never-

be square,

thing could be and

all certaintywould
*

would
scepticism

result.

Objections:
If God

make

the

He
not
canimpossiblepossible,
do all things. Answer.
ity
This we
deny; an absurdis not a thing,a real being; e.g., a triangular
square

would

cannot

be

square

that is not

sqware,

but

thinkable, not
2.

ference
dif-

possibleand impossible; else certain thingswould

impossiblesimply and formallybecause the power

that

1.

the

be.

could

23.

such, determined

as

is possible
and

what

between

this cannot

internal

this is not

not
a real being (No. 7).
intelligible,
Then
God
in creatingwould not be independent, He
would depend on the possibles.Answer.
The possibles
themselves
thus His
His
depend on
wisdom, and
dependence would not be on any existing
being except

Himself,for

the

possibleshave

no

existence.

The

God

3. Then

not

nothing,but

nothing actual,nothing existing.

If

possibleshave

them

do

not

were

for the power

therefore

will.

and

power

of

The

will of God,

Nothing

grant that

we

God's

on

internal

nothing

possiblesdepend

the

thingsdepends

IV.

and

Answer.

externallypossible
;
Thesis

know

From

possible
;

were

God

can

He knows
His existing
eternity
as
capable of being imitated by beings which
exist from eternity.

not

5. If it

existence,how

no

Answer.

essence

24.

of

thingsout

create

15

He creates
thingsout
possibihty. Answer.
nothing, actual or pre-existing
; for the possibility

of

4.

would

of Being,

of their

out

is

Nature

would

the

power

then

external
and

His

on

be

bility
possi-

will.

of thingsdepends on
possibility

the intellect of God.

Proof
or

considered

logicalbeing depends
and

; not

as
on

the agreement

an

thing consists

actual

agreement

in

the

between

an

intellect which

between

of a thingdepends
possibility
all

tween
bemerely logicalagreement
possible. Now, whatever is merely

but

existingnotes,

notes

notes

of
possibility

its notes

between

agreement
actual

internal

The

; therefore

them
on

conceives
the

and
intellect;

an

the

nal
intersince

from eternity,
their posso
possiblewere
thingsinternally
sibility
/. "?.,on the intellect
depends on an eternal intellect,

of God.
25.
1.

Objections:
supposed that God did not exist,a round
stillbe internally
circle would
possible. Answer,
{a)
if we
absurd suppositionit is no wonder
From
an
get
be internally
{b) Nothing would
any consequence,
Even

if we

possibleif
associate
2.

We

can

there

were

no

mind

to

conceive

notes

and

them.

think of

possibleswithout

thinking of

God

,"

General

Metaphysics;

therefore

they do not depend

them
fullyunderstand

cannot

the intellectof God.

to

think

always

follow

not

26. Thesis
the

of them

that

simplythat

The

God.

on

without

Answer.

We

them
referring

the fact that

do

we

not

dependent on God, it does

not
dependent on Him, but

as

they
view

we

V.

From

Ontology,

or

are

them

imperfectly.

internal

possibility
of thingsdependson

of God.
Proof God, being infinitely
perfect,cannot
for the knowledge of His intellect,
except
essence

His

own

He

know

must

them

know

them

all

in His

them

His

dependent
on
Himself, on
fore,
possiblethings; therebut

essence;

He

does

in His

source

Are, then,the

foundation

identical with

the

no

actual
essence,

there

was

of these

logicalconcepts, that
something actual,and, therefore,

been

of God.

essence

Objections:

27.
1

have

must

the

No;

or

the formation

for
eternity

from

as

it.

on

formally considered,have
be the Divine
entity,and therefore they cannot
foundation
which has actual entity. But whatever
such,

as
possibles,

can

essence,

therefore,
they depend
essence?
possiblesthe Divine
essence

not

therefore,He

essence;

their

having

as

His

dependenton

knows

He

existingin

as

know

only

but

essence;

be

God

then

must

have

infinite number

an

of these

cepts;
con-

but

absurd.

in

God

Answer.

concept, which
we,

infinite number

an

one

of parts into which

of

existingthings is
all

thingsby

all that is knowable.

a

it may

line, embrace
be divided.

any
The

one

Even
number

possibles

ing
(see No. 38); and they are not existthem
to be.
things,as the objectionsupposes
all things part of God's
This
explanation makes

are

2.

understands

embraces

concept

of

numberless

essence,

and

thus

leads

to

Pantheism.

Answer.

It

The

all

makes

Nature

things

of Being.

finite imitations

17

infinite

God's

of

essence.

3.

Knowledge
and

does

of the

materials

Divine

the

; hence

them

III.

28.

The

essence

which

must

they

of

being

it what

imitations

how

is

it is and

edge
knowl-

of the

of those

in finite beings.

Beings.

of

collection

that

understand

to

bles
possi-

plans; thus,
perfectionsin His

Existence

and

the

in his

variouslycombined

Essence

make

knowledge

all

sees

understands

be conceived

make

his

not

The

Answer.

combine

of God

be

perfectionscan

is to

he

and

essence,

Article

them.

architect supposes

which

does

objectsand

intellect supposes

form

not

also, the intellect

own

its

supposes

that

it
distinguish

of notes

being, because

from

every

being

of another

species: the essence

( from esse^ to be ) answers
'
and
is also called
question, What is it ?
Quid est ?
of a syllogismis
quiddity.' For instance,the essence
connected
so
consistingof three propositions
argument

the
the
"

an

that
these
of

'

'

from

of them

two

is

notes

is not

them

follows."

third

the

wanting, we have
apprehended, we

If any

syllogism,and

no

do

of

one

if any
the

apprehend

not

syllogism.
29.

its widest

In

be
anythiiig,
has notes
we

figure?

can

what

sense,

the

which

is it ?

ask, What
*

is time ? etc.

of

e.

But

only,and
that substance
belongs; e. g.,
animal, or a being composed
essence

'

accident

or

it what

make

it

the
of

essence

body

substance

and

may

applied to

; for

thing
every-

about

thing
every-

is color?

stricter

expresses

of

is, and

g.^ What

in

the

is

essence

it substance, property,

is said of substance

30. The

term

sense,

what
essence

speciesto
man

is

which

is rational

soul.
be

viewed

in

two

General

ways:

real

The

i.

physical

or

substance

in the

exists

Metaphysics;

it.

Is the

essence

independentlyof

conceive

We

Ontology.

or

the

essence

our

of

way

physical essence

it

as

ceiving
con-

when

we

being as

composed of those elements which are

reallydistinct in that being; and we express that physical
essence
by mentioning the parts reallydistinct,
as body and
conceive

in

soul
the

man.

notional

The

2.

conceived

essence

made

as

metaphysical

or

of parts

up

is

essence

which

not

are

but only logicallydistinct. It is expressed by mentioning

really,
qualitieswhich do not correspond to distinct parts;

when

as

not

call

we

man

animal

the

that

suppose

distinct parts that make

be taken

away,

remains

there

the

For

and

must

we

rational

body

as

man,

up

animal.

and

itself is rational ; and

animal

the

rational

two

are

soul

do, but

if the rational part of

not

animal

an

but

an

man

inanimate

body.
Are

31.

eternal

essences

physical existence,essences
time;

but

they

remain

alone

they

ever

substance, that
It is clear

32.

which

of

could
of

not

there

the
we

also

We

etc.
as

make

we

that
or

know

fruit,a tree,

have

no

know

we

the
an

many

the

the

it

as

whole,

of

ever

ple
sim-

etc.

of the

essences

of many

essences

watch,

things
table,

things in

nature,

animal, the intellect,

etc.; else,we

science about

natural

as

accidents

intellect supposes

an

ourselves,as

singular things but

are

immutable, inasmuch

part is less than

invent

the

in

logicalentityor intelligibiHty,

true, e. g., that

was

created

inasmuch

immutable,
lasts,for

their

In

eternal,but

substance

and

eternal

are

essences

called

their

In

changed.

are

is and

the

while

immutable?

not

are

be

may

and

things,since

such
of the

agents

of

of

essences

which

we

science

treats

things.
do

not

Still

know

magnetism, etc.;
specificessences, e, g., heat, electricity,
We define
what
know
they do, but not what they are.

The

such

things by mentioning

belong, and,

to

which
has

Nature

pecuhar

are

the

power
it

whether
substance

is

it is

whether

thus,

produce

certain

distinct

substance

distinct

simple
is

therefore,cannot

be

or

the

defined;

and

'*

actual

Between

distinction,but

of

do

know

we

not

its

to

from

come

By receiving

causes.

actual

logicaldistinction

which,

concept,

e.

g.^ Plato

and

existence

its existence

Metaphysics of

Harper's

( See

of

is said

word

Are, then,

and

essence
a

know

not

modification

question is usually

This

only

electricity

do

we

primary

the

out

actual.

same

effects

the

that

effects,but

existence, a possible being becomes

essence

know

we

known

are

mention

substance,

simple

became

they

compound.

or

a
ex-sisteniia,
standing forth

possibleand

19

which

to

genus

to

Existence

33.

them

to

if it is

difference, we

the

as

of Being,

actual
thus

answered
is

there

founded

Schools^ vol.

the

principleof

real

no

reality."

on

the

was

i.. Prop.

XVI.)
34.

The

essence

called

the

nature

being

are

and

of

of

we

essence

man

we

of that

infer the

acquired

thus

principle that
effect and

its

nothing
facts
from
essences

but

their

there

and
must

Therefore

cause.

phenomena
effects

of these

are

we

causes.

or

from
know

found

actions

Locke

his soul.

when

sensible

rests

they

the

we

proportionate

something

of

to

the

dent
the evi-

on

between

an

positivephilosophers
that

teach

facts ;

edge
knowl-

The

proportion
and

of

intellectual

the

thus, from

is

uniform

be

to

certain,for it
be

actions

belonging

attributes

simplicityof

is true

only proceed

can

being

entirelymistaken

are

and

safely infer

can

and

as

being. If, therefore,the

known,
sufficiently

constant,

nature
acts

considered

we

know

know

that

those

causes,

and

thus

the

natures

and

General

20

IV.

Article

The

is

or

is

The

is

or

two

each

imply

that

non-being

prior

in

which

That

viz.

reason,

is, is,'

or

the

it

question

be

cannot

non-being.'

not

middle

whether

the

that

to

these
these

be

and,
when

not

imply

and

is

excluded

should

for

cannot

nature

Being

thing

'A

'

thing

either

not.'

other;

we

these,

the

inseparable,

are

imply

contradiction

of

contradiction:

or

of

principle

disputed

that

be,'

not

yet

The

3.

identity

of

principle

The
and

of

analytically

is.'

being
2.

of

derive

we

Being.

from

principles

first

or

principle

The

1.

Derived

being

of

concept

very

Ontology,

or

Principles

judgments

primary

three

First

the

From

35.

It

Metaphysics

be,
it

two,

imply

called

when

and
is
for

no

say,
when

being.
every

other

the

we

say

There

possible
judgments.

principle.

first

understood,

which

That

identity

of

properly
'

we

principle

is,

being

that
is

no

is,'

we

is not

judgment

judgment

tains
con-

General

2 2

It differs from

'

Metaphysics;
alone,'which

else,denying the existence

is

Still,
unity

taken

in

able, unity may

be

When

not

It

1.

also

into

as
incapableof division,

in

as

the

table,a clock, a

Thus,

Moral, when

family,a

book

predic-

; this

by

be

unity may

as
skill,

human

material
is

several volumes

or

tellect
in-

an

unit.
united

are

persons

by

moral

bond, as

state.

bond,

as

the union
a

heap

is

out
aggregationwith-

mere

of stones.

having
physicalunitymake

and

of

sense

proper

stone.

man,

of these unities without

one

separableparts

or

united

are

historyin

when
5. Accidental,
a

tree,

parts

mental

or

as

spirit.

unites real

nature

whole,

one

mental.

4.

but

meaning,

sense.

considered.
differently

when
Artificial,
a

the

something
same
kind.

in its transcendental

transcendental

Physical,when

3.

taken

being of

to

is;"(f%5/^;;i"/^^/whenthebeingisnot
only undivided,

but
2.

has reference

term

of another

always

not

Ontology,

or

word

the

; the

being

may

the others.

physical
Metain the

being one

have

unities make

other

is

thing one after a fashion,secundum

quid.
is many
38. The oppositeof one
; the oppositeof unity
multiplicity. Many taken togetherconstitute a multitude.

multitude

'

number

measured

multitude

is

for number

them.

If the

formallya

concrete

that

If

the

must

we

division between

or

have

by

the

'

'

unit

is called

conceive

as

units.

five

also, five

as

we

have

no

2.

ness,
One-

tion,
Distinc-

Some

animals, twenty

five,twenty, etc., /. e., so

four plants, and five
men,

things. When

i.

tween
similaritybewe
generic or specific,
3.

is only transcendental,we
similarity

number,

thingss

collection of units.

similarityis

number,

three

To

number.

have

etc.

abstract

beings. Thus,

many

make

senses

definite unit

an

men,

to

start

fourteen

with, we

get

can

thus

number;

no

conceived

are

by

Brutes

perceive many

is called

identity or

the

as

identical.
erically

larity
simi-

abstraction
count.

can

perceive

same

are

of the

; when

Thus

another

thing

the

we

to

ceases

the

same

that

two

be

building,though

been

renewed.

all the

when

we

house

granite

material

vidually
(indi-

but

same,

after

the

called the

another

which
identityis opposed distinction,
means
All distinction is either
thing is not another.
real

The

independentlyof
it is between
individual

substances,

and

its size ;
the taste

others minor.

The

major

substance

or

between
an

and

man

Caesar

as
separately,

of

greater

or

between

as

exist

can

distinction between

have

and
the

or

soul

real

or

selves,
thingsthem-

the mind

hends
appre-

distinction when

brute
and

that

or

Cicero

between
;

or

tween
be-

and

body. The
its accidents,
between
as
accidents,as between the

apple,is by

minor,

the

in which

manner

between

species,as

parts that

and

the

It is called

them.

is between

distinction

mains
re-

denominate

To

logical. I.

is

house

might be

one

of

are

built of

same

of men,

parts

it is gen-

houses

physicallythe

identity
; thus, a

moral

being,it

another

stone

as

numerically

in genus,

built of the

estimation

same

color

say

be

may

in the

same
as

sameness

tree

specieswith

as

is viewed

be

to

houses
two
(generically),
material
and
(specifically),

same

down

When

one

in

same

with another

being

material

the

40.

When

sameness.

identical
specifically

taken

with itself or

it is said
itself individually,

with

same

identical ; when

distinction,and

intelligent
beings
things,but they cannot

making a number.
The
unity which a being has

ference
circum-

abstraction,and

23

as

39.

is

in

but

none
intellect,

them

of Being.

contained

arcs

of

means

requiresan
may

the

Since oneness,

numberless.

are

the

Attributes

Transcendental

The

lesser

called

major,by
also called
distinction,
some

General

24

modal^ exists

Metaphysics;

between

Ontology.

or

its mode.

entityand

by a
of being that cannot
mode
mean
a manner
we
possiblyexist
for
without
something of which it is the mode; e,g., figure,
there can
be no
quantity that has that
figurewithout some
two
figure. 2. The logicalor mental distinction is between
when the ideas are exactly equivaIt vs^purely logical
ideas.
lent,
definition and
the thing defined.
The
between
a
as
to have a foundation
or
logicaldistinction is said to be virtual,
when
reality,

in the
as

when

the mercy

the head

It is that

this

being ?

It is not

remains

the

same

his accidents

But

Ente

their

the intellect of man,

from

being

which

is it that

what

uality.
explainindividmakes
it precisely

also

must

thus, a

individual

throughout
constantly changing, and
are

yet

not

the

Ess., c. v.); and

he

adds

for

man,

same

his

that

instance,

life,though

grains of
individual grain.
two

principleof individuation
is incapableof being shared by

matter
et

individualizes

thus

puts the

St. Thomas
"

of

Now,

exactlyequivalent,

not

are

unitywe

the accidents

exactly alike

sand

[De

are

of

unity

being.

that

or

the concepts

the reason
distinguish
from the justiceof God.

Under

41.

an

in matter, because
several

beings"

angels,or

rated
sepa-

forms,as he calls them, are not individualized except by

self.
specific
notes, so that every Angel is a speciesby himduation
of indiviSuarez, on the other hand, puts the principle

Harper suggests that everything,

of both, is intrinsically
be it matter
or
form, or compound
actual
individualized by its own
entity,and needs no other
or
mately
proxinote; and thus that everythingphysicallyexisting,
in the form.

alized
brought into existence,is thereby individuuality.
without needing any further principle
to give it individ(Harper'sMetaph., vol. i. pp. 208 to 290.)
transcendental
of
the
IL
as
one
Truth, viewed

apt

42.

Father

to

be

of being, is metaphysical or
properties

truth*
ontological

The

Attributes

Transcendental

of Being.

25

or
cognoscibility,
conformity
(Crit Log.^ c. i. a. i.) It means
of being to knowledge. As the form of a building is determined
all creatures
have
their
so
by the mind of the architect,
.

and

being

God's

from
cognoscibility

is therefore

God

of
all created

thingsare

measured

creatures, and

from

the

intellect.
or

norma,
; while

therefore

we

these

The

the

are

which

by

measure,

derive

edge
knowl-

edge
knowl-

our

to

measure

compared in order to be true.

fail of
Since
God
He
cannot
wants
to
creating what
is conformable
creature
to His
knowledge, and
create, the
exist no
thus there can
metaphysical falsity.Things are
called false only by analogy, inasmuch
stance
circumas
some
is apt to produce logicalfalsity
connected
with them
While
truth is predicatedboth
of knowledge
mind.
in our
be primarilyattributed to knowledge;
and of being,stillit must
in other words, logicaltruth is the principalanalogue.
since many
But logicaltruth is not
a
transcendental,
ments
judg-

which

knowledge

our

III.

43.

be

is

being

true.

not

are

must

Goodness

desire ; it is that

which

viewed

is desired

goodness of a being is founded

being is perfectYf\iGn it has all the
requires,and

all the

power

or

in reference
may

in its

be

to

desired.

some

The

perfection. Now,

constituents

needed

to

act

that

its nature

for the

ment
attain-

be wanting, the being

anything requisite
of its goodness,
is imperfect. Its perfectionis the reason
and both are its very being; for anything is desirable in as
of its end

; if

perfectthe being that desires it,and it can do

much
in as far as it has being; thus, every
being is good inasso
it is a being. Still,
as
perfectionis logicallydistinct
and
from
goodness; for perfectionregards the being itself,
goodness regardsit in relation to the being that desires it.

far

as

it

can

Goodness

44.
I.

is of three

kiids

Becoming,fit,ox proper,

i, e., conformable

to

rightrea-

General

26

Metaphysics;

or

Ontology,

taken
in a stricter sense, is moral
This, when
as
regulatingfree
good, /. ^., conformity to reason

son.

acts;

in

wider

sense,

it also

includes

natural

or

the nature
of a
physicalgood, i. e., whatever
perfects
subject,as health, knowledge, etc.
tion
to give satisfac2.
Pleasurable,i. "?.,apt to givepleasure,
to an
appetite.
of some
other
to the attaining
3. Useful,i. e,, conducive
good.
the principallonging of
True
good is that which meets
jury
a
a
being, or which meets
secondary longing without into the
a
principal; apparent good meets
secondary
longing to the injuryof the principal
longing; thus,sensual
when
they control a man's reason, are to him not
delights,
but only apparent good, since they withdraw
him from
true
the pursuitof duty and eternal happiness.
of some
due perfection
45. Evil consists in the privation
;
real being, but the absence
in a being of
hence it is not
something which is due ; no beinaj can therefore be all evil
unmixed
evil,for then it would be no being at all.
or
The
that
privationof some
physicalgood is physicalevil^
moral good is moral evil,or sin ; the latter supposes
of some
free agent who
sence
a
departs from moral goodness. The abof further perfection
is called by Leibnitz metaphysical
for it may
since evil is
be no evil at all,
evil; incorrectly,
a
good that is due, and the perfection
privation of some

wanting

good

what

answer

can

etc., e.
Oi

not

may

there
the

be due

to

be

in

can

purpose

g., if fire did

their bodies

without

not

the

creature.

or pain. Pain
physicalsuffering
of punishment, of trial,
of warning,
hurt animals
it might destroyparts

promptmg

them

or
suffering,
grief,is chieflyan
of
action,e. g., grieffor the sufferings

Moral

relieve them.

be asked

It may

to

protect themselves.

incentive
others

to

virtuous

prompts

us

to

Transcendental

The

good things that

the

46. Am^ng

kind, the

delectable

perfectionof

Attributes

elevated

most

object viewed

an

it.

whoever

beholds

kind

of

goodness

from

goodness

it is

Since

stricter

of

is the

pleasure to

object of desire,it

an

in

taken

but

of

source

27

agreeable
Beauty

beauty.

as

the

of

are

is

of Being.

is

it is distinct

sense

good things deHght the possessor, beautiful

beholder.
We
beholder,'because beauty
say the
;

'

thingsthe
is primarilypredicated of objects seen
placentasays
to

the

and

even

applied
sound,

intellectual

beauty

beauty

that

the

intellect,
beauty

by

none

of
in

proper

in

essence-

of the

beauty

actions,e.

natural

the

displayed by

the

sense

certain
the

g.,

objects,

intellect,
or
is that of

And

hibited
ex-

virtue,

because

of

others

is

be

in

its

the

unity amid

tion
perfec-

all its parts

end,

one

beauty

but

by
appreciated

unity combining

essence

beautiful

perceived

can

attainingof

very
and

be

cannot

beings.

proportion for

'manifest

the terms

perfectionof

its proper

proportionor symmetry,
the

the

such

objectimpliesa
consider

many

intellectual

of

g.^ to

of art.

intellectual

but
an

is that

by analogy

sense-perceptions,e,

objects

perfectionas

Since

47.

the

to

other

quce. visa

is also

word

intellectual objects, fnoral

by
artistic

objects of

Physical beauty is

virtue.

to

Still the

St. Thomas.

beheld

or

to

fore
there-

consist

in

variety; but

correctlyexpressed by
perfection/ strikingexcellence,'i^/^;/^/^r
more

veri, the brightness of truth.'

'

perfectionis

True

perfectionwhich

stand

cannot

beauty. The more

it is in itself,
/. ^.,

does
know

beholder; thus,
not

Him

please
so

us

the

perfectan

false

the

beauty

true

the

God

above

more

is
all

imperfectly.

that
test

false

appearance

of sound

objectis,the

criticism
more

of
is

ful
beauti-

capable it is of delighting
beautiful; and, if He
infinitely
things,it

is

only

because

we

CHAPTER

THE

48.

We

have

we

must

Aristotle

beings

all

belong
in

is the

being

is it ?
In

to

does

When

it is called

substance.

distinguished

of

that

the

the

categories,

nine
would

be

of

each

predicated

the

of

manner

not

accidents,
species;

accident

in

The

logical

spoken

i. e., the

taken

added

the

the

nine
^

same

accident

is

is

bute;
attri-

and

which

constitute

because

is not
28

existence

of

one

is not

thing

taken

not

be

something

/. ^.,

now

does
of

If

be,
in itself,

or

it must

species, difference,

accident

special

classes

Logic.

genus,

Accident

substance.

which

is

from

in

occurs

is

is it ?

will

existing by

category.

accident

metaphysical

the

negation

it

answer

accident,

an

Here

which

in

first

the

is, the

are

Whose

Where

substance

to

to

What

it ?

it ?

to

something

added

questions

equipped

thing

i. e.,

is

Substance

the

as

is found

qualities has

How

what

something

substance,

meaning

to

ask

which

predicates

ten

is done

substance,

it is

other.

When

under

being

any

Such

What

What

beings.

known

are

following

the

great ?
it do

we

it is

or

How

posture

either

or

of

categories.
to

of

ing;
be-

cause
[Karrjyope'iv, to predicate), be-

predicated

ten

answers

What

what

49.

the

classes

these

place;

all

to

common

classes

highest

ten

be

these

to

out

is

various

predicaments
can

what

consider

find

that

found

explained

pointed

or

all

far

so

can

categories

CATEGORIES.

next

has

III.

mere

belongs
of

genus

remaining

being

'

univocally ;

"

which
e.

^.,

General

30

and

Metaphysics;

does

whatever

is
accident,therefore,
exists in

but

in their

exist

thus

not

that which

Ontology.

or

call

we

exist in

cannot

substratum; accidents

some

accident.

an

An

by itself,

or

said to inhere

are

subject.

52. When

we

that substances

say

exist

in

or

selves
them-

by

that they have no

(per se ),we do not mean
cause,
that they exist by their own
ing
(a se). This was a leadpower
of Spinoza,who, by making
all substances
thus
error
them
made
all necessary, and
fied
therefore identiself-existing,
all thingswith God.
53. Hume

fallen into

has

another

error,

by teachingthat

and that what

call
we
perceivenothing but qualities,
unreal
bond
substance is only an
imagined as holding those
together; his theory contradicts the intuitions of
qualities
and leads directlyto skepticism. Leibnitz
all men,
makes
force or power;
but a power
is a qualityof
substance
a
does not deny that
Locke
some
being that has the pow-er.
exist in something else, which
he
calls a substratum^
qualities
Of this supposed something we have no
but he adds :
clear,distinct idea at all {Human
Underst.yb. ii. c. 23,
" 37). McCosh, on the other hand, appears to accept the
we

"

"

Scholastic
"

and

give up the
the qualities.I

Now

behind

In consciousness
the

know

doctrine

common-sense

of

stand

up

know

we

external

idea

We

substance.

can

as

what

Hcism

of

evidence
Hume

54. Substances

of

and

the

substratum
what

know.

in

reckon

we

Httle know

object exercisingthem, as
both in
know
We
qualities.
same

for

only

says:

sense-perceptionwe
existingthingsexercising
ties.
quali-

an

the

unknown

an

self,and

objectsas

this is involved

In

he

when

one

the

we
one

can

idea of
from

object apart

from

an

of

true

qualities
apart

concrete
as

the

the

act, and

other''

we

have

{Agnos-

Huxley).
are

:
distinguished

i.

Into

simple, /. ^.,

The

such

have

as

parts.

is destined

parts, and

no

by

nature

substantial

unit; thus, the

constitute

man.

union, e,

with

endowed

human

soul

incomplete

other

some

needs

is not

body

destined
the

is called

substance

intellect is

snpposit;

As

person.

their

accidents,belong

to

acts, actiones

sunt

suppositorum;

suppositare

not

by
*

not

is

which

human

'

thinking ;

the acts

soul
is not

Divine

complete

human

what

Person

performed
a

Infinite
a

in Christ

individual
not

the

''

..

was

mind

My

hands,'etc.
and

human

then

of God

the

of the

Trinity,all

human

nature

human

we

nature, /. e.,

personality
;
ultimate
could

not

recite the

professwho

only Son

'

is the vX^SmdX^ substratum

human,

were

all Christians

In

walks,*

man

they are Divine,

He
took
becoming man

the
If,therefore,

nature.

Mary, suffered,

ments
the instru-

Blessed

of God

of the

mystery

assumed

are

is which

person,

the

of the

in His

for person

person,

Creed, viz.,that

course

powers

our

the

in

person,

but

ours,

to

nature

of infinite merit.

intellectual

truth

human

and. a body like

person

eyes, feel with

our

properly belong

of

acts

Himself

with

see

He

therefore

upon

or

which

reallythe

and

We

is the Second

Redemption

parts and

'

assumed

who

the

is

soul

supposit it

'

Since actions

person

are

the

'

the

supposit;

properlysaid to act as to be
suppositacts. Thus we say A
rather than
thinking,'
; 'I am

feet walk

His

56.

an

supposit

exist in their substance,actions, which

so

to

complete

Since accidents

such

to

The
complete substance,it is not a person.
is of
Being, since it is complete and intelligent,
personal being.

not

being

the

is therefore

have

as

actions.

all its natural

complete

with

complete
plant; it

angel,a

an

g.^

principleof
55. A

The

The

incomplete.

constitute

to

31

/. e.^ such

compound,

and

complete

Into

2.

Categories,

was

born

crucified ; died, and

He
of

substratum
say

with

Apostles'
of the Virgin
was
buried,"

General

32

could

nor

etc.,
Word

Metaphysics;
St.

made

was

flesh and

57. Personal
intellectual

the

same

individual

we

another

does

not

written

forensic term,'and
''

and

actions

It

make

the actual

for the

Creator

without

in

needs

be

merely

to

sciousness.
nothing but conterm
appropriating

personalityextends
what
is past only by

concerned

and

able,"
account-

This

trine
doc-

substance.

do

so

substance

God
He

cannot

as

nature

It is not,

can

being which
or

as

is now,

As

matter

of

ing
accord-

or

however, impossible
in

existence
no

tradiction
con-

without inhesion

only imply

exigency to inhere, and do not,

them, imply the act of inhering,or

subject.

to

exist by themselves

in existence

accidents

cannot

substance

do all that involves

keep

can

such

as

certain accidents

maintain

to

Accidents.

substratum

accidents

an

in

to

accident

physicallaws.

J therefore

of

Intrinsic

an

By sayingthat
that they cannot

mean

to

sense

be

forensic

becomes

The

but
by itself,

or

exist in.
we

common

no

defined

have

We

us

II.

Article

exist in

like many

which
for acts
longer accountable
of which we
are
no
longer conscious.
forgotten,

have

58.

or

person

Underst, b. ii.c. 28, " 27).

[Human

would
we

that

person

present existence

consciousness, whereby it
etc.

This

their merit.

itselfbeyond the

believed

point Locke,

personal identityto

(person)is

be

still

are

we

never

to

much

considers

He

support.

has

ceases

this

On

philosophers,has

other

Mankind

the

his consciousness

totallyunconscious

persons.

The

"

of

permanence

continuityof

the

are

person.

Gospel,

us."

in the

losingconsciousness

on

man

becomes

when

even

in

supposit,not

in his

dwelt amongst

identity consists

; for

that

written

have

John

Ontology.

or

in the very

dency,
tencept
con-

actual inhesion

fact,the Church

teaches

that

The

after the consecration

the

Categories.

and

of the bread

substances

their accidents

of

wine

and

bread

of the

wine

33

quantity,color, taste,

Mass
still

exist,and

to

cease

Holy

at

etc.,

preserved

are

supernaturalaction of the Divine will. In

dents
For the accithis doctrine
there is nothing againstreason.
have
being or entitywhich is reallydistinct from the
entityof the substance, since it may be changed while the

in existence

substance

by

the

remains

entity,but

God

the

without

using the

is clear

that

second
same

not

of such

in those

God

nature

the

substances,still human

full

of

compendium
59. There

and

inherence

those

as

accidents, /. e.y accidents

mode
has

of

mode

or

and

vital acts.

accident
60.

and

or

substance

belong

not

exist in.

to

to a

brief

also

But,

in

something else,viz.:
and
intellect;

accidents, e.

g.,

quantity,by
shape
Those

in their

which

2,

i.

Modal

which
figure,

is a

the very fact that it

figure,/.

or

accidents

^.,

which

some

tially
essen-

called
often
tendency to inhere are
them
from modal
accidents
distinguish

accidents,to
is

of

of limitation.

manner

accident'

that quantity,

see

accidents

of

will and

necessarilysome

imply only
absolute

of

for every

quantity;

limits,has

Now"

cause.

cannot

reason

effect is

the

naturallyinhere

wine

question does

classes

two

involve

Vital acts, such

it

For

philosophy.

are

concept

very

of this

treatment

effect.

that

created

color,taste,etc., essentially
imply
A

directly

can

imply

of bread

accidents

will

will whenever

mere

to

as

His

that

produce through
can
produce
creatures, He

/. "?.,through His

His

supports

by

produce

to

effects

directlyby

although

it in existence

substance

whatever

causes,

the

keep

can

substance

The

same.

as

used

explainedabove,

the

in contradistinction

term
to

'

the

absolute
relative

relation.

The

relation.

intrinsic

accidents

are

three

quantity^
quality^

General

34

Quantity,

I.

be

can

Of

I.
a

more

in its widest
less.

or

sense,

is predicated of all that

taken, it is predicated:

Thus

we

greater quantity of perfectionthan

child.

or

power,

In

e.

Ontology.

or

when
as
degreesof perfection^

of efiergy
a

Metaphysics;

g.,

plant.

has

man

stricter sense, taken

as

that

say

Oi

2.

has

man

degrees

intellect than

more

of the

one

categories,

the amount
there is of a substance; it implies
quantity means
into parts of the same
divisibihty
speciesas the whole,
into gases.
of water
into drops, not
It is predicated:
as
I.

multitude,which

Of

its parts

considered

are

cretus, viewed

apart).
is

which

parts

is called

considered

are

the

of

end

as
one

separate

as

from

quantity, because
another
one
\dis-

Oi the extension

2.

called

discrete

continuous

not

of

material

stances,
subits

quantity, because

gether),
toto hold
[continere,
beginning of another.

separate

part being the

quantityof bodies has three dimensions : length,breadth,

and
as
depth; these, considered
existingin given bodies,
called concrete
are
quantities,but when
separatelyviewed,
in mathematics,
i.e. only in their properties,
as
they are
J
they are abstract quantities.
61. II. The
term
defined,since it
qualitycannot be strictly
and difference.
It is that
is a category, containingno genus
The

denominates

which

; not

as

such

substance

as

such

or

substance, say iron

or

such and

gold,but

gold. Quality is often described as

completes or perfectsa substance in itself or
four speciesof qualities
There
:
are
or

such

1.

Those

disposingthe subject well

or

"

any

not

wise
other-

such

iron

note

that

in its action."

illin itself or

wards
to-

if transient are
something else. Such qualities
called dispositions,
ready, unready, etc.;
d".^., well,ill,
if permanent,
they are called habits, e.g., science,

vice, etc.
health,virtue,
2.

Powers,

/.e.,

qualitieswhich

enable

subjectto do

The

Categories,
such

certain acts, whether

belong
talent

to

the very

to

accidental

are

it,e.

to

g.,

fast.
which

i. "?., those
qualities,

3. Sen^ble

g., sweetness,

e.

; or

man

every

learn

to

quaHtiesbelong

substance, e.g., intellect,

will,etc., which

of the

nature

35

affect the senses,

warmth, cold, white,black,

sourness,

etc.

such
denoting a passingorganic affection,

Kpassioft,when
as

hunger, desire,etc.,is

anger,

the

of

qualities
regarding the arrangement
Figure, /."?.,
material parts, e. g., square,
etc.
round, straight,

4.

accident

is acted

substance
to

affection,it is

any

it is

but
quality,

that a
passion,for it means
tion
denoting an abiding inclinaquality of the first kind, e. g.y

; when

upon

called

category

or

called

not

irascibility,
gluttony,etc.
62.
as

referred

is the accident

Relation

III.

another

to

which

it connotes,

double, like,etc.; for there

a

child,etc.

is related,

subjectwhich
K

foundation of

the foundation
is

mind,
found

is in the

its

say that the

essence

is

only

for there
mental

say

when

"

{c)

virtue is more
*

{a) It is real when the foundation

things related,
independentlyof our
and

effect ; if that

foundation

of God
mental

relation between

It is mixed

it is related,

which

be

things: (a) A

three

we

there

is the

cause

only
a

unless

parent

term, the relation is called

logicalwhen

parent, greater,

g,

subjectof the relation,gold'

it is related, and
precious^ expresses
A relation
viz.,priceor value.
relation,

mixed:

e.g., between

in each

to

thing

one

of the

or
real,logical,

of the relation

term

the relation ; e.g., when

to which

term

no

e.

supposes

{b)A

preciousthan gold,"virtue
is the

be

can

relation

Every

denominating

the

His

is the

is in

our

mutual,

mind,
of

reason

and
distinction,

existence

and

relation is real in

foundation

His

{b) It

is

when

as

existence;

therefore
His
one

is

essence,

of the

only a
{c)
things

General

36

related,and

Metaphysics;
real but

not

only logicalin

contingentbeing impliesrelation to
a necessary
being can exist without
being.
The

exist.

categoriesexpress

It will be

noticed

relation without
brutes

Now,

no

that

Article

The

63.
where

extrinsic

the
J

because

The

distinct from

in which

foundation

consider

64. I.

thing as
denotes

Accidents.

six:

are

action, passion,the

habiliment.
advert

we

They are extrinsic

primarilyto something

the

signifiesthat accident
proceeding from something else

eat,'

to

to

thought

proceeding

as

is the
two

the

of the

is

thus,

'

think

to

'

thinkingprinciple.

receivingof

terms

other

from

denotes

same

struck,one

an

Action

action.
motion

loves and

when

as

the other

loved, etc.
An

in)

is said to

action

acts.

be

remains

if its term

proceeds; thus,

If

immanent

within

feel,' to
*

to

the

faculty,the
eliciting

term

action

the

know,'
does

( in-manere,to remain
it
same
facultywhence
^

to

not

is transient

will,'etc.,
remain

'

'

are

within

( transire,to

to
push,' to pull,' to cut,' etc.
) ; as
/. e.,
not
transient,'
passing over,' should

over
"

which

Action

strikes and

is

is denominate

action

read,' etc.

65. II. Passion

and
passionare the
one

any

relation.

of that

subjectspoken of; e. g., an

according to its term or effect,as

walk,' *to

things

abstracting,therefore they
only the thingsrelated.

accidents

of them

gent
contin-

the real relation ;

cannot

Extrinsic

when, posture, and

in each

to

to

of

power

III.

relation

thus, a

being,but

necessary

the mind

but
apprehend relations,

cannot

the other ;

specialmanners

abstractingthe

have

the

is confined

category of relation

for all the

Ontology.

or

the
pass

The
lead

manent
im-

term
us

to

General

38
vacant

is

space

merely

Metaphysics;

Ontology,

or

nothing reallyexistingout
a
possiblecapacity,the

conceive

of the

mind

absence

of

we

bodily

substances.
it

Proof, If
would

have

were

real

being existingout of the mind, it

quantity,for it has parts outside of parts ;

its quantity would

be

cannot
nor

be

finite,else

indefinite.
infinite,
or

or
finite,

would

there

be

other

it ;

around

space

it

But

exists

whatever

since
reallyexists definitely,
actuallyfinite but capable of increase ; nor
be proved hereafter that an infinite quantity

for
indefinite,

indefinite

real

means

for it will
infinite,
actuallyexistingis

absurd

(No.

it is

Hence

).

93

nothing

real.
It may

68.

of God

2.

be asked
?

We

Cannot

i.

by

answer,

space

no

means

parts outside of parts, and

God's

for it is God

is

Himself,who

is beyond

What

nothing

immensity

for

has

space

immensity

has

not

perfectlysimple.
Vacant

space, /. "r.,

actual.

existed

3. What

universe ?

the

be the

before

creation?

the

Nothing

but

God,
4.

If

all substances

be

there

space;

it?

vessel

Yes,

inasmuch
to

each

then,is space

in reference

inasmuch

vacant

reallyrelated
5. How,

in

space

yet real space

in

to

as
as

were

there

the

vacant

vacant

substance,

no

vessel

are

other.

defined ?
and

extension

place between
is extension

space

be

sides of the

All space

space

between

considered

tended
ex-

is the relation of
the sides of

is the

possiblebodies

is possibleor

is conceived

relation between

vessel; possibleor imaginary space

space

would

it contains

things. Real or actual

place between real bodies,e,g.,
relation of

removed, would

in

imaginary

imagined

cal
; mathematithe

abstract;

space

coupled

The

with the
authors

negation of

39

all that

contain

capacity to
69. Objections: i.
as

were

it

substances.

extended

If there

mean

we

they define

possible
space united,and

and

Other

being there.

substance

designateas physicalspace

actual

by

Categories.

would

bodies, space

no

quantityout of our mind ; for it would

of length,
be reallyextended, having the dimensions
be
would
It
only
breadth, and
depth. Answer.
be imagabstract or logicalquantity; for it would
ined
stillhave

real

thus

possiblequantity of possiblebodies, and

only logicalentity.

the

as

have

If all bodies

2.

but

one

annihilated,and that

were

moving, owing
moving. But it could
were

its inertia it would

to

not

actually existed. Answer.

that there be possiblespace
between
neither

real

it is

actual

nor

is

space

when

space

relation

this is

that

clear

is

there

on

for motion

enough

; real

bodies, and

necessary

is

It

keep
real

unless

move

one

only one

body.
3. But

it would

real space.

Answer.

but motion
to

and

such

in two

be taken

may
the

grant it would

We

moving body,

there

could

not

requires

real motion

and

reallymove,

reallymove

meanings

/. "?.,as

{a) As

change

be, since

of

place

trinsic
ex-

places,

supposes

surrounding body, [h] As intrinsic to that body,

mode
such
of its being,opposed to rest, and
a
as
motion
has nothing to
do with
the relation which
a

constitutes
70. IV.

The

real

when

is the

To

understand

in time.

duration, /. ^.,
ean

be

space.

permanent

immutable, its

succession

permanence

in three
duration

which

accident

ways

we

in

being.

{a)

is called

regards

stand
under-

must

Now,

cession
suc-

If it remains

being
fectly
per-

eternity, {b) If

its

General

40

Metaphysics;

is devoid

nature

of

called

them,

is the

as

its accidents

changes, but

of

with

case

Ontology.

or

the

ble
suscepti-

are

Angels,its

is

duration

have
term
we
by the Schoolmen, for which
is subject to
no
English equivalent, {c) If its very nature
of bodies, its duration
is said to
changes, as is the nature
be

aevum

in time.

Such

durations

counted, and

their number

this

duration

kind

finds its

of

succeeding
or

Time, therefore, is
changeable beings; it is ever
is

moment,

1.

moving

ever

future.

them.

The

From

this

That

there

were

the

the

and

was

categories

the

indivisible

the

limit

it is clear

time

time before

no

motion

time

of

in

the

between

creation,as there

in order
the

impHes

maintain

with

concept,

by
its

the

earth

measured

of the mind

Kant

which

that time

are

is

measure

time

is

the

as

phenomena

objectiverealities,

; and

mind

the

the

apprehend

cannot

62); they apprehend

happen in time.

exists outside

Posture

between

No.

(see

time;

measure

around

sun

relation

measured, brutes

objects of

to

all nations.

Since the successions

time

succession

of
*

unit is needed

only,which

72. V.

In

flowing,as the now,' or present

onward, separating the past and

is

accepted by

the

such

4.

of

measure

explanationof

apparent

3. Since

'

now

some

unit

time.

changeable beings.

no

That

2.

'

when

be

place.

71.

the

can

other

constitutes

measure

the

alone

each

it is absurd

merely

puts

order

to

subjective
into the

knowledge.

is the

manner

in which

the

parts of

body

disposedwith regard to an adjacentbody ; e. g.^ when a

is standing on, lying on, leaning against a material
man
though every part of
object. Posture may remain the same
are

The

the

in

sitting

standing

or

substance

is

ornament,

etc.

The

last

that

place

there

under

is

furnished

one

with

they
be

may

the

categories,

two

but

change,

when

as

the

accident

by

another,

just

needed

are

no

of

41

travels

person

posture.

Habiliment

VI.

73.

should

occupied

space

Categories,

manner

highest

explained,
by

of

its

as

the

being

genera.

which

dress,

of

are

philosopher
which

bodily

one

cannot

protection,

minor
in

portance
imorder

find

its

CHAPTER

CAUSE

74.
another
A

is

cause

thing

principle

latter

in

which

influences

is called

any

is that

which

from

of

does

from

being

proceed

It may

way.

existence

the

effect.

the

conclusion

the

Logically^ as

1,

EFFECT.

principiant

or

originates

or

AND

anything

the

IV.

it

from

the

ceeds
pro:

in

premises

reasoning.
Physically, by deriving physical being

2.

It

principiant

The
as

it,in
By

of

one

two

existing

and

light, roundness

priority do
viz.

only,
are

one

of God

the

and

these

two

be

That

the

distinct
the

same

This
the

It will

These

the

God

Holy

that

which

produces

ments,
ele-

proceeds

{b)

sooner,

constitutes

or

two

from

is

principiant

of

ways

other
an-

procession

peculiar procession by origin

principiant

being.

fruit.

of its constituent

time, by existing

circle.

Trinity,
Son,

of the

I.

the

identical
Blessed

embrace

not

when

in the

75.

of

cipiant
prin-

producing

it ; thus, flame

before

cipiant.
prin-

The

{a)

tree

one

to

being

one

ways

the

clock.

In

{a)

when

only,

nature

without
of

ways

^.,

be

may

principiant is always prior

two

it, "?.

is of

wheel

in

so

produce

may

{b)

do

may

from

and

what

proceeds

priority does
Father

being

Persons

exist

not

the

it

from

except

principiant

together

the

cipiant
prin-

Ghost.

readily
terms

beings,
being

inferred
cause

while
with

from

and
the
that

these

effect

term

which

definitions
denote

always

principiant
proceeds

may

from

two

denote
it.

and

Cause

2.

processiondoes

That

Effect,

43

denote succession
necessarily

not

in time.
3. That

4.

therefore

and
from

It, while

When

as

Thus, Columbus

connection

is viewed

cause
a

have

his

with

it is

the

77. There

five kinds

are

The

material

is made

thus, steel is

cause.

of

the

distinction between
should

material

the

be

not

the

founded
con-

be

to

cause,

plained.
ex-

the

efficient,

is the matter

cause

effect,it is

the

is next

formal^ \hQ final,the exemplary, and

1.

'followsit.

which

of causes:

sic
extrin-

the discoverer

boyhood

distinction

other

proceeds

materially

world

with

intrinsic

an

only an

what

not formally. This

materially,
being'materiallyand formally a cause
new

does

beginning

whatever

producing

as

; else

cause

from

was

with

beginning may

the

accidental

formally

taken

and
principiant
has
principiant

terms

; the
synonymous
connection
necessary

and

76.

the

not

are

evening,but

it.

proceed from

That

constitute procession

not

the

thus,the night succeeds

;
not

in time does

succession

mere

out

the material

of which
of

cause

a
a

thing

watch-

and form will

matter
spring; the distinction between
be explainedfurther on
(No. 127). Speaking analogically,
of matter,
philosophersoften apply the name
material cause, to anything out of which another is
or
produced ; thus,they call the facultyof the will the

matter, and
2.

The

form,

an
or

act

formal

matter, /. ^., which

rather

than

make

to

cannot

be removed

cause,

makes

another.

it goes

the vital

of the will

the very

is that which

form
nature

without
all

form.

the matter

The

in
principle

is :

the
specifies
be of one
species
if
{a) Substafitialy

of the

changing

plantsand

substance

that nature

animals

and
; e.g.,

; for when

General

44

Metaphysics;

it ceases

be

to

departs,the

or

Ontology,

or

substance

of

nature

or

the

plant or animal is no more,

{b) Accidental^if it
be destroyed without
of the
can
affectingthe nature
substance ; e. g.y the shape of a hat.
3. The

final

action ;

is the end

cause

g., when

e.

the

The

final

himself

riches is

in

intended

purpose

exerts

man

riches,the acquisitionof
exertion.

or

true

an

acquire

to

of his

cause

object itself aimed at, /. ^., riches,is

materiallyconsidered ; the acquisition
final cause
formallyconsidered.

cause

of riches is the

end or purpose.
78. Thesis VII. All action is directed to some
or not;
Proof. Every action is either done with intelligence
if done
the agent has some
motive for his action ;
intelligently,
If
he is aiming at some
result or other ; he acts for an end.
action is not done
with intelligence
in the agent, then it
an
proceeds from an impulse of nature ; it is then the effect of
But physical causes
act
a
according to the
physicalcause.
laws

which

by

which

the

wise God

Creator

directs all

all action is directed

79.

Objections:i.
and

all such

Author
2.

fore
There-

without

acts
an

upon

is directed

impulse of
to

purpose.

his nature,

end

some

by

the

it would

often evil.

are

impulse his

natural
come

Answer.

physicalor purely natural they

but

God;

from
As

action would

far
are

as

his

not

such

impulses
evil ; but

pulses
freelyneglectsto control his natural imaccording to the law of reason, they are evil.
Answer.
Every
Many actions are merely accidental.
and
or
act
freely,
proceeds from a cause, necessarily
",s

3.

upon

good, since

actions
are

action

ends.

proper

by

end.

often

acts

/. e.,

"

of nature.

If he acted

be

"

thingsto

some

man

then

He

Answer.

to

universe

the

governs

far

as

therefore

he

no

action

can

be

accidental ; but

an

action

General

46

Metaphysics;

It is properly

2.

and

of

such

other

cause

It is

as

natural

are

consequences

is properly the
donej thus, the surgeon
of the pain he inflictsand of the cure
he works.
of effects which
ther
neiwere
accidentaUy the cause

intended
the surgeon

causes

death.

principalcause

is that

to

open

to

when

as

with.

sore

the effect is

lancet

is used

by

instrumental

The

chiefly

is that used

cause

when

expected,as

which

instrumental

an

principal cause

be

naturallyto

nor

attributable ;

4.

effects

of the effect intended

cause

the action

of

3. A

{per se) the

Ontology,

or

by
a

cause

geon
sur-

is

always made to extend, by him who uses it,to some

effect beyond its own
competency j e. g.y the lancet
could not cut skillfully
without the skill of the surgeon.
determine itsown
A free cause
can
a necessary
actions,
do

cannot

cause

5. A moral

so.

is

cause

to

one

which

it induces

because

effect is

an

another

to

agent

puted,
justlyim5 it does

act

by command, advice, threats,provocation,etc.,as

to anger.
when
a naughty boy provokes a man
is that which produces an effect,
itis evident
84. Since a cause
so

that it must
axiom

expresses
he

what
rather

the

three ways
1.

2.

has

in

some

it,Nemo

not."

contain

manner

dat

Now,

perfectionwhich

quod

non

cause

may

the

habet

effect j for as the

"

"

contain

it communicates

No
an

to the

gives
or
effect,

one

in
effect,

and effect are of the same

Formally^when the cause
speciesj thus, a plant produces a plant,clouds bring
rain,etc.
is specifically
superiorto
Eminently^when the cause
of the effect in a
the effect and contains the perfection

higher manner
of
perfection

of existence
creatures.

thus,God

contains

all the

Cause

Effect

47

the cause
when
or
a
Virtually
equivalenily,
possesses
superiorperfectionwhich can produce the effect ; thus,
artist may
fairer than
an
produce a painting much
but
himself; he does not possess its beauty eminently,

3.

he

an

possesses

skillfulhand
When

nnivocal
Since
no

and

an

which

can

contains

cause

cause

intellect which

else it is

an

effect is contained

effect can

be

and

ideal

beauty.
effect formally,it is
equivocalcause.
express

an

conceive

can

in its cause,

called

it is evident

that

perfectthan its cause.

85. We must notice two importantlimits to causality:
finite cause
can
I. A
only modify an existingsubject,
iwat not produce a substance from nothing.
Nv,

/.

more

cause

can

act at

it is in

distance,/. ^., where

it is not, there

it is

no

way

present; for where

and

nothing can do nothing. Still it suffices that the

when
the
be mediately present to its effect^
as
by the vibrations of ether,giveslightand heat to

cause

sun,

nothing,

the earth.

Scepticshave
it is evident
and

effect from

denied

(a)That
that of

realityof causes
the
men
distinguish

the
all

succession

and

effects; but

relation of

in time,

cause

{b) That all

effects to be realities,
and
which
all
men
on
judge causes
all commercial
and professional
well
as
legislation,
pursuits,
all trades,are based,
as
(c) That all languagesproclaim this
of such verbs as
to make,'
to proe. g.^ in the
use
reality,
duce,'
to push,' to pull,'
as
etc.,and of such particles
why,'
of
'because,' therefore,'etc.
(d) That we are conscious
of speakhands at will,
our
e, g.y of raising
exercising
effects,
ing,
walking,etc.
86. The
and causes
study of principiants
obviouslysuggests
of certain knowledge, viz. : {a) The
two
important principles
is
There
principleof the sufficient reason, expressed thus :
mere

'

'

'

"

General

48

nothingwithout

Metaphysics;
sufficient reason

of

causality,expressed thus
exist but by a cause,"
87. Thesis VIII.
that

are
of causality

Proof.

I.

The

""

Ontology,

or

for it."

Nothing

of
principle

the

(3) The

is made

or

principle
begins to
and

reason
sufficient

certain.
absolutely

principleof

The

analyticaljudgment

the

obviously evident

so

is

sufficient reason

that

an
we

doubt
it without
rationallydeny or even
to deny
affirmingit; for rationally
thereby implicitly
for so doing ;
doubt it we
should see
reason
or
some
cannot

2.

admit

of
validity

the

principle,
ing
denyit because we see a reason
for so doing.
The principleof causality
flows from the preceding;

and

thus

for

when

we

the

anything begins

sufficient reason

for this

to

exist,there

beginning. That

must
reason

be

must

object itselfthat begins to exist or in

be in the object itself;
something else. It cannot
act
neither in the acts of that object,for it cannot
in its nature, for then the object
before it exists;nor
would be necessary, but a necessary being is so from
be either in the

eternityand has no beginning. Therefore, the reason

be in another
of its beginning to exist must
being;
but this

that it has

means

All

cause.

knowledge

through our
does not come
to us through our
senses
causality
senses
;
; now,
facts only as succeeding one
another, not as causing
see
we
This
Answer,
another.
objection refutes itself;we
one
what causality
know
yet,it says, this knowledge is not
means,
88.

Objection:

conveyed
our

to

that

say
of

cause

intellect

on

comes

it follows we
do not
by sensation ; therefore,
knowledge by sense only. It is,however, correct
tion
The relaall our
knowledge begins in sensation.
and effect is not perceivedby sense, but by the
occasion of sense-perception
(see Nos. 178,etc.);

to

get all

our

us

Cause

e.

g.y
the

as

understand

eUciting

Corollaries.

89.

acquired

not

by

by

when

reason

?)

they
"

all

Who

its

own

cause.

That

Children

show
is

Why
this

"

it

is

this

(what

That

2.

myself
the

as

that
?

"

is

priori,
they
(what
its

cause

is

evident:

things

two

principle

the

but

made

by

perceived

bodies

explanations

these

3.

"

caused

perceptions.

induction,

ask,

49

are

the

by

other.

experience.

reason

my

be

can

each

cause

and

From

nothing

That

cannot

IS

of

Effect,

sensations

my

subject,

object

determining

I.

that

and

of

and

only

have
is

causality
fied
veri-

begun

the

?),

sufficient
etc.

to

CHAPTER

THE

CHIEF

The

90.

I.

by

the

simple

called

'

whole

'

it

division

outside

the

of

class

because

dead

called
the

of

parts

actual

unit

the

called

the

potential

union

whole
of

are

of

take

to

we

the

individuals
50

and

or

g.y

they
and

the

parts

being

whole
are

applicable.

is

not

not
gether
to-

animal

its extension

an

classed

instance,

also

the

man

metaphysical
The

of

consider

of extension^

if

e.

left,not

idea.

when

is

are

junction

have

the

an

For

it

true

from

you

capable

divisions

metaphysical whole,

of

the

among

*animality*

noticed

be

which

absolutely

physical

away

idea.
if

viz.

way,

separately,

man's

potential

same

whole

individuals
the

but

mind,

exist

soul, and

It will

its

is called

comprehension

are

the

identity

mind

can

Thus

separately

positive

is

being

and

the

If the

body.

realizing

expresses

whole

rationality,the

division

as

often

his

regards

the

united

exist

cannot

but

animal,

The

negative

of

want

it ; it is
a

being

composition.

metaphysical parts

are

makes

of

is outside

the

in

us

manner

metaphysical.

'

principle of

by

unit.

parts.

which

constitutes

that

implies

body,'

is

rationality
they

simplicity^infinity.^

are

composition.

all

or

of

and

cannot,

and

all

actual, if there

soul

for

of

if it excludes

perfection

it is conceived

but

combination

'

that

everything

exclusion

of

parts

is

Composition

91.

being

BEING.

immutability,

with

perfection,

OF

of

perfections

Simplicity

identical

PERFECTIONS

chief

necessity^and

V.

"

This

'

/. "f.,
is

logicalwhole^
in

nature

but

The

in the

Chief Perfectionsof Being.

only,which

mind

nature, and
division
breaks

of them

forms

is the

which

one

unit.

mental

by

their

mon
com-

latter

The

logic properly deals with;

into

larger classes

up

all

apprehends them

51

smaller, and these into

for it

smaller

again.
entityso

that

though

its

be

none

conceived

all limitation.
further

perfectionwhich contains all

wanting ; it is a most positiveperfection,
in a negative way, viz. : by denying

Infinite is the

The

II.

92.

But, since limitation is itself

the
perfection,

is
infinity,

of limitation

absence
of

negation

in

negation
a
being,/.

negation,and

therefore

of
"?.,
an

aflSrmation.
Potential

The
of

infinite cannot
and

limit.

number

additions

can

Thesis

measured

be

ever

IX.

observed

be

to

make

counted

or

limit, and

express

It is also

capable

as

is,therefore,not truly infinite but

mathematics
it is usuallycalled infinite.

indefinite,
though in
The

finite conceived

it

increase ;

constant

is the

Infinite

the

that

; because

infinite has
of

amount

no

the finite become

ure
measno

finite

infinite.

No

quantity can be infinite.

existing
of quantity implies divisibility
Proof. Since the essence
be
divided,at least mentally.
any existingquantity may
Let us, then, cut off a small portion from the quantitywhich
remains
will be finite;
was
supposed to be infinite;what
93.

and

that

cut

off

finite

finite remainder
will be

infinite.

quantity should

increased
this

But

differ from

more

94.

than

would
an

measure

an

infinite number

Objections: i.

The

the

small

portion

is absurd, viz.,that

the infinite by

we
Besides, suppose
portion greater than that cut off;
which
quantity greater than infinite,

add

body

by

the

to

is

small

tion.
por-

finite remainder

should

we

then

infinite number

of

have

impossible.An

nite
infi-

yards,and

of feet.

multitude

of

is infinite;
possibles

General

52

for

2.

Metaphysics;
is

there

limit

Ontology.

or

the

things that God can

The
Answer.
create.
possiblesare not existing
; the
thesis regards existingquantity.
of creatures
The
will go on increasingin multitude
acts
for

always
increase

no

Answer,

ever.

be

to

The

of past acts

actuallyfinite,
though capable
/. e., the multitude

"

number

of future

acts

will

of constant

is indefinite.

be

knows
all future
indefinite;for God
and therefore definiiely.
acts of His creatures
distinctly,
God's
ity
Answer.
to the realknowledge is conformable
/. e.^ to the object of that knowledge ; now,
that
objectis a series of acts, all distinct from one another,
ever
continuing,but never
being an existinginfinite

3. It cannot

"

series.
to

Besides,distinctness
of

vagueness
of the

4.

extended

Any
parts.
into

knowledge, and
thingsknown.
body contains an

Answer.

which

of

The

body

number

knowledge
need

not

is

opposed

tation
imply limi-

infinite multitude
of

ultimate

of

particles
is finite;

be divided
physically
of the body can
but the extension
be mathematically
divided without end
not
/. e.^ it is potentially,
really,
infinite in its divisibility.
be
asked
how
we
acquire the idea of the
95. It may
do so, not by intuition of the Infinite Being,
infinite. We
or
God, nor by mentally adding perfectionsto perfections,
for finite thingsadded
never
together can
give the infinite;
but seeingfinite thingswe distinguish
in them, by abstraction,
perfectionand limitation;
next, by denying limitation we
/. e., of the
form the abstract concept of unlimited perfection,
Infinite Being. The idea thus formed
is of a positive
object;
objectivelyconsidered,it is not negative,but most positive;
but subjectively
considered,it implies affirmation and negation.
a

can

"

The

idea of the finite,

on

the other hand, is

not

mere

General

54

rally,

substance

one

accidents

change
of

beings
a

Creator

because

was

established

and

toward

began
God

as

and

had

not

God

change,
thus

existed

new

change

called
of

when

intrinsic

exist,

which

is

one

word

the

case

though

any
to

this

another

immutable,

undergoing

creatures

in

the

changed

are

transubstantiation.

occur

may

wine

and
But

being

absolutely

without
the

for

one

This

change.

bread

while

another

for

Christ.

of

blood

between

remains

the

when

analogically

taken

relation

extrinsic

and

body
is

as

Ontology.

or

substituted

be

may

remain,

the

into

Metaphysics

the

an

two

became

simply
relation
before.

BOOK

II.

COSMOLOGY,

is

Cosmology

loo.

( No.

) ; it is the

with

its

highest
the

universe,
ble

first
of

study

collection

total

visible

the
We

causes.

studying

origin.

visible

the

Its

2.

it.

govern

of

world,

the

by

material

all

connection

in

world

mean

its

the

or

knowa-

objects

of

we

The

loi.

important
were

divided

Plato

maintained

arranged

by

supposed

an

is

world

in

various

that
and

THE

discussed

among

necessary,

the

The

5.

the

opinions
which

eternal,

matter
55

of

one

Philosophy.

intelligent Being,
both

WORLD.

obviously

matter

therefore

that

matter.

I.

OF

the

of

questions

that

bodies.

ORIGIN

origin

Its

i.

laws

The

3.

of

elements

CHAPTER

THE

consider:

to

are

perfection.

constituent

The

4.

world,

and

purpose

general properties

was

Special Metaphysics

of

part

mankind.

by
In

the

but

is

who

and

subject,
the

composes
that

it

God.
the

most

ancients

The

the

on

the

i.

world

properly

was

2.

order

tle
Aristoof

the

Cosmology,

56
universe

were

Pythagoras held
the

eccentric

forth

independent of

theory,revived in the
Erigena, that the

the

Scotus

the Divine

from

and

necessary

Substance

by

cause.

any

Middle
world

Ages by
has

outward

an

3.

come

emanation,

outpouring or outputting of the Divinity. 4. Another

to the ancients, was
explanation,not unknown
scientificall
developed in the seventeenth
pher
century by the Jewish philosoan

Spinoza, who

taught

attributes of extension

two

he

supposed

evolutions
the

world, and

the

endowed
infinite,

and

action ; the
bodies

of

different series of its

the infinite substance.

emanation

This

of the Infinite

Being ;

), for it

modifications

nature.

of the

Idealism

102.

is

Divine
a

modern

material

bodies, and

of

universe,prefersto
maintain

to

that

it is

ternal
in-

reallyPantheism

makes

all

thingsmere

of

deny

there

an

Philosophy,taught
explainingthe originof

system

by Fichte, which, instead

chiefly

called

has been

system

( Ttdv Qe6%^ everything God

the

butes
attri-

These

various

producing the

with

thoughts being the

of men
universe would
be nothing
; thus, the whole
succession
of constantlyvarying phases assumed
by

minds
but

of its extension

stance,
sub-

only one

thought.
in constant
necessarily

be

to

exists

there

self-existent and

necessary,
the

that

existence

the

exists

nothing

of

but

all
the

ever-changing phantasms, like a sick man's

dreams, are mistaken for objectiverealities. This vagary is
it denies the reliability
refuted in Critical Logic, because
alike
of sense-perceptions.The
true
doctrine, conformable
J'go^ whose

to

and

reason

created
103.

Revelation, is that

to

heaven

and

earth

Pantheism, if
in

Agnostic

the
school

not

"

teachingthat,for

all

we

beginningGod

(Gen. i. i).
expresslytaught, is

speculationsof
inculcates

the

"In

the

know,

many
same

modem
error

in

at

plied
least im-

infidels;the
a

the visible world

milder

may

form,
be the

The

total

sum

Thesis

I.

of all
Proof. If
would

be,

would

and

and

need

fact,the

Supreme Master,
God

as

worst

and
self-existent,

be

Himself.

morality;

no

selfishness,a

mere

result

of

state

Thesis

104.

tive
systems destruc-

mere

II.

society.
true, each

know,

us

part of

world

therefore

independent
God, as Divine

part of

of

in the

men

If

so,

worship a Superior Being, hence

obey a higherlaw-giverthat would

hence

distinct

God

unknowables.

among

Agnosticism were
might be, for all we
; in

57

or

least

at

or

necessary

should

of

and

Pantheism

Maker

World.

Agnosticismare
religion^
of morality,and of human

might

or

classed

Pantheism

infinite substance

the

of

being

the

existence

being, the

of actual

this world

from

Origin of

no

could

one

religion;

no

bind

his

no

or

one

conscience,

without

morality no restraint on man's

would
soon
struggleof might, whence
barbarism, the destruction of society.

Neither

the world

the

nor

of

matter

which

composed can possiblybe self-existent.

Proof I. A self-existent being is immutable; for,if it must
also necessarilybe such
it is;
as
necessarilyexist,it must

it is

a certain
why is it such as it is ? If it was necessarily
thing,no other being could make it anything else. In other
words, whatever
givesan object existence gives it a definite
existence; for it could not give it an indefinite existence.

else

world

the

Now,

immutable,
our

senses.

Proof
is

2.

as

be

Therefore

such

both

finite. Now,

are

it cannot

for
limits,
being can impose

no

have

has

it consists

quantity; but

infinite,as

matter

but

of which

matter

are

not

subjectto constant
changes,as is evident to
Therefore
they are not self-existent.
world
The
for all matter
and all matter
are
finite,

cannot

(No. 93).

the

but

divisible,and

quantity

and

whatever

has

in

proved

Ontology
and
world consistingof
matter
a
self-existent being cannot
be finite,
was

those limits would

limits

on

its

own

be

self-imposed,

nature

{a)

Not

58

Cosmology,

freelyfor

firstexist in

being must

definite

before it

nature

for this would

that
freely, {b) Not necessarily,
mean
of that being exclude all further perfections;
perfections
no
perfectioncan be exclusive of any further perfection,
act

can

the
but

since all

is positive,
and
there can
be no contraperfection
diction
a
negative and a positive. Hence
except between
self-existent being has no
limits j it is infinite,
and
thereneither the world

lore

Proof

i^A)The

3.

have

must

since

nothing can

the world

Thesis

IV.,

necessary
?

nature

of

is self-existent.

for whatever
is
self-existent,
without
a beginning,
eternity,

not

from

begin

exist without

to

existed

have

cannot

without

(No. 87).

cause

beginning(see

109). [B) Matter is not self-existent.

persuade himself that every particleof

No.

would

Who

is

world

existed

such

But

its matter

nor

dust is

of its existence in its own

being,having the reason
mark
Every particleof matter bears,as it were, the trade-

manufactured

article.

The

be

proof may

thus proposed

self-existent,
stitute
they would coninfinite multitude,but they could do
finite or
an
We prove the major :
{a) They would constitute a
of

If the elements
a

neither.

multitude, for
a

matter

definite collection

any

multitude.

the

Now,
be

elements
of

each

units,for

collection of

were

finite

units

of

of

would

matter

is

them

constitutes

unit,

be

{b) This

for nothing can

exist
infinite,
when, for instance, we speak of an indefinite
indefinitely;
but capable of
a
quantityactuallyfinite,
quantity,we mean

would

multitude

further increase

would
be finite
We

or

prove
a

finite

"

constitute

as
a

or

far

as

it exists.

multitude,and

Hence

ments
the ele-

that multitude

would

infinite.
the

minor

finite nor

multitude,for

no

an

The

elements

infinite multitude

existing
quantitycan

of matter
:

be

i.

Not

cannot
an

"^^

stitute
con-

infinite

as
infinite,
proved

The

before
a

(No. 93). 2. Nor

million particles,
say

would

be

either

thex'e should

q^anbe neither

result without

reason

in

reason

the

there

fact

could
in

105.

that
be

not

million

Objections:

one

more

; for if

it

there

the

number

of

million

one

more,

is

Matter

nothing without
be
particlescannot
be

sufficient

in

million

is

be
no

ber,
num-

reason
tradiction
con-

more

million

particles.

therefore
indestructible,

It is not

Answer,

means

is

for there

in

less ; but

or

exist cannot

than

one

that

reason

accident

by accident,for
it,and

and

i.

necessary.

indestructible

by

it is
the

of God.

power
2.

not

there
by accident,
{b) Nor can
the particles
why they are justone

since

why

sufficient

some

for

reason

59

finitemultitude

for

or

{a) Not

it,therefore

World.

then
gold, existed necessarily,

of

by accident

it

determined

it be

can

just a million,and

be

for

the

Origin of

The

substance

its accidents

might

of matter
known

are

its

{A) Not only

changeable, e.

be

to

be

immutable, though

changeable.

accidents,but its

Answer,

substance

very

is

plant dies, when iron rusts,

being unchangeable, its accidents
(B) If matter
changeable,they would have been changing from

etc.
were

g., when

since
eternity,
eternity
; and

thus

this

infinite

time,

an

series
most

recent

if the

can

would

matter

necessary

either

there would

never

change

existed from

have

{a) have

been, by

quantityof changes ; but

be gone
through, and

could

have

never

been

an
so

finite
inthe

arrived at )

then
the
finite,
changes were
been
matter
at first have
must
changeless; and if so,
have begun, for it was
the first change could never
not
and nothing begins by accident,/. e., without
necessary,

{b) or

could
3.

cause,
never

Though

number

of

and

thus

have

begun

the elements

matter

be

to

motionless

from

eternity

move.

singlyunnecessary,

the wnole

6o

Cosmology,
collection of them
means

collection

be

cannot

Answer,

necessary.

of unnecessary

thingsis

absolutelynecessary
nothing else than the

an

is

collection

be

may

By

no

and

not

collection,for
total

sum

of the

things collected.
The

4.

is

world

for
infinite,

infinite. Answer.
but

only all
(No. 68).
Thesis

106.

It does

actual

III.

it fillsall space,

real

or

Matter

fill all

not

could

and

possiblespace,

space, and

not

have

is

space

this is finite

originatedbut "y

creation.
the making of a
Explanation. By creation we understand
of nothing. Now,
substance
maintain
out
we
that, though
some
speciesof matter may arise from other speciesof matter,
e.

g.,

from

water

the

combination

chemical

hydrogen,

still ultimately the first matter

have

made

been

Proof. To
matter

created

be

made

was

out

prove the minor:

from

another

another
matter

1.

existence

that

must

was

have

been

made

be

would

matter

it is not

would
out

out

hence

it

of

but

nothing ;
created.

was

nothing

without

either in the

be

reason

of

We

sufficient

being itselfor

in

is not

in

matter

and
self-existent,

Therefore

so.

the

we

have
of

reason

being,i. e.^ it is made.

made
be

must

creation.

made

the sufficient

of nothing^'for if it were

something

is

there

must

existence

in

and

oxygen

made^ i. e., it received itsexistence

be in another

that

be

It

being. Now,

justproved

is to

nothing ;

reason

else
itself,

nothing,/. "f.,by

of

being, for

This

reason.

of

out

of

2.

'

its
Out

of

something pre-existing,
could
mutable, else nothing new

of it ; but

out

what

is not

is mutable

self-

existent

have
been
made,
(No. 103); hence it, too, must
either out
of something else or out
of nothing. If out of
nothing,then our propositionis proved ; if out of something

else,the

same

will always return,

difficulty

until

we

arrive at

62

Cosmology.
is no

extension
in the

idea.

As

origin of

the

the

of

Answer.

the

minor,

eminently

question is

It contains

in the

idea, not

extension

/'.
"f.,as

"

further

08.

object

to

but

God,

in God,

far

as

is

subjective

formally in
it impliesno imperfections.
not

discussed

often

sion
exten-

with

regard

to

world, viz. : Is it certain that its creation

could not absolutelyhave been from eternity,
that the world
have had a beginning,that matter
itself must
must
have had
that the very
a beginning ?
essence
Though it would seem
of creation impliesa transition from
non-existence
ence,
existto
and

Thomas,
that
to

therefore

and

many

creation

be

the

it is

from

[c] Nor

of creature

not

{a) On

the part of the

[b) Nor on the

eternitycapable of being

from

was

of the necessary

account

on

so

Creator, for that,too, would

to

still St.

creature,

eternityAlmighty,

part of the creature, which

created,

the

distinguished
philosophers,
say
be conclusivelyproved
eternitycannot

from

was

of

of the most

absurd, because

Creator, Who

beginning

subordination

be

secured.

But

though creation,as such, may

perhaps be possiblewithout a
of the
beginning,there is something special in the nature
world
109.

which

shows

Thesis

Proof, The
existed from

IV.
world

that it cannot
The

world

contains

there
eternity,

existed from

have
have

cannot

existed

from eternity.

series of

changes.

would

have

an

been

eternity.

If it had

infinite series

of

changes before any particularchange could have taken

place,e, g.y before vegetationbegan; but an infinite series can
be passed,nor
never
can
anything infinite be further extended.
Therefore
no.

the world

cannot

Objections:i.
the

St. Thomas

of
possibility

Thomas

admits

have

creation

that the

existed from
and
from

many

eternity.
others

eternity. Ansiver,

proofsof

admit
St.

this proposition
are

The

Origin of

the

absolutelyconclusive;

not

World.

6^^

other

many

minds

great

they are conclusive,and they are certainlyvery

than
so
objection brought
powerful, far more
any
did not
St. Thomas
wish to rest our
against them.
belief in creation on
a
mere
reasoning about which
it rests on the firmer
logiciansmight quibble,because
think

2.

world

The

Revelation.

Divine

basis of

might

have

been

creation

material

i. q. 46, art.

[Summa,

changelessat

absolutelyat

ii.)

swer,
first. An-

would

rest

be

useless.
creative

3. The

4.

also.

Answer.

God;

not

It

therefore
eternity,

from

was

eternal

was

/. "?.,on
objectively,

the

When

act

exists

cause

If the

God

necessarily,
yes
singleact which

necessary
6. The

act

being,but

7. From

not

Creator.

free

of creation

would

Yes, if it were
Creator

Answer.

The

intrinsic

to

the

if it acts

; not

extends

from

Answer.

He

is

cause.

have

being a

swer.
An-

244).

cause.

necessary

Answer.

God.

and

243,

in

creature.

exist.

must

acts

cause

is

part of the

effect

freely and by one

eternityto eternity(see Nos.
5. But

subjectively,/. e.j
the

the

its effect

produced
not

He

change

in

eternal.
subjectively

would

change was
world,leaving Him

have

become

extrinsic
as

He

to

Him

was.

always does what is best, but to create from

God
do for a
can
never
eternityis best. Answer.
what
is absolutelybest,for He could always
creature

8. God

do better
fund
9.

still; the

of power

Motion
tion must

and

finite cannot

exhaust

the

infinite

goodness.

cannot

have

come

from

had
a

beginning,for

preceding motioa

every

mo-,

Answer,

Cosmology.

64

Philosophersoften
that there

call any

have

must

beginning. But
things; it is in God,
a

by

not

or,

of

gives the

est

earth

how

But

at

which

the

we

calculate

than

creation of

The

man

intended

the

the

world

has

that mankind

before

Revelation.

material

universe

account
inspired

their old-

did not

the

of

really

extrinsic

The

Mosaic

the

purus.

exist

birth of

or

Christ.

exist before

the

Moses, evidently

chronology,is capable of various

and
has been, from
remote
periods of the
interpretations,
Christian era, variouslyunderstood
Some
by the learned.
that an
unknown
period of time, which may have
suppose
been
of any length,elapsedbefore the first day began ; and
not

to

this appears

marks
is no

Some

in the

account
must

suppose
of old

proof

it

whenever

that
age

the

Lord
it.

upon

teaching of

most

created

restricted
the

This is indeed

earth

; these

sense

with

but
possible,

many

there

of it.

and

causes,

literal and

most

part of Philosophy

It is the

prove

meaning of the second verse

interpretthe six days as six periods of
Others preferto understand
the Mosaic

duration.

unknown

us

the obvious

be

to

Genesis.

of

teach

act, actus

pure

darkness.

of

eternity,

infinite act,

patriarchsbegot

6,000 years
did

long

in material

is one

He

out
with-

kind

some

activityfrom

of acts, but

that

ages

more

is all

Who

it is true

and

the firstactivity
is not

authorityis

; whence

sons

of
activity

left in considerable

are

argument

been

technicallycalled,a
question how long

the

to

existed,we
It

it is

as

As

III.

succession

motion,

act

therefore
can

do

effects to

appropria*^**
physical effects to physical causes,
without
so
contradictingany certain

Revelation.

trace

priorireasoning we cannot
the remote
either the recent
or
tion.
period of the creaperfect
Geology, though stillmost imReasoning a posteriori^
as

science,makes

By

to

it appear

probable that

the earth

The

had

been

creation

existence

in
of

Molloy

(Disp.
i.

c.

XV.)

(Part
III.,

See

Geology

II.)
art.

and

long
the

both

the

World,

period

much

Cardinal

Schanz's

of

65

time

theological

Mazzella's

Christian

before

and

the
and

leammg

Revelation,

and

also,

iv.)

with

treated
in

accuracy

for

man.

arguments

of

Origin

by

Rev.
De

Deo

Apology

the
tific
scien-

logical
Gerald
Creante

(voL

CHAPTER

THE

END

OR

PURPOSE

AND

OF

To

112.

of

purpose

produced

to

earn

with

His

to

accomplish?
What

it is

the

Had

well

equally

for

could
or

to

others

therefore,

liberty

and

yet it
God
His

in

His

questions
God

intend

is the

world

act?

purpose

and

for

for

even

Himself

of

worthy

be

creative

any

end

an

is

watch

two

purpose

He

gain by

free
to

will ;
create

to

create

possessed

by creating,

It

bounty.

is

to

prefer

for

others

benefit

His

He

Himself;

for

who

may

did

without

act

alone

choosing

did

Why

create.

of

the

fore
there-

Himself

for

by

purpose

purpose

intend

acted

to

exercise

to

course,

God

then, anything

God,

workman

watch-maker

What

2.

have

God

Now,

created

did
to

What

i.

act

wisdom

of

end.

He

gain

Said

part

worthy

of

be

cannot

the

therefore, consider

purpose

the
the

of

purpose

creative

own

of

thing
any-

between

distinguish

purpose

must,

which

for

purpose

instance,

world

the

to

in

113.

For

We

money.

the

the

or

must

we

and

time,

regard

He

made,

work.

the

end

the

work

the

show

to

been

PERFECTION

THE

WORLD.

THE

understand

has

11.

was

was

not

worthy

created

bounty.

for

and

creating

but

all
thus

for

of

In

Himself,

This
66

purpose

not

viz.:
of

exercise
Him

this
to

God

to

nothing

perfection.

necessary
Him.

had

this

do

choosing

He

had,

He

could

He

by

or

But

His
to

do

double
exercise

cannot,

to

He

ness
goodgood
sense,

His
how-

The

and

End

cause

effect which

is

in God

an

the

will,not

wished

to

exercise His

His

His

of

ultimate

God's
1

is the purpose
world

is the
created

to

to

exercise
make

; His

the

intends

called

be

God

as

in order

created
He

bounty

Inasmuch

to bestow

this

end

as

happiness of the creatures

His bounty, which is truly

of

For

to

of the work

what

is

this is not

But

the ultimate

end

was

tended
incertainly
chief

happy, especiallythe

creatures.

pose
purit

Since

to

God's

know

Or

accomplish?
bounty, the world

meant

creatures

/. ^., rational

purpose.

choice.

cause

while
itself,

from

kind

6^

purpose.

What

14.

for

will ; yet it may

but

exercise

the

to

of any

bounty, He

happiness on His creatures;

worthy of Himself,and thus
is subordinate

action ;

reallydistinct

of

cause

motive

or

reason

His

of

real distinction

is no

there

is His
the

the

World,

Perfectionof the

final

ever, be called

produces

the

tures,
crea-

its ultimate

for which

anything

by a wise maker, we have only to consider the

highestgood which it is capable of accomphshing, and not
also attain.
inferior good which it may
some
Thus, a watch
is intended

indeed

may

used

be

it is fit for

and

this is

Creator

and

this

Glory

is the

toy

mere

or

of dress ;

ornament

an

something better,viz. : to indicate the time,

its primary end.
Now, the world is capable of
than making creatures
happy ; it can glorifythe

but

doing more

as

is, therefore,its ultimate

or

primary

purpose.
115.

recognizesall
God's

recognitionof

excellence

in

exalted

Himself, and

intri?isicglory. The

excellence.

this

world

God

stitutes
recognitioncon-

manifests

gent
to intelli-

the

wisdom, etc., of the

goodness, power,
Creator; their recognitionof God's perfectionconstitutes
His extrinsic glory. It is the highestpurpose
that this world
creatures

can

answer;

the world

it is therefore

the

primary

exists,the happinessof

men

purpose

for which

being subordinate

to

68

Cosmology.

it,as

inferior end

an

must

subordinate

be

ever

to

superior

end.
While

the

by

happiness of

the

should

Therefore

free to

moral

fit that

attain the

creatures

Man

reach

can

command

work

his

; it is therefore

make

will to

choice,and

all

he

or

it is to
Thesis

Proof.

"

His

in

its end
a

are

it

which

would

on

which
loss is

God.

to

Therefore

extrinsic

this invitation

spurn

incurring

deserved

Creator.
will

free acts

punish

to

of that

consequent will
is antecedent
will.

maintains
as

created

glory.
of glorifyingGod ;
glorifyHis bounty,

God's
the

should

their

to

His
free

it is also

Hence

that God

ture
crea-

but

predestines

directlyopposed

to

phy
Philoso-

but relatively
perfect.
absolutely
JVot absolutely
lutely
perfect. A thing is absoattains perfectlythe best possibleend;

the

for it manifests

and

the

antecedent

The world

1st Fart,

the end

but

they

Revelation.

V.

perfectif

may

that

happy

men

eternal

to

thus

Master, and, by

clear that the doctrine

117.

own

their

out

was

His

manner

called God's

is called

men

of

happiness,and
do \

it

glory of

God

own

is consequent

guiltycreature

as

work

all-wise God

an

that

extrinsic

it is evident

6. Hence

some

their

on

consequence,

purpose

his

to

of

of

punishment,glorifythe justiceof
1 1

depend

to

natural

deprive

cannot

invites him

God

and

is the

only choose

can

either he
as

the

primary

accomplish,which
free

happiness of

left free to

are
a

the

by preferring
something else ; thus
possible,though not intended by the Creator.

evil is

fail to

as

tended
proximately in-

fail in that choice

it is not

But

be made

men

happiness; and,

own

truly and

that
Creator, it is fitting

creatures
intelHgent

free choice.

is

men

is not

attains is not

world
God's

perfectionsin

be better if it manifested

higher degree.

Therefore

it is not

the
a

best

ble;
possi-

finite

those

degree,
perfections

perfect.
absolutely

Cosmology.

70

that

the

for

5.

reasoning
minor

the

God

attain

not

many

Answer.

God

punished
writes

will

either

will

"

which

glorify

The

defect

2ae,

fail

q.

fly
under
Nos.

him

under
the

14,

lose

same

15).

for

them

His

honor

what

his

wQl

he

will.
will

the

And

vi.).

if

God

punishing

man

law"

Cur

sinner

the

it

exacts

chooses
he

commanding,
"

to

''God

God

or

the

eternal

either

owes,

ing,
suffer-

Anselm:

for

Thomas

extent

the

St.

Thus,
of

the

with

be

or

what

suffer

ture
crea-

by

up

to

accords

the

St.

made

Him.

mercy,

ever.

is
wicked

what

His

for

the

evil

of

glorify

doing

intended

dishonor

out

justice

of

art.

pays

against

from

do

to

93,

spontaneously
of

His

prescribes

possibly

cannot

and

proof.

of

glory

honoring,

good

they

as

they

(1%

draw

and

law

of

conclusive,

not

capable

not

extrinsic

the

repent

inasmuch
eternal

is

instead

men,

is

objection

the

proposition

does

for

of

Deus

to

falls

HomOj

CHAPTER

LAWS

THAT

It is evident

THE

119.

world

and

wonderful

most

in the

is here

law
for

used

moral

Now,

themselves
What

Since

of

modes

of

121.

that

is

the

nature

action

action
Are

departures

no

and

structure

observe

that

modes

constant

laws.

strictlymeans

the

displays

the

natural

order;
dis-

word

The

rule

of

of action

can

the

act

created

of

natures

and

of

the

created

the

modes

from

them

except
from

the

power

absolutely impossible,

in

things
of

laws

or

conformity

for

laws

produce
nothing
71

their

of

is the
the

are

obvious

causes

nature

necessarily

so

impossible

are

physical
can

all

laws

Author

uniform

essences.

action

of

the

are

effect

no

the

natures,

themselves

natures

is

physical

of the

their

those

are

There

causes

to

Author

physical

subject present

whence

or

action

the

are

according

act

laws?

of

what, then,

this

on

modes

The

departures
i.e.^

and
or

of those

uniform

things

2.

nothing

in

questions

philosopher

laws.

those

important

the

is that

modes

it

world

the

duce
pro-

wild

of

mass

particular, we

physical

to

cause

all

answer

In

well-defined

analogically

some

and

constant

without

that

cannot

beings.

120.

I.

perpetually

parts.

have

Creator

variety, both

amid

call the

we

wise

posteriori

its

of

things

action, which

be

unity

operations

all material

of

know

we

that

priori

WORLD.

THE

GOVERN

should

that

III.

with
zx^

constant

It is evident

its nature,

and

that
fore
there-

physically impossible,

them;
created

but

they

exists

are

except

not
as

Cosmology,

72

dependent on
the Author

the power

of

nature

otherwise

His

may

He
make

law, or

and

therefore
in

12

and

Proof
make

VI.

The

laws

miracles
therefore

is not

That

God

of nature, for He
; but

God

involves

nature

would

that

force

is called

should

nature

are

tinue
con-

stronger

immutable,
absolutely

not

are

to

make

which

God

exceptions

can

the

to

tion
contradic-

no

exceptionsto

contradiction.

no

law

possible.

can

make

by

things

miracle.

do all that involves

can

modes

other

let every
a

physical

of created

may

absolutelyimmutable

exceptions; but

laws

of

of

evident interference of God

An

workings of physicalagents
Thesis

2.

He

counteract

or

different direction.

with the

neutralize

Or

of

being follow

the very natures

all their powers.

action,but

force in

change

can

things,

for wise purposes

the action

suspend

for the time

creature

of action ; for He

controllingit

either

therefore

action of created

affect the

can

suspending and
own.

will of the Creator,and

and

the

If it did, the

laws

of
of it

reason

be

of material
either,{a) That the natures
things are
and actingindependently
absolutelynecessary beings,existing
will ; or,

of God's
would

of

permanence

would

suppose

be

invalid ;

{b) That
change

His

unworthy

own

of

God's

because, {a) The

act

only in

He

may,

as

far

making exceptionsto generallaws

of mind
in God
with regard to the
laws; or, {c)That such exceptions
natures

God

as

wisdom.

But

of material

gives them

action,and that

or

shall

reasons

are

thingsexist

existence

therefore,
suspend their action

shall neutralize their

these

and

produce
cause

and

action;

effects that

even

opposite

results,

God
wills an
[b) When
exception.He wills it from
self
to Himeternity,{c)It is wise, on the part of God, to reserve
of evidentlycontrollingHis
means
creation,and thus

manifestingHis will to man.

and
of Divine manifestations,
123.

Objections:i.

Hume

Now, miracles
are

therefore

and others

are

such

means

possibleto God.
have learnedly
proved

Laws

that

that
"at//-/^n

miracles

The

event

priori that

and
2.

An

it needed

material world
; but

does

God

made

God's

the world

He

will

His

so

The

ence
interfer-

of the power

fit to do

sees

Answer.

miraculous

depriveHimself

cannot

manifests

He

need

not

interfere with it when

when

have

interference.

His

not

ordinary

("Science
Century^Nov., 1887.)

should

Creator

the

some

cannot

nature

all-wise

that

change in
possiblyavail."

for

prayer

Bishops,"Nineteenth

the

All their

impossible.Answer.

are

"

entitled to

of

jT)

are

the

course

World,

edges
easilyrefuted ; even
Huxley acknowlis
No
one
possibiHtyof miracles,saying:
lous
say a priorithat any given so-called miracuand no
is impossible,
is entitled to say
one

arguments

the

Govern

so

; for

to

instance,
His

supernaturallyto

creatures.
intelligent

3. God

could

intellects of

manifest
men.

His

will

Answer.

He

therefore
exist.

exist

and

physicallaws

The

flow

bodies

while

from

thus,our
our

so, and

does

obtain

to

his

reasoning.

during the miracle,but

heavy

do

man

the very

suspended
physicallaws

The

their effects ;

to

be

they cannot

Answer.

could

it is natural

frequently
; but
knowledge by sense
so

4.

by affecting
directlythe

of

natures

while
need

their
not

stronger power

hands

do

will raises them

not

cease

things,
causes

cease

may

to

vent
preto

be

up.

of nature, and
only complicate the economy
troduce
Answer.
destroythe beauty of order.
They ininto the world
a
higherbeauty than that of
physicalregularity.

5. Miracles
thus

mere

6. It is

an

constant.

is not

that
analyticalprinciple
Answer.

contained

We

in the

the order

of nature

is

deny this;unvarying constancy

idea of order.
It is an analytical

Cosmology.

74

judgment

that there

be

must

order

wise Creator ; but order does

all

miracles

now,

which

they are

clude
ex-

to

means

the

to

ends

for

be

miracles,the physicalsciences would

If miracles
of
give certainty. Answer.
were

to

such

suited

of

seen,

adaptationof

well

are

have

we

as

works

wrought.

7. If there could
cease

It is the

exceptions.

ends;

not,

in the

that

frequentoccurrence

their effects

natural

from

could

we

distinguish

not

effects,we

else

grant;

we

deny.
8. Miracles
Answer.

but

we

happens

the

on

contrary,

and

happen,

happen

We

did not

happen,
miracle

the

certaintyare

could

Miracles

10.

true

could

be

known

known

; for any

law

proves

too

proves

too

no

causes

did

the

from

Lazarus

only that

but

natural

proceed from
that

moral

them.

given

miracle

certaintythat

it

is stronger than
physicalcertainty
that a
have no physicalcertainty

; now,

Answer.

only

physicalcertainty

witness

we

physical certaintythat

have

not

to

have

we

facts when

of the miraculous
9. We

least,opposed

physicalcertainty.
have
Not
at all : we
garding
physical certaintyrewhat
must
happen when no miracle interferes,
have no physicalcertainty
that no miracle ever
at

are,

in their

own

answer

no

be

much

e.

both

dead:

to

have

we

happen,

Christ raised
moral

whatever

unless

purpose

; but

they

An

some

they
be
known
un-

objectionthat

now,

valid,we
until

cannot

from

come

unsound;

for,if it were

scientific induction

not

certainty

physical and

Answer.
be

moral

g., that

wise

strange fact may

must

miracle

lines.

miracles

of nature.
much

did

moral.

certain effect could

did

we

this

objection

could

knew

form
all the

The

laws, else

natural
be

that

Laws

due

to

miracles,we

to

form, e.

do

We

n.

need

g., the

imphes

this world.

of

miracle

Besides,

mankind
spirits,
all

would

would

means

God

could

thus

God

be

be taken

be

deceptionof
moral

laws

unholy

the

action

unworthy
The

be

to

of the

dead;

could

be

for

beings
of

the

from

evil

which

the action of

manifested

of

would

portionof

world:

the

to

the

for

mankind.

cal
physi-

the

is no

There

law ; but

moral

physical law

be accountable

therefore

Answer.

so.

violate

parity;

to

oppose

implies nothing

that is

of God.

mesmeric

fluid is

produce

Effects

which
not

work

the noblest

by

away

immutable;

are

must

it may

must

the wonder.

into error, and

Himself

the best

laws

too

it is

13.

works

led
invincibly

outwardly

deceits,then God

The

nature.

unwisely deprive Himself of what is

sole right. For
instance,if the miracles
His followers as a body could be diabolical

of Christ and

12.

man

would

evidentlyHis

the

dead

circumstances

the

nature

fore
devil;there-

over

that,if it

such

often

are

of

life to the

of

dominion

supreme

laws

regard

of the

God

restoration

never

With

evidentlythe

are

might

then

that

of

power

full power

facts

Creator, e.

all the

75

law

one

could

judgment

whether

know
Some

to

We

know

not

the

know

not

Answer.

this

law.

to life by any

never

we

attribute

we

g.^ the certain

return

World,

physicalcertainty.

fact with

predictany

cannot

what

another, hidden

to

the

Govern

be

that
possible

any

for

miracles;
a

wonderful

miracles.

produced by

be

called

falselyclaimed

so-called

many

may

capable of

mesmeric

material

but

fluid should

"

Answer.

mesmeric

many

fluid

effects;

e.

fluid

things

are

g., it is not

produce

acts

of

Cosmology,

76

when
as
intelligence,

language

learned

never

unknown

secrets

medium

the

to

by

the

all other

men

is made

and

person,
; often

and

strange effects claimed

the

etc., in many

it can

cases

of the
of God

work

with

Besides,both

24.

material

suspend

must

the fact to be

devil,or

If not, then

the

causes,

is

miracle

ways

to
:

God's

either

of

cause

of the

new

first

causes

are

can

of the

the

interference.

the

cal.
identi-

remain

the

same

physicaleffects

same

Now,

mere

whether

material,since

not

are

action of creative
finite

substance.

being

Such

that
we

with

God

of

should

we

God

in

the
not

for certain

know

be

nature

as

the

the

are

interfere

may

it
or

comes

from

be

total

class

of
instrumentality

This
matter.

the

said to be

of the second

of God.
over

power,

create,

can

acts

class;while miracles

same

pronounce

proceed from

manifest interference

produced by
Angels actingas ministers
Angels have certain powers
that

be discovered

directly,
by Himself,or indirectly,
through
the wonderful
event
good Angels. When

ministryof His
produced impliesthe
God
directly
; for no
the

of

power

not

while the circumstances

working of physical agents, it is evident

call an astonishing
event
a miracle,unless
in two

the

observe

must

we

must
ever
physicalcauses
produce
the same
physicalcircumstances.

that it is due

and

cumstanc
cir-

it is the

this cannot

where

certain effect may

physical or material
effect is always the same

the

miraculous.

discern whether

Since

hypnotism,

from

out

within

be

cerned.
con-

of the devil

power

judgment

our

men

question whether

may

cases

invisible

all

mesmerism,

for

fact in

in all

; and

the

clearlyfound

be

concrete

of the

or

nature
we

To

172-174.)
regard to

know-

to

an

intellectual agent is present, distinct from

(See Nos.

speak

to

supposes

Now,

miracles
are

the

those

good

that
the

the

devils

good Angels, and they,likewise,

Cosmology,

78

of

justice,

presumption
as

none

nor

the

to

miraculous.

be

is

man

being

in
certain

favor

of

unless

event

preternatural

miracles
it

be

while,

For

innocent

accounted

presumption

wonderful

the

to

the

proved,

that

effect

the

nounce

in

his

until

favor,
the

on

be

agencies

of

due

the

we

his

no

evil

any

natural

spirits.

be

such

accept

we

beyond
to

court

guilt

claim

contrary,

demonstrated

cannot

before

doubt

agent,

IV.

CHAPTER
THE

126.

We

consider

may

of different powers

consider

may

and

former

it

matter

into

of
particles
speciesof matter

which

the

same

can

be

substance

elements

or

we

in the

i. e.,
homogeneous particles,
the entire mass.
as
Many

nature

dissolved

further

sessed
pos-

of potentiality

its species. Considered

be

is divisible into

matter

MATTER.

itsdifferent species
;

accordingto

whatever
activity,

way,

extended

as

its further constituent

to

as

OF

ELEMENTS

CONSTITUENT

into chemical

cles,
parti-

i. e., of different natures;

thus,
heterogeneous^
be decomposed into oxygen
and hydrogen. Oxywater
can
gen,
resolvable
to be further
hydrogen, etc., are not known
into other
called
particles
simple elements^not as
; they are
if their particles
had
no
extension,but to distinguishthem
from

the molecules

127.
of

are

We

are

of chemical
to

now

investigatethe

ultimate

composition

ically
they be chemfollowingis the explanation

of molecules

bodies, even

compounds.

of matter,

The
simple or compound.
given by Plato, Aristotle,St. Thomas,

whether

and

by

the

Schoolmen

and form.
generally
; it is called the system of matter
into which a non-living
Every one of the smallest particles
tain
body may be divided possesses, justlike the whole mass, cerpowers

without

matter

God

or

creates

active

e.
energies,

powers

is constituted

such

would

useless.

nothmg

principlein

g.,

etc.
affinities,
attractions,

be
The

useless

source

matter, is called its form

a

substance, and
79

being,and

of these powers,
;

by

; for

wise
the

it a substance

different from

every

other ;

8o

Cosmology,

it is therefore its substantial form.

of their

energies is not
life principle
which

one

animal;

or

(Nos.

livingbodies

the

but
separate particle,

determines

the

speciesof

shall

we

each

in

treat

source

in the

plant

Psychology

etc.).

139,

Besides

in each

vital form

the

of

In

forms, which

the

differ for the

different

is

something which is the same

of extension ;
substances,viz.,the principle

bodies, there
firstabstract

and
entity,

be called

may

the

in

speciesof

all material

it is matter

in its

potential
principle,

It cannot
prime matter, or materia prima of the Schoolmen.
exist by itselfwithout
is some
some
form, for all matter
kind of matter.
thus informed by the
This potential
principle
active principle
is,in its ultimate particlewhich we are now

the

a
considering,

natural

or

which

has

form

of

physicalunit

extension

it

naturallyoccupies

in

ness.
length,breadth, and thickBut being a physicalunit,though extended,the ultimate
particleis not physicallydivisible into smaller parts. The
each
particleoccupies is indefinitely
space, however, which
divisible. For instance,when
hydrogen and oxygen unite to
constitute a molecule of water, their potential
principle
remains,
exist as such and
but their active principles
to
cease
are
ceeded
sucactive principle,
that of water.
by a new
some

space

128.

This

of
potentiality
before

was

of the nature
to

become

cubic block

matter

"

of the nature

of

prime

same

and

of oxygen

educed

be

hydrogen

change it was

the

it is actually water

now
can

wax

i, e., that

; before

of water

water,

is said to

become

ball of
is

out

matter
now

in

which
becomes

potentiality

; somewhat
wax.

of the

The

as

change

change of an accidental
is a change of the
substance into another
form, that of one
of the simple elements
The
active principles
substantial form.
remain in the compound, yet they
do not, as such, or formally,
be said not to have
perished altogether;they exist still
may
of

water

square

block

to

ball of

wax

The

Co7istihient

in the power

Elements

virtue of the

or

ball

the

them, just as

of

of Matter,
which

compound,
wax

reproduce

can

become

can

8i

lump

square

again.*
If from

129.

its own

has

in

; but

form

matter
non-living

detached, it remains

be

and

of

mass

potentialand

nature

same

active

the

as

mass,

its matter
principle,

and

livingmass, an organized body, be it plant or

the potential
of all the particles
principle
remains,

animal, while
all the

of the

physicalparticle

any

which

forms

informed

have

may

the

singleparticles,

being taken into the organism,have ceased to exist as

active principleor form
such, and are replacedby the one
which is the vital principleof the plant or animal.
It is the

before

that constitutes

form

material

any

in its

substance

proceed all its powers of action ; the

which a body derives from the potential
are
principle
to
and, in general,whatever is common
divisibility,
the form

from

In

crystal there

and
structure

unifying the

thus

livingbeings,though, as

of matter

of

improvements

in it

made

by
its

claim, besides, that

Chemists

served

in the compounds,

in

some

of the

their
particular

the affinitiesof

the

140.)

ments
constituent ele-

schools

of

philosophy.
to the ancients,after being
first popularityto the further

by Roger Boscowich, S.J.,and

called
simple ufiextended particles,

other

that the ultimate

It teaches

Kant.

(See No.

explainingthe

unknown

by Leibnitz,owed

remodeled

by

we

advocated

are

vading
per-

building up

mass,

essential respects.

dynamic theory,not

The

whole

action

crystalsappear to agree with

shall explain in Psychology^
they

other systems

Two

130.

in many

them

differ from

principleof

one

all matter.

in this

plan ;

one

on

be

to

appears

species;
properties
extension,

hydrogen

and

elements

monads

propertiesof
chemical

later

of matter

are

{uoraiyunit),all of
the

simple substances

affinities:so
continue

in

that

in

are

molecule
exist

preor

They
that
the
of
the
shows
do
not
that
simples
add
altogethervan'
spectralanalysis
spectra
of the compounds.
(See Pesch, Itistitutiones Philosophic Naitf
ish from the
spectra
atom

of

water

'

'

ralistNo.

132.)

'

oxygen

'

manner

to

82

Cosmology,

which

and

endowed

with powers

each

of them

occupiesonly a

homogeneous,

are

and

repulsion. As

of them

number

point,no

could

of attraction

make

ever

bulk, or produce extension,except for their mutual

matical
matheup

any

repulsion
;

and

they are kept togetherby mutual attraction.

atomic theory teaches, as its fundamental
131. The

that the

they

ultimate
called

are

with the

agrees

particlesof

particlesare

extended

yet indivisible ;

and

(arojuo?, indivisible).This
scholastic in affirmingthat there are
atoms

which

matter

extended

are

or
chemicallydivided
physically

it differs from

truth,

and

ultimate
be

cannot

yet

into smaller

system

particles.But

theory in denying that the atoms

and an active principle,
consist of a potential
the active principle
the specific
It givesno
difference of bodies.
constituting
not
divisible,
are
reason
why the extended atoms
satisfactory
scholastic

the

since it supposes

simple

that

which

form

they are

demands

definite powers.
the

attempt

132.

only in

the

Thesis

VII.

Bodies

Proof
could

do

not

that

so

can

the

are

and

that

that of extension

and

it demands

as

but
specifically,

that the

suppose

motion

difference

of the atoms.
substantial

two

ciples^
prin-

action.
of specific

not

of

that

by

substantial

undergo
were

well

as

differ

atoms

units

as

factorily
theory explainsatisg., of iron and gold.

in matter

There

if there

that

bodies,e.

size,or
figure,

of extension

that

of

explanation; others

no

consists

does

Nor

writers suppose

Some

definite size

specific
powers

constituted

not

changes; but they

substantial principles,

two

action
specific

; therefore

these

exist.
We

prove

changes

e.

"

oxygen,

This

languagesof

major :

g.^ water

it is

but

changed.

the

all

new

Bodies

is not

mere

substance

truth is

undergo substantial
of hydrogen and
mixture

can

into which

proclaimedby

nations,and

even

by

the elements

common

the

manner

sense,

of

by

are

the

speaking

ComfiniefnE

The

of those very

philosopherswho

will attempt

chemical

compound.

We

the

prove

possibleunless
would

be

be

^.

g.,

substantial

two

; for if what

exchanged

accidental

is

of

figure,arrangement

substance,not

new

tion
distinc-

remain,

must

substantial

something

this fact ; few

is

change of matter
principles.For in

substantial

creation of the

the old ; and

or

be

change something

substantial

from

there

83

atmosphericair,and

substantial

No

minor:

Matter.

fact,all draw

g.y the

mixture, e.

mere

of

deny
implicitly

it explicitly.In

deny

to

between

there

lemenis

must

exchanged

go

is

else

change

and

come,

only accidental,

parts, etc., then

the

is

change

extension

reallysubstantial. Now, it is noticed that

are
changed ;
always remains, and the specific
powers

therefore

there

extension

and

and

are

in matter

two

substantial

of

that
principles,

specification.

that of

will be

It

133.

not

noticed, on

careful

that
consideration,

neither the

dynamic nor the atomic theory can satisfactorily

for trulysubstantial changes ; for both admit only one
account
substantial principle,
which the dynamic calls simple and the

atomic

extended, but which

;

is

substances
etc.

that

so

what

only

If such

were

from
substantially

is

both

theories

changed

the

accidents

the

fact,the

in

of
new

and

the

which
effects,
the

atomic

extended

number

suppositionthat

repulsiondoes
is

into parts ;
differences.

nor

manent
per-

of

new

motion,
quantity,figure,
bodies

of

not

would

differ

not

those

monads

scientific.

does

certain

does

not

can

possess

anything but

one

fill a

On
the

and

contrary

the other
atoms

tension
ex-

space

attraction

principletwo

explain how

for

account

simple monads
to

have

formation

the

only attribute

theory

and

be

their elements.

Besides, the dynamic theory does

; for no

to

suppose

hand,
can

be

and yet cannot

be separated
figures,
for the specific
it account
scientifically

84

Cosmology.

It

belongs
of

the

of

back

the

misunderstand

the

when
should
for

as

that
the

is

Schools

proved

(vol.

of

the

the

theory

In

doing

c.

ii. "

4).

to

And

of

the

cian
metaphysi-

phenomenal

effects,

can

is

he

is, therefore,
laid

form,
so

little

such

Metaphysics

not

down
stood,
under-

and
is

to

apt

than

Biology,
yet

his

go

essences

plausibly

more

in

so,

were

Chemistry,

Harper

inmost

and

matter

erties
prop-

Metaphysics

It

causes.

of

phenomenal

the
the

discovered.

Father

v.

that

account

which

have

ii. b.

the

phenomena

to-day
facts

by

study

about

physical

the

sciences

modem

mistaken

nature

still
all

to

all

account

is

he

remarkable

ages

other

into

If

but

elements,
and

the

study

immaterial.

and

him.

teach

to

phenomenal

take

must

in

simple

material

things

little

Chemistry

to

any

other,

the

case,

of

the

Cosmology,

86

the risen Saviour

when

doors

closed.

were

because
impossible,

On

the

the

Upper Room,

though

the

hand, it is not

other

absolutely
body should,

that one
self-contradictory,
be in two
its relations,
or
more

not

by reduplicationof
the

entered

places at

time.

same

III.

136.

Figure

which

results

must

have

is

accident

an

from
directly

figure. The

continuous

itslimitations ; for whatever

definite limits ; these

constitute

of

definite limits to

quantity
is Umited
extension

natural

figureof a body is determined

by its substantial form; for the form gives to the body every
determination
that belongs to such a species,
though its effects
in individual
beings are influenced by present circumstances.
of metals
determine
the figuresof their
Thus, the forms
circumstances
crystals
; so with plantsand animals ; still,
may
favor or impede the action
of the form
in each
individual
case,

when

as

IV.

137.
firom

plant is dwarfed

Local

place to

one

in

cold

climate.

is the successive transition of

motion
another.

It supposes

subject^a

thing

term

to

If
subjecttends, a forceimpellingit to that term.
only one body existed,there would be no such a term, and
in the strict meaning of that word,
motion
therefore no
in that body
though an impellingforce might exist,and cause

which

the

mode

which

be called motion.
Local
might analogically
motion, then, impliesa change of place; but spiritsare not
in a place,and
that bodies are
in a place,in the same
sense
in the same
is not predicatedof them
therefore motion
sense.
a

as such, have
Spirits,

no

necessary

relation to matter, and

may

place and local motion

are
only, and therefore cannot
properly accidents of matter
inasmuch
be in
affect spirits
as
spirits
except indirectly,
may
of a living
union with a body, either substantially,
as the soul

have

man,

been

or

Thomas,

created

before

when
as
virtually,

matter

an

Sumtna^ i. q. Ix.

; but

Angel protects
4,

i*"")

In

child.

this latter

(See St.
case

he

The

exhibits

his

limited

138.

act

space.

V.

Inertia

The

bodies,

vital

motives

beings

and

or

may

to

one

do

so

unnecessary

unlike

instinct,

those

which

contrary,

motion

the

upon

stronger

is

principle

that

informed

therefore

no

than

rather

without

and

term

themselves
than

and

attraction

are

to

the

as

themselves.

term

brutes

still, their

determined

motion

Intelligent

apprehend
sentient,

which

to

to

another.

merely

intrinsic

fact

way

know

can

things,

the

of

Intelligent

they
are

mode

uniformly

determine

because

non-sentient

of

one

act

rather

that

those

but

necessarily

only

therefore

freely,

in

their

and

no

begin

not

self-determination.

of

the

substances

actions

can

in

perceptions,

no

their

on

tend,

material

have

in

not

have

accord

own

lies

impotence

mere

power

bemgs,

rest,

as

^.,

they

or

may

act

/.

their

is

but

such,

as

change

any

8 7

space,

bodies,
of

cannot

this

in

acts

that

mean

make

or

determine

spontaneity

or

they

of

therefore

another;

they

that

principle,
to

sentient

not

act,

and

space

does

reason

such,

as

to

cease

acting.

by

but

act,

or

in

Bodies,

of

Properties

presence

by

to

powers
to

General

as

are,

actions,

by

their

BOOK

III.

PSYCHOLOGY.

Psychology

139.
vital

principle).

action

"

i. e., in

self-evolution
There

they

1.

immanent

of

power
alone

agent

needs

life

is

its effect

it

that
of

controls

such

above

matter

and

is

far

so

as

it

assumes

above

into

converts

mere

chemical

and

physical

which

food,

another

one

organs

the

and

still,it

sensitive,

vegetative,

material

food

material

dignity
of

independent

itself

powers

of life

rise in

These

Vegetative

matter

the

the

affects

degrees

more

into

in

self-perfection.

life.

become

that

the

living things (i^vxvi

of

study

life consists

action

three

are

the

Now,

and

intellectual

is

its

own

substance.
2.

life

Sensitive

material

only
the

images

its action
3.

of

being

connection

material

things
the

it

but

objects,

life,

as

and

organs,

into

assumes

the

not

such, needs

images

ceives
peritself
in

matter,

gross

though,

manner,

with

with

the

body,

bodily

it

and
as

material

no

soul

the

entirely immaterial,

immaterial
one

needs

sense-perception.

material

even

things

of

only

Intellectual
nor

also

understand

can

material

long

as

things

it is

We

in

an

substantially

its

understands

tJxantasms.

organs,

objects

in

distinguish,

Psychology.

all

therefore,

which

plants,

shall

animals.
rational

The

consider:

2.

i.

Sensitive

appetite.
origin

and

and

and

4.

the

The

destiny

three

classes

Hfe

The

intellectual

specific

rational
nature

the

and

human

genera,

which

animals,
man,

viz.:

who

has

life.
of

nature

cognition.
of

natural

our

or

life

vegetable

and

of

which

to

sensitive

sensitive,

vegetable,
We

only

have

vegetable

creatures

into

extends

knowledge

have

living

89

the

soul.

3.

human

plants

Sensitive
soul.

and
and

5.

CHAPTER

THE

SPECIFIC

I.

NATURE

OF

PLANTS

AND

ANIMALS.

Thesis

140.

I.

bodies

Living

originate from

cannot

living
non-

bodies.
The

Proof,
is

there

with
the

to

all

now,

of

and

operations

any

non-living

or

1.

bodies

In

furnished

with

2.

In

to

proper

by

each

curved

3.

In

evolution

living
species,

vital

bodies
and

while

by straight

or

gradually

Living

and

properties
found

have

they

in

natures

alone,
of

parts

are

peculiar

acts.

determined

have
these

figures

non-living

figures, except

growth.

operations

those

bodies

with

/. e.,

"

perform

lines;

determined
bounded

to

All

figure.

and

to

of

essences

bodies.

non-living

living bodies,

organs

suited

structure

living

superior

All

structure.

of

those

differ

superior

the

combined

certain

have

now,

all

to

be

the

properties

all

essences

For

to

are

therefore,

;
to

their

which

of

cause

these

bodies

bodies.

observed

are

most

classes

two

inorganic

bodies

superior

essences

The

all

by observing

living

how

matter

no

the

to

principle superior

viz.,it gives living

known

are

superior

vital

the

non-living bodies,

essences

things

in

another;

one

be

cannot

something

of

powers

effect

figures
bounded

are

bodies
and

crystals,

have
these

no

are

lines.
bodies

multiplication
arises;

this
90

begin
of

which

with

the

development

cell, from
whole

the

ism
organ-

proceeds

by

and

of Plants

Nature
specific

Animals.

91

is
of food, which
or
intussusception
nutrition,
into the living substance.
transformed
Non-living
means

of

bodies

do

arise from

not

without.

from
of particles
juxtaposition
4.

they increase by-

cell ; and

but from germs

come
origin. Living bodies never
produced by other livingbodies ; for the cells cannot
chemical
be formed
combinations, though all
by mere
be present in the proper proporthe simple elements
tions.
In

5. In

them
elements

by

to

and

their leaves,thus

of plants enables
principle

into its

acid

absorbing

oxygen,

overcoming

the

its strong

animals, inhaling oxygen,

while

readilydestroysdead
animal

vital

carbonic

decompose

of carbon

oxygen;

The

action.

chemical

matter,

it

use

to

simple
carbon

for
affinity

which

so

their

support

life.

unity. All the elements composing any plant or

directs them
to
animal obey the vital principlewhich

6. In

procure

the

of
preservation

the individual and

of the

species.
7. In

Living bodies

duration.

existence,while

have

non-living ones

limited

are

period
independent

of

of

time.

Objection.Fungi and maggots

are

generatedby dead

matter.

from
livinggerms floatingin the air;
They come
the leading scientists are agreed that there is no spontaneous
is now,
all livingplants and
but that, as nature
generation,
whether
As to the -question
from livinggerms.
animals
come
the Creator could
possiblyestablish spontaneous generation,

Answer.

see

No.
141.

158.
Thesis

II.

All

from
plants differessentially

all

animals.

Proof.

The

essencesr

of

things are

known

by observing

Psychology.

gi

their
to

these

while
of

functions

three

all

animals

sensible

enables

of
from

as

all
them

good

these, the

to

power

appetite

sensation,an

shrinkingfrom sensible evil. There

animals
an
appropriatepower of motion,
the apprehento move
instinctively
sion
upon
a

evil.

or

of

consequence

good, and

is, besides,in
which

exhibit,in addition

and,
sensation,

for

plantsare confined
nutrition,
growth, and reproduction;
all

propertiesand operations. Now,

all

Therefore

plants differ essentially

all animals.

142.

Objections:

Of

i.

living things

some

e.

"

sponges

It Is not

"

plants

is but

them

is the

difference

The

Answer.

it constitutes
possess

if not,
2.

they are

sensitive

The

and

so

that if

to do, they are

animals;
it,as they seem
plants.
cates,
indiits name
as
plant has sensation,

stillit is not

an

animal.

sensation ; its scientific name

sensation; its

mimics

tween
be-

plantsand animals
fested,
though but slightlymani-

essential difference ;

an

are

essential.

be

cannot

of

between

of sensation ;

power

sponges

slight and

they

difference

therefore, the

animals;

or

whether

certainlyknown

g.^

is

leaves

"

are

Answer,

mimosa,"

It has

its own

it

because

mechanically

not by
by outside influences,

no

tracted
con-

immanent

action.
3. The

sunflower

its petalsat

turns

night,etc.

night,etc.

Answer.

sun

and

damp

of the

tulipcloses
they perceivethe sun,

; therefore

the

these mechanical
4.

its face to the sun,

The

air upon

the

physicalaction
those

of

the

plants produces

effects.

plantsgrow towards the light,and growth

many
The
Answer.
action.
is not mechanical
growth comes
But

from

the

modified

In the plant,but
life-principle

by

favorable

influences

on

the

its effects

are

side of the

Psychology,

94

it such powers
and actions and not other powers
and actions ;
in a word, which constitutes the body in its species.
is the vital

such

Now,

If the vital

ceases
principle

in death, all the

The

2.

and

separate from

as

the
successively

any

animate

to

specific
powers

matter,

mere

become

principleof

food and

livingbody. For,

the matter,

the vital

the very

it does

as

actions of that

i..

body

cease.

principle,
may

substance

of different

nature
ever
plantsand animals, its specific
changing with
inform it. But
that successively
vital principles
this supposes
that the vital principleconstitutes it in its species,
is
or

the

its form.
145.

therefore indivisible ; but the

and

is divisible ;

by

substantial form

Objection. The

Answer,

all

e.

g.,

i. Inasmuch

senses:

and

they are
as
they are

as

2, inasmuch

form;

not
not

composed

and

the curious
we

say

form, nor

into parts
the

questionwhether

and

that it exists whole

To

extended

an

animate

body,

form

ceases

lower

to

be.

entire in the

life
the

Now, in

stillbe suited

to

of life may

that,when
the functions
continue

to

same

senses

divided

into

body

and

in every

neither act, nor

soul of

even
man.

principlerequiresa complete
the vital
organismis destroyed,

many

animals, the organism is so

in its structure

be

body, exceptingonly the

the

when
organism; therefore,

in the

of parts

distinct. As
to
quantitatively
of lifeis ever
divided,
principle

part of the body, so, however, that it can

but in
exist,

of matter

aggregates

bodies are.
as
distinct,
quantitatively
Just
is the vital principlesimple, for it cannot
matter

twig may be cut off and continue to live

the vital principleof the tree being divided,,
life,
Simplicity has different meanings. We
grant
forms, as such, are simple; they are simple in two

its own

that

body is simple,
of some
vital principle
plants
of

plants,and in a few of the

simple and uniform throughout

divided,the several parts may

of life. In such
animate

case

the

ciple
prin-

the several parts ; but

it

Nature
specific

^f Plants

and

Animals.

is not

rather

for

entire in both

properlysaid to be divided ;
the vital principle
and
is whole
become

now

all

portions of
two

divided ; or, better

multipliedthan
animal

plant is divided.
(See upon
Nat.^ by Tilmann
Pesch, S.J., No.

Thomas's

Summa,

become

when

worms,

p. i, q.

distinct

is

from

the

this result
and

matter

Other

form.

Ixxvi.,a. 8.)
rest

the

in such

all
be

the

"

Compare St.
the twig may
of annulated

their bodies,become

sion
being accomplished by the diviif you will,of the
multipHcation,

philosophersmaintain

reallydivided

211.

Thus

of

; but

in

//^j/.
Simplicity,"

"

the segments

plant; thus, too,

severed

individual worms,
of the

parts, which

it is neither
still,

or

Phil.

is divided ;

body

before
whole
and entire
plants. It was
and
whole
entire in
one
body ; it is now
bodies,and in this sense it is rather said to

two

portionsof

the

95

cases

the

that

perhaps it is a

of life
principle
mere
disputeon

words.
1

46. Theses V. and VI.

to exist

ceases

Proof

It is

judgment of common
incapableof reasoning,and

I.

irrational
do

or

not

of
for

drawing
no

induction.

all the acts

supposing

conclusions

becomes
those

facultyof
the

in

of rational

can
faculties,

man.

grasp

brutes

premises;

from

it would

which

vital

ciples
prin-

if

we

the abstract
new

accomplish their designs;

tifically,
is proved scien-

an

can

power
in other

endless
be

no

compare

variety

accounted

of

reasoning,of
words, they give

be unscientific

they give

All men,

ends, inventingand making

to

of
the

them

evident

more

it is found, by

For

signsof reasoning,and

to them

soul is irrational

the brute

observations,that
without

that their

are

their bodies.

outHve

{a)By

that brutes

sense

I. That

Proof2.

fore
there-

orgafiismis destroyed.

the

when

brute soul is irrational and

The

ascribe

to

indications.

This

their actions

with

in the full possessionof their

relation
and

brute

between

various means,
animals

never

and

means
e.

do

g., tools,
so

they

Psychology,

96
only follow

can

the

determines

nature

beaten

one

them.

track

which

to

Hence, too, a

man

their

specific
self
him-

improve

can

talents ; brutes cannot

by study,by exertions of his own
be taught various actions by man,
but they
do this ; they may
of men
cannot
Hence, too, a race
improve themselves.
may
brutes act now
increase in knowledge and civilization;
as
they
of man
to act ; and when, by the training
were
always known
of acting
the change of physicalsurroundings,
new
or
ways

brought about

are

in

that all brutes of the

the

same

the effects

and
the

under

way

be

can

ment
animals,it is found by experispecieswould act in about

brute

some

those

same

peculiarcircumstances.

accounted

for

reference

by

Therefore

to

phantasms

the
to
organic modifications,without attributing
abstract perception of the relation between
means

brute
and

ends.
brutes

That

for

universal concepts ;

without

be

must

at

least

once

in

is

absolutelyimpossible

all

reasoningthe

distributed

taken

or

middle

universally.

signs of having universal ideas : all

for by means
be accounted
of sense-percepactions can
tions,
instinctive
which
will be explained
action,
phantasms, and

Now, brutes
their

irrationalis proved scientifically,

{h) From

of reasoning. Reasoning

the nature

term

are

never

further

can

is

does

not

brute soul
motion

"

"

keep

to

; but

answer

stroyed
organism is dekeep anythingin existence
the

no

soul, when

brute

purpose

therefore

its
the

it In existence.

h clear from

minor

The

purpose

destroyed,can

the

to exist when

be unwise

no

answer

organism

ceases

it would

For

Creator

(No. 149).

brute soul

II. The

which

on

give

the fact that all the functions of the

and
/. "?.,nutntion,growth,reproduction,
sensation,

requirebodilyorgans.

that the

actions ; now,

nature

of

being

the actions of the

Besides,it is an
is of
brute

the

soul

same
are

obvious
kind

ciple
prinas

all bound

its
up

Natu
specific

re

exist without

the

needs

no

of

the

substantial

existence ; it is educed

educed

not

livingagent

of the

from

matter

builds its nest.

design is
animal

the
u

such

hands

of

by

to

means

This

animal, but

that

"f.,in the Creator

the

of

it

inorganic
those

the action

of brutes manifest

Answer.

in the

not

is

of

species.

same

inteUigentadaptationof

bird

the

out

soul,unlike

brute

except

148. Objections:i. Many actions

the

the forms

are

the

that
difference,

That

i.

by itself;it
body. 2. That

brute

the

of

form

bring it into
of matter, as
potentiality

forms, is

this

exist

cannot

creation to

bodies ; with this

and, therefore,

too;

so

97

matter.

brute soul,unlike the soul of man,

only

Animals,

corollaries follow from

obvious

Some

147.

and

nts

soul is

the brute

in matter, therefore
it cannot

of Pla

it must

just as

watch

act

in
in

e.g.^ when

ends;

is true ; but the

Him

made

who

that

manner

"

that guides
intelligence

the

in the

is not

design,

watch, but in its

maker.
2.

The
there

is

which
no

does

watch

parity.

no

the

more

machine

not

brute

has

bird builds

Answer.

acts

knowledge

perceive,while

at

for

remote

the time

of the purposes
nest

There

the brute does ;

are

end

many

of which

of its action

of its maker;

for its future

as

the
offspring,

for its support in

honey in summer
thus displayedis certainly
not
intelligence
up

cases

it has

than
when
bee

winter.

in

the
the

stores

The

in the brute

animal.
in directingmeans
displaysintelligence
it presentlyapprehends, as
which
to proximate ends
when
it eats to satisfyits hunger and prolong its life.
The future prolongationof life is not intended
Answer.

3. But

the brute

by brutes
good of

the sensible
they merely apprehend by sense
food to satisfytheir sensible appetite. The
;

98

Psychology,
brute

4.

apprehends things in the concrete ;

abstraction,and therefore no reasoning.
If a dog is called by his master, he will run
a
gate or by a staircase,
just as a rational
well
as
do; here he displaysreason
as
Answer.

We

reason.

Such

know

from

actions

other

brutes

5. Some

can

associated
6. Darwin

can

barks

with his

to

express

not

brutes

7. Some

instance,will

produce

the

six different
that

dogs

used

the

have

avoid

them

skill; and

has

six different

animal

149.

While

they have

actions which

win
Dar-

not

traps, and

rat, for

one

than
skillfully

more

of

phantasms

rat

one

may

have

experience than another.

have
of the same
animals
a
species may
less perfectorganism, and, therefore,more
of

more

improved

alwayspossessed
have invented it; if dogs
barks, their progress is

avoid

to

dog

have

The

sounds

feelings.Answer.

same

association

this

phantasms.

brute animals

some

learn

The

Answer.

has

man

They merely associate

familiar

instance,that

prove

always have
proved.

may

with

accomplishment,but

same

does.

man

taught to utter articulate

sensible appetites.

that

; for

does not
the

be

even

shows

themselves

would

man

appetitesand instincts,
explainfurther on (No. 149).
understand
fore
language; they must there-

certain familiar sounds

parrot

by

its

abstract ideas. Answer.

have

no

dog performs can all be

and the phantasms
sense-perceptions

shall

we

around

that

sources

is

the

as

explainedby the
of the brute,together with
which

there

such

others.

suffices

to

acquired
Besides,
more

or

skill in

actions.
animals

brute

power

or

have

not

the

aptitudefor

the proper

them

place of

suppliesfor

the

facultyof reason,
guidanceof their
reason;

it is called

Instinct.

It

animals

prompts
the

species.

but

it is the

instance,its

defined

be

may

do

to

and

of Plants

Nature
specific

what

the

as

Animals.

natural

99

that

impulse

is useful to the individual

something superadded to
sensitive tendency of its sensitive
inclination to eat when
hungry, to
It is not

the

and

to

animal,

nature
rest

for

"

when

etc.
fatigued,

150.

Instinct prompts

animals, not

only to
present good, and

they sensiblyapprehend as
they apprehend as present evil

to

what

shun

; but

for themselves

what

embrace

also to do

are
naturallyand sensibly
preparatory actions which
with the gratification
of animal
connected
such as
appetites,
and even
to their lair,
excavatinga
looking for food, retiring
hole,spinninga web, storingup food, buildinga nest, etc.
151. In all instinctive actions there is an adaptation of
The
brute animal
to ends, proximate and remote.
means
sensible ends, and
such
organicallyapprehends the nearer
connection
between
and ends as can
be representedby
means
it perceivesthe sensible satisfaction
phantasms ; for instance,
itself
of eatingand resting,
and the material relations between
its food
and
lair ; but it does not
and
apprehend the more
remote
ends, such as the future prolongationof Hfe,the future
entire adaptation of
The
propagation of its species,etc.
in the workings of animal
to ends, manifested
means
instinct,

those

is the work
and

the

of the

Creator,who

tendencies

of

made

animals

the

such

as

nature, the powers,

we

find

them

at

present.

understand
stinct,
the workings of ineasily
In brutes,
because
we
experience them in ourselves.
however, they are far more
perfectthan in man, for they are
intended by the Creator to be the sole guides of their actions.
In man
they are to be supplemented by the nobler facultyof
152. We

reason,

many

to

can

the

instinct is intended

which

occasions

more

we

have

nothing

but

to

be

subservient.

instinct to

guide

On
us,

as

Psychology,

loo

in

earlyinfancyand in many animal functions throughoutlife,

such as breathing,
swallowmg, sleeping,
closingour eyelidsat
the approach of danger,withdrawing our
tongue before the
In all such
to ends
closingteeth,etc.
adaptationsof means
know

we

that

occasions

we

sensible

Thesis

153.
the

be

to

usuallyno

conscious

are

appetitesand

then

ought

has

reason

that

another

we

part.

On

many

drawn

one

way

are

by

way

our

other

by

; the

reason

our

latter

obeyed.

VII.

of man.
The
Proof I.
when
especially

Plants

and

bi^te

animals

intended

are

for

use

purpose

it is of
known

be

structure, can

certain end

or

for which

object is intended,
a
complicated and delicately
adapted
plish
by examining its fitness to accom; else

purpose

an

we

should

that the

to ends
striking
adaptationof means
proportionatecause.
Now, plantsand

delicate

contrivances

adapted

of
the

to

have

is

to

grant

effect without

an

animals

are

most

intricate structure, and

of

use

mirably
they are adthey are made

Therefore

man.

for it.

Proof

created

All

things are
God
(Nos. 113 to 115);
themselves
God, but
glorify
of

way
of

2.

to

use

; hence

man

glory of
things cannot
by

irrational

only through man, being in some

for the use
they are intended

man.
1

54.

Irrational

glorifyGod
to

now,

for the extrinsic

the

creatures

through man,

eyes

of

and

thus

man

the

may

be of

prompting man
By supplyingthe bodily wants of
aids to
God.
serve
3. By administering
thus inducing him to love his God, and
Maker,

4.

Even

thingswhich

of the seasons,

beasts

thus

By displaying
wisdom, goodness of their
2.
to love and praiseGod.
and thus aidinghim to
man,

in various ways
power,

and

to man,

use

molest
of prey,

man,

i.

his rational
to

him

serve

such

troublesome

pleasures,

as

fully.
cheer-

encies
the inclem-

insects,
etc.,

Psychology,

I02

horses and

asses

known

are

although they can

notice

that

those

transformation

different

by crossinggenerate

isincapable
of continued
to

be

to

of

scientists who

is also

maintain

important

the evolution

theory pretend

usuallymore

are

the

propagation.It

speciesas

organisms evolved

because,
species,
mule, stillthis hybrid

that

perfect than

the

the

or

new

dent
antece-

species.
Proof 1.

There

effect without

no

but if higher specieswere

cause;

specieswould

new

For

be

can

inasmuch

it has

no

may,

the

over

at the

from

The

of plants and
offspring

new

have

most,

proved
im-

lower, the

proportionatecause.
perfectthan the old,

is more
species

new

superiority

accidental

some

stock, being born

parent

favorable

without

be

in the old.

cause

animals

the

as

evolved

proportionate

and

raised

under

more

circumstances,but accidental changes constitute

no

difference.
specific

Proof 2, By induction.
at

work

for

many

the

fossil

animals, and
obtain

and

in

perpetuate

transformation
now

able
of

they are

as

in the

their fossil forms

have

been

specieswas

ever

are

Proofs. That
the speciesis the

varieties and

new

exhibit

to

of

Egypt,

found

evolved
the

test

crucial

; but

from
of
test

to

man

they

races,

have

found

no

very
be

mified
mum-

left

become

ancient

proved

are

they

specieshave

it cannot

any

Animals

before

were

Many
of which

now

discovered

they

as

in the rocks.

of

single decisive proof that

mens
speci-

that any

other.

in
continued
fertiHty
indefinitely
by which the theory of evolution

judged, and that the theory cannot

acknowledged by its ablest advocates.

must

genius

specieshas ever taken place.

representedon the pyramids or

tombs

others
extinct,

inventive

applying all the

yet been

never

been
Though scientists have now
and
amining
seas, in exyears in exploring lands
remains of countless
speciesof plants and

stand this test, is

be

"

Without

verifica-

Natu
specific

tion,"says
of

Tyndall,

theoretic

hypothesis,"
says Huxley,

of the Darwinian

acceptance

as
provisional
long as one link in the
wanting; and as long as all the animals
produced by selective breeding from a

chain

be

their progeny

and
fertile,

will be

fertile with

are

contradicts

theory which

and

"

must

plants certainly
stock

common

are

link

another, one

one

is

evidence

of

fore,
Nature^ p. 107). There-

in

Place

wanting" [MarCs

the

103

conception is a mere
ment
fig^6()). "Our
[Fragments of Science,!^.

"

intellect"

the

A nimals.

and

of Plants

re

thesis is

our

figment

mere

of the intellect.

157.

(See No. 209.)

Objections: i. Paleontology shows
found in the higher strata of the earth
animals

perfectspeciesof plantsand
lower

; there

strata

perfectinto
true, it would
of

the

2.

found

an

that there

Post

proves

is symmetry

that there is evolution

as
one

3.

of

well say that all Gothic

evolved

forms

of

sophism.

life

are

the

works

of

speciesin nature
buildingsare

God,

structed
con-

to

as

shows

but

not

; you

might

evolved

from

another.

Anatomy
animals
no

in

if

is order in the works

accordingto a uniform type or plan,so

Answer.
constitute a regularsystem.
This, too,
that there

fact

even

higher speciesare

all the

of less

The

; but

cases

more

in the

evolution

hoc, ergo propter hoc, is

that

to

those

Answer.

in all

true

that the

Creator,not

Anatomy

be

to

only show

the lower.

from

been

perfectspecies.

more

stated is not

have

must

belong
than

fossils

the

that

retain certain

present

former

reveals

also

useful

use,

and

structure

the

fact that

the

rudimentary organs
which

are

; therefore

mere

perfect

more

which
remnants

evolution

has

of

are

of

taken

Anatomy does not prove that the soplace. Answer.

of no
called rudimentary structures
to those
are
use
higheranimals ; they serve, at least,for ornament, and

Psychology.

I04

give symmetry
of smell

sense

the

to

and

creation.
external

our

Darwin

ear

classes

these useless

among

remnants, while it is certain that they are

pleadingsexhibit

such
4.

shows

Geography
animals
influence

of

the

wisdom

The

Answer.

its appropriatefauna

natural

process

varietyof
species.

new

5. Physiology has discovered

has
and

of

the

them.

produced

have

God

climate

of

species of plants and

must

of

theory.

climates ; therefore

certain

cHmate

useful;

very

in the

weakness

certain

that

peculiarto

are

much

our

provided for each

flora,usuallyby the
never

races,

that the

by

tion
evolu-

the

embryo of

higher

animal

speciespasses through the forms of all the lower

velopmen
deThe
Answer.
speciesin its process of evolution.
is one
of an
individual animal
thing,and
that

speciesis quiteanother

speciesfrom

of

fact does

not

itselfis inexact,and

the order

is different in different
6. A

becomes

worm

animal

Only
from

7. Even

those

the eggs

butterfly
;

They

matter

admitted

influence

one

admitted
the

more

less

perfect

perfect.

butterflieswhich

of butterflies ; the

"

brute

therefore

become

of
generation i.e.^
from

statement

species.

worms

the Schoolmen

one

embryonic evolutions

of

developedinto

be

may

Besides, the

the other.

prove

; the

come

speciesremains

the

swer.
An-

changed.
un-

of sponpossibility
taneous

generationof
a living
germ.

only,without
it as possible
in connection

animal

an

with

Answer,
a

higher

heavenly body, but not as

from the combination
ments
of merely material eleresulting
; this higher influence might, in their opinion,
replacethe living germ, thus showing that they felt
convinced

proceedingfrom

that life cannot

proceed from

lower

elements

Nature

specific

only,

series

perfect

of

superior

generation.
direct

should

it

But

is

fortuitous

combination

direct

work,

the

development,

of

To

say

have
to

more

knowing
A

scientists

system

is unscientific.

compose
a

word
that

of

ascribes

an

His

own

that

combined

that

grand

and

to

to

of

and

mal
anihas

produce
as

to

harmonious

language
effects

merely

evolution

forces

absurd

pose.
pur-

system

claim

as

Creator

designer

vegetable

fully

the

wise

new

that

that

wonderful

blind

the

species by

for

that

action

the

higher

be

inferior

/. "?., to

whole

merely
is

from

"

most

the

that

is absurd

impossible

up

would

It

effect

without

tradictory.
self-con-

not

sense,

by

into

wisely

causes,

harmony,

can

man

the

lower

through

one

impossible

build

as

causes

could

is

sense.

metaphysically

such

and

of

in

entirely

to

causes,

running

accomplished.

written.

Phil.

Inst

perfect

all that

supply

evidently

should

kingdoms,

beauty

added

it

second

another

should

evolution

the
of

agency

without

less

taken

proceed

is

is

Nor

do

can

in

not

God

that

perfection

Creator

from

series,

should

not

whatever

God
a

but

effect

but

cause,

that

(Pesch,

the

evolutions

such

self-contradictory,

much

whether

that

answers

Now,

the

105

species.

Reason

Animals.

combined.

asked

be

may

established

and

190.)

No.

It

158.

Plants

how

matter

no

Nat^

of

in

so

pretend
poem

which

it

is

totally inadequate

CHAPTER

AND

SENSITIVE

In

159.

chapter

which

certainty

the

We
those

did

sensitive

faculties

in

further
affect

not

the

Article

160.
outward

themselves

work

of

our

so

as

How,

considered

in

have

at

same

five

and

sense,

ciation

the

least

touch

man

outer

is
or

they

the
of

sense

senses

as

have

No.

the

102).

touch;
:

the

sensile
These

second

106

mony
testi-

the

We

senses

then

present

amined
ex-

the

query.

it be

effected, whether
animal

All

animals

animals
have

the

sight,hearing, taste, smell,

inner

senses,

and

memory,
are

'*

the

questions

do

to

now

perfect

the

of

is the

far
How

irrational

man

also

imagination,

{Logic,

sense-perception
in

in

because

142)

different

How

i.

are

answers

of

workings

No.

testimony

we

cognition.

knowledge.

very

reliable

question;

then,

Two

reliable

us

theory^ which

Scholastic
161.

give

detail

before

[Logic,

subject:

senses

by

means

Cognition.

Logic
"

this

on

first

the

human

therefore, add

omitted

were

the

we,

Sensitive

Critical

external
to

Of

remarked

we

senses,

present

in

Speaking

as

certainty of

I.

and

and

the

rational

of

nature

themselves

of

devoted

considerable

into

that

on

the

details

have

we

explanation

and

examine

to

this place such

the

to

Logic

obtained, entering

of

now

two

they

is

COGNITION.

Critical

on

(Ch. III.)

subject

have

RATIONAL

treatise

our

whole

on

II.

not

mere

viz.
power

the
of

mon
com-

appre^

instruments

of

delicate structure, but

most

and

by

the animal

which

for which

they

material

likeness

some

that the

comes

indeed

it vitally.Thus
likeness

in

our

the

of the

the objectitself.
likeness,
all sensitive and

purpose
is to

acquirecognitionof
into immediate

or

the
diate
me-

This

objectthus impressed,
cognitivesubjectperceives,

the

object but, by
process

intellectual
for
attention,

Confining our

in which

presses
cognition impHes that an object imthe cognitivesubject,and
of itself upon

subject,reacting,expresses

apprehendmg

162.

it

to

The

107

all-wise Creator

the

by

in different ways

Now,

livingorgans

exercises its faculties.

objects with which

contact.

Cognition.

they are

intended

are

enable the animal

not

Rational

and

Sensitive

means

is observed

of

both

the
in

cognition.
the present, to

distinct steps in the

of

tion,
sense-cogni-

perception, i.
The
by
object perceived must act upon the subjectperceiving,
in touch, or through a
as
impressingon it whether directly,
likeness,
image, or speciesof itself.
medium, as in vision some
the speciesimpressed,
This image is called by the Schoolmen
it is clear that sense-cognition
begins
species
impressa. Hence
with the action of the object; and, as the objectcannot
give
fore
forth an image of what it is not, but only of what it is,thereit tends essentially
to beget true cognitionin the subject.
be
not
The
merely passive;
2.
subjectperceiving must
of perception
for then it could not be said to elicit the act
the impression
react
sensation ; it must, therefore,
on
vitally
or
immanent
And
since all cognitionis an
received.
act, the
sentient subject must
reproduce in itself a vital image of the
cies
object. This vital image is styledthe speciesexpressed,speimmanent
act of forming this
expressa ; and the subject's
vital image is its apprehension or cognitionof the object.
tion
163. The speciesimpressed and expressed in sense-percepobjectsexistingin
are, of course, the images of material
Those
the concrete.
objectsare directlyperceivedby sense;
we

notice

two

"

"

act

io8

Psychology.

the

speciesare

the

pictureformed

sense-organ,
brain and

eye,

sentient

the

subjectthan
is noticed by us in

of the eye

the sensation

where
or

eye,

in the

connecting

together constitute
the act of seeingshould be
the act of hearing in the

not

the

image

of the

place,in

the

be

to

object,or

hear

of

organ

thus

only

the outward

modification

of

act

accomplished

ear, etc. ; for

and

see

complex

said

the

that both

answer

co-operate in the

nerves

we

takes

brain,we

these

properly said that

it be
and

and

eye

sight;but

the

say

seeing; all

can

by

the retina

on

If it be asked

164.

in the

noticed

more

of vision.

acts

our

no

ject,
obof

our

senses.

165. The
of the

organ

in

the

imagination,on
outer

of sentient

; but its organ

senses

perfectanimals, and

may

life,

and

not

which

to

appear

in the

act

is the brain.

perhaps be wanting

of

some

of touch

contrary, does

It exists

in lower

have

no

cies
spe-

senses

imaginationis the faculty

by which animals form to themselves organic images,called
at
phantasms, either of sensible objectsperceived,or, in man
perceived. In the latter case the
least,of other objectsnever
but those

images result
themselves

have

the combination

been

former

bringsback
directly

of former

ultimatelyderived

sensile memory

The

166.

from

The

taste.

was

not

one

of the

the

power

is

necessary

It

to

advert

sation.
sen-

it represents objects formerly

represents them

sensible

one

objectsof

"

"

167. There

from

performsa threefold office: {a) It

phantasms ; {b) Indirectly /. e.,

through the phantasms reproduced

perceived; {c) It
perceived.

phantasms, which

power

of

in Critical

as

having been

cognitionto

which

Logic since it
acquire certainty
; we

merly
for-

it

is not

mean
by which men
the vis cestimativa^
of the Schoolof appreciation,
men.
is the highestof merely organicfaculties,
because
means

Psychology,

no

Dreams

170.
combined
some

series

are

anew

intellectual

phantasms, reproduced
fancy, accompanied at times
of

by the
while
activity,

the

nerves

of

the

and

by
body

often started by actual

are
sleep. Dreams
for instance,by some
the slumbering senses
on
impressions
sounds
or
feelings and they are greatlyinfluenced by any
are

relaxed

in

"

"

abnormal

condition

of the

nerves

and

the blood.

Our

tasms
phan-

variously associated with each

other by similarity,
by congeniahty,by having been formed
one
phantasm is
contemporaneously, etc.; and thus, when
awake
we
are
aroused, others are thereby excited, whether
or
awake, we can to a great extent
regulate
asleep. When
the workings of our
imagination by our will,and we are
not

are

inclined

isolated,but

in connection

with

sense-perceptions
;
but when
we
are
asleep,our fancy has fiill play, and may,
leave
for all we know, be constantlymoving, though it may
the nature
of dreams
of its vagaries. From
traces
plained
no
justexfoolish it is to attach any
it is evident how
tion
significafuture
to them
as
foretelling
events, unless on
special
dence
occasions
produced by Provithey should be preternaturally
for worthy and important purposes.
is a dream
giving rise to corresponding
171. Somnambulism
Somnambulists
external actions.
act outwardly in conformity
with their imaginations,but in a strange manner.
to

do

so

our

They proceed as if they saw, while their eyes are closed

or rigid
; thus they will avoid obstacles in their way, yet they
imaginingof
reallydo not see, but are guided by their mere
stacles
the familiar places,and therefore they will strike againstobto which
2.
they are not accustomed.
They do bolder
and sometimes
more
ingeniousthings than when awake; for
they do not reflect on danger, and all their faculties are
concentrated on
one
awaking, they have
purpose.
3. On
recollection of their wanderings.
no
I.

Sensitive

and

Cognition.

similar to those of somnambulism

Phenomena

172.

Rational

1 1 1

duced
pro-

are

ed
sleep.Mesmer
(a.d. 1733-18 15)boastof
of
art of healingdiseases by means
an
magnetism, which he excited by touching the sick with a firm
will to restore
their health.
One of the means
employed in
that process
is the artificialor magnetic sleep. Seeing that

by the mesmeric
having invented

sleepis merely a natural disturbance of the vital

find nothing astonishingin the production of
sleepby

natural

mesmerizer

may

is it absurd

Nor

means.

medium, usuallya nervous

imaginationas to direct,to
motions.

his will

by

or

the

But

acting outside
its livingbody.

of the

of

173.

Induction

proves

As

the

effects may

can

be

be natural

her

faculties

the

results

; but

act

many

this

directly
capable
inessentially

do

are

the soul is not

soul,and

or

of the body, and

by means
long,therefore,as the effects

medium

extent, her feehngs and

that the souls of

present condition,communicate

sleeper
her

so

magnetizercannot

his intellect ; these

the

of

influence

and

woman,
some

that the

suppose

slumbering faculties

affect the

or

outward

to

we
powers,
artificial
an

cannot, in

men

each

upon

therefore

by

claimed

to be

means

of material

phenomena

other

side
out-

our
cept
ex-

of matter.

produced upon
influence,those
of mesmerism

beyond the reach of material causes, and therefore they

are
preternatural.For instance,it is claimed that the person
magnetized may become
possessedof new intellectual powers,
is beyond
of seeingwhat
such as mind-reading and the power
the medium
the reach of the senses
suddenly possesses
; or
and
learned,as of the latent causes
knowledge of thingsnever
with foreign
exhibits familiarity
the remedies of diseases,or

are

languages,etc.
to

adequate

mesmerism,
and

not

mere

It is the

part of Philosophy

to

trace

effects

the

effects attributed

to

they are reallysuch as

have
jugglery,cannot
any

they pretend to
adequate causes

be

causes.

when

Now,

some

of

in

Psychology.

112

but

man,

only

visiblypresent
174. The

namely,
be

must

be

the

the

the
the

spiritsdistinct

on

such

the

souls

of all those

occasions.

all clear

apply to the phenomena of spiritism;

exhibition of knowledge or intellectual action

ascribed

to

intellect

intellect

an

its source.

as

living men,

of

then

If this cannot

the

effects

must

be

and
spiritism
mesmerism, to the agency of
evil spirits.For neither God, nor
His good Angels, nor
be supposed to put themselves
souls in bhss could
at
if we consider
or mesmerists, especially
disposalof spiritists
means
unworthy and often immoral
employed by such
in

Nor

in their trades.

men

souls of the condemned

unholy

unwise

and

and,

for any

one

But

it is

of

reason

and

of Revelation

or

demons,

mesmerism

dead.

any

one

in

Holy

Lord

could, it

Writ

to the

that

the

would

be

that

teachingsboth
the evil

effects in

over

these his advisers and

conclude

spirits,
spiritismand

power.

Neither

"

seeketh

abhorreth

further

See

12.

xviii.

to

you

among

the

For

to make

control

be attributed to human

forbidden
explicitly

found

if he

even

agents of all such

cannot

as

claim

man

conformable
perfectly

the

are

can

helpers.

is

from

test will

same

ascribed,both
the

in

the

all such

Jouin's Evidences

Spiritism

let there

truth

from

be

the

things." (Deut,.
of Religion,pp.

74, etc.)
H.

Article

the

175. From
it is clear that
the

sentient

Rational

explanation given

rational
an

intellectual

or

image

in the

preceding article

consists in the formation, by

sense-perception
being,of vital images representingthe material

objects perceived. Now,

by

Cognition.

of the

material,but

an

similar process

cognition:

objectknown

that

the

consists in

not, however,

intellectual image.

log'caltruth, supposes

it too

be followed

must

mind

For

truth

is made

an

ing
producorganic,

in the mind,

conformable

the

to

in

This

point,then, is

image
and

to sensitive

common

113

acquire this conformity

can

by conceivingan

than

way

it

and

object known;

other

no

Cognition.

Rational

and

Sensitive

of that

object.

to rational

nition,
cog-

accomplished by the formation, in the

subject,of vital images representingthe objects. Another
viz.,both must derive the image from
point must be common,
the objectwhich it represents ; else the cognitionwould not be
that both

are

to the objectknown.
certainlytrue, or conformable
sensitive and intellectual
176. But a difference between
knowledge arises from the fact that,in sensitive knowledge, a

material

objectimpressesa

material

organ

image

material

the immaterial

upon

it cannot

but

of sense;

of itself upon

image

impress

intellect.

the

material

intellect cannot

The

image into itself. It takes,abstracts from the

material objectspresented,or rather from
the sensible phantasms
of the objects;these are
of them, the intelligible
notes
the
immaterial
images, impressed on the intellect as the
the vital act of cogeliciting
impressed; and re-acting,
species
nition,
receive

such

the

an

intellect forms

the act

of intellectual

of this process

theory which
177.

The

is

an

idea

viewed
the

for the

accounts

in

action, intellectus agens,

as

and

to the
possibilis,
that image.

It may

by a like process
thingsimmaterial
have

some

asked

be
;

and

the

from

intellectus

we

ideas.

always careful to give names

analysisof any process, gave

abstractmg
immaterial
image,

178.

origin of

Schoolmen,

step discernible in the

of intellect

thus completspeciesexpressed,
ing
apprehension. The result or term
here, then, we have the Scholastic

the

the
same

name

and

producing
of receptiveintellect,
name
ceiving
facultyviewed as vitallyreall

how

our
can

ideas
we

Many philosophershave
innate ideas,ideas born in us,
?

the

every

the intellect when

phantasms

whether
if so,

to

to

obtained

are

ideas

have

supposed
such

as

of

that

those of

1 1

Psychology.

Others

truth,virtue,
vice,etc.
that all
under

ideas

our

of all

proof and,

that,if our
be

ideas
be

they may

illusion.

an

likeness

from

knowledge

is

These

as

derived

not

But

ideas

our

maintain

acquired,
suppositions,

liable to the serious

moreover,

are

to

not

idle

are

from

and
merely subjective,

objection
ity,
objectivereal-

the

knowledge may
truly derived by way of

are

our

the

and

objects themselves;
objectiveand reliable.

theory is that
who
pretend that all our knowledge
/. e.j by the teaching of other men.
Another

179.

far

so

gone

inborn,and only awakened,

are

circumstances.

favorable

devoid

have

felse

of

the
to

comes

This

"

therefore

our

Traditionalists,
us
by tradition,

is

most

factory
unsatis-

can
theory : other men
only use signs corresponding
If they give
to our
ideas,but not put ideas into our minds.
of our
ideas corresponds,the sign is
a
us
sign to which none
of explanationcan
make
to us : thus, no
amount
unintelligible
of color,or the forthe nature
born blind understand
mal
a man

difference between
last false

shall later
1

80.

We

on

theory,that

refute with

detail.

more

immaterial,inaccessible

to the

how

There

which
Ontologists,

of the

first consider

must

another.

and

color

one

mains
rewe

(See Nos.

187, 188.)
get ideas of things

we

We

senses.

have

no

intuitions

truth,etc.,
objects for instance,of virtue,vice,justice,
How
do we
of God, of our
of spirits,
own
soul,etc.
nor
get
The
ideas of all such things?
Schoolmen, in accord as
our
followers of Aristotle,
usual with the ancient
or
Peripatetics,
of such

"

clearlylay it down

as

intellect which

have

we

maxim

that there

nihil est in intellectu quod prius non

is true, but
181.

idea of
we

At

it needs

first sightthe

but
spirit,

be said to have

we

ideas in

no

our

from

sense-perception,
This principle
fuerat in sensu.

derived

not

are

explanation.
saying

have

derived

never

absurd

appears

beheld

this idea

we

have

an

how, then, can

spirit;
from sense-perception
?
a

Sensitive

Let

consider

us

immaterial

an

Now, by

our

what

senses

we

we
spirit,

affirm substance

immaterial

how

But
'

will ' ?

We

do

We

sense

acts

did not

did

not

course

did not

But

could

not

our

deny

to

as

concept

of

Milton's

in

same

elements

Many

sense-perception.
'
thought and

by

with

connected

acts, ifthese

mental

our

For

thought, and of
soul,if sensation

no

our
our

idea of

holds

of which

able
trace-

other

ideas.

expressedin

Lost,"
have

concepts

should

we

not

see

we

are
spirit

for all our

Paradise

of those

Thus

faculties.

all the ideas

"

will in ourselves

arise in the human

contained

arisen fi-om sensation.

from

if sense-perception
exist,

not

act.

exercise of

the

of

an

partlynegative;

is consciousness

sense-perception
; the
to examine
fact,if we were
poem

ideas

By our
stance
stripsubconceiving
idea of

our

and

thought and

of

to

matter

we

In

abstraction

by

be conscious

would
volition,

call forth the

in it no

it.

about

or

get the

how

minds

that all the elements

In

in

exist;and they would

prompt
no

only;

and

we

perceiveacts

consciousness.

our

at substance

derived

are

substances.

partlyaffirmative

is

substance

all its elements

but

look

we

115

by a spirit:we mean
thinking and
willing.

capable of
perceivematerial

is material

of all that

Cognition,

mean

we

substance

of abstraction

power

Rational

and

tellect
in-

so

find

ultimately
not

are

formable
con-

because
objectivereality,
they are not directly
formed from objectsrepresentedby them ; but inasmuch
as
their elements are derived firom real objects,
all ideas have
a
foundation
in the reality. Such
cepts
conare, for instance,the
of Death
and Sin, as Milton describes those creations
to

of his

poeticmind.

182.

to
most

that

We
an

were,

an

are

now

prepared

historical account

the system of those

to

of the

give a

connected

originof

Schoolmen

who

our

and,

ideas

as

it

ing
accord-

fgllow St. Thomas

with the maxim, explained above,

start
closely. We
in sense-perception.
The
all natural knowledge originates

1 1

Psychology.

of the child is

mind

at

first Hke

which

nothing as yet has been

Its avenues
to knowledge are
so
clogged by disease as to be
will

powers

deaf

bom

and

blind

set

written
its

apt

are

; in

it has

the

no

rasa,

inborn

If these

on

ideas.

should

be

action,the intellectual
find that persons

fact,we

remain

to
to

tablet,tabula

senses.

unfit for

work

to

child first open

of any

senses

be

never

clean

idiotic.

outward

When

the

world, it begins

animals have ; there is for

as brute
sense-perceptions,
time no sign of intellectual action.
When
the
a considerable
of the imagination, becomes
brain, the organ
sufficiently
perfected to elaborate phantasms suitable for intellectual
aroused to its specific
activity.It
use, the intellect becomes
to

have

in the
abstractingwhat is inteUigible
object,
and forming an
It impresses
image of the object'snature.
this abstract speciesupon the receptive
which in turn
intellect,
the image in itself,
and
thus intelseizes upon
lectually
or
expresses
apprehends or cognizes the object. For instance,
sets

to

work

seizes

the hand

an

the

orange,

formed

eye

sees

it,the palatetastes

it,

imagination represent all

intellect goes deeper; it
that is sensible in the fruit. The
its Latin name
reads within the reality,
as
signifies
{ifitus
the ideas
and conceives
to read within); it abstracts
legere,
of
being,' substance,' accidents,'in particularof size,'
taste,'smell,' color,'of cause,' effect,'food,' pleasure,'
All the senses, interior and
are
exterior,
constantly
etc.,etc.
etc. ; the

'

by

the

'

'

phantasms

'

'

stantly
bringing new
phantasms to the brain ; the intellect is conand
comparing, conceivingand judging;
abstracting
inductive reasoning,now
fairlyaroused, contributes its share
all our
ideas are
to develop knowledge ; and thus
gradually
formed,having a foundation in objectsof sense-perception.
183. At first these ideas are not considered by us as representing
classes of things: the ideas are
whole
direct,representing
the notes
being,' substance,' cause,'etc.,which
*

'

1 1

"

Psychology.

the central

in

of modern

error

Metaphysics no

fundamental

less subversive

mistake

without

of modern

having

of truth.

The

its

radical and

metaphysiciansconsists

both

to

twin brother

objectsto
fundamefitum in

some

trulyand reallycommon
has

it has

it is possiblefor two

suppositionthat
other

Logic, but

origin." (See

of them

resemble

each

something

re,

in which

Cath.

Amer.

in the

this

blance
resem-

Quart. Review,

1888, pp. 52, etc.)

185.

Thesis

derived

from

theymere
names,
a foundationin
First

The

IX.

reflex universals

universal
nor

the

mere

mental

not

are

ages
im-

nor
are
physicallyexisting,
objects
fictionsof the- mind ; but theyhave

reality
of individual

objects.

part. Not

the
images of existinguniversal objects,
as
exaggerated Realists maintain.
Proof Every objectphysically
and singularobject,while universals
existingis a concrete
neither concrete

are

singular.
physicallyexistingbeing

concrete

no

body," a body that

sized, neither white

nor

nor

definite accidents.

existinghas

which

is

is

universal

large nor small nor middleThe

black, nor cold nor hot, etc.
accidents,but everythingphysically

definite

no

instance,there

is neither

"

universal has

For

Therefore

there

exist

no

physicaluniversals.
Second

Universals

part.

pretend. Proof.
mental

by

verbs of

the

would

be

express
are

they

without

names

it is subversive

definite in

names,
or

name,

not, all the

had

language, and
any

universals,and
mere

mere

mere

oral

to

most

term, has

certain

which

of all

signification
; for

Nominalists

the

no

parts

suppose

definite concepts

certaintyto

meaning correspondsto

most

maintain

no

universal

fied
signi-

and

and

nouns

common

other

nalists
Nomi-

the

as

corresponding to it ; but
concept corresponding to them

If

them.

not

concept,

or

each

have

names

But

term,

are

of

speech,

most

words

that

sals
univer-

correspond.
that

of the words

nothing
of

mea

and

Sensitive

Third

Universals

pari.

theyhave

foundation

maintained

is here
which

is the

Rational

in

not

the

realityof

in many

same

nothing the

same,

but

all the individuals

mind,

but
It

thing
Conceptualists
one

only something

class.

is impossiblewithout
Similarity

1.

things similar.

in the

one

of

119

things.

some

express

the

similar,in

is

the

individual

while

that

Proof

mere

things;

maintain

there

fictionsof

are

universals

that

Cognition,

it, unity in
"

to

as,

For

quality" ; things are

or
extent, they agree

some

certain

Therefore, if all things of

certain

reallyone to a
things by that m
are

something that is
fines
is,as Aristotle desimilarity

class

they

are

are

much
inas-

the

same.

said to be

are

similar,
they
universal signifies
"?. g., animals,

the

extent; now,

which

similar

the

same

one

thing common

"

plants,etc.
If there

Proof 2.

the individuals
the
the

not

of

nature

but
species,
of

words

the

of

that

is mistaken
would

language

meaning. Now,

this leads

individuals

express
of

some

the concept

could

to
not

but only something

species,

universals

some

then
species,

universals
of

not

were

for

it; and

be founded

would
to

have

universal

upon

all

sent
repre-

which

our

is

hensions
appre-

mistakes

; all

meaning, but a false

Scepticism. Therefore

thing which

one

thus

all

is found

in all the

therefore
speciesor genus;
they have a
foundation
in the reality
of individual things.
186. The
now
antiquated mysticism, taught formerly by
Plato, consisted in a very peculiartheory on the originof ideas.
He

supposed

that the souls

their

bodies, were

saw

truths

bodies, the

of men,

in another

state

before

of existence

afterwards, when
intuitively;
souls

retain

the

being united

truths

in which

united

with

with

they
their

formerly perceived,but
of their knowledge till sense-perception
they are unconscious
it anew.
Plato
could
to awaken
comes
give no proof of
his conjectures; his only reason
for them
that
he
was

Psychology,

I20

could

in

not

any

other

the

origin of

the human

soul has

for

account

way

our

ideas.

187. Ontologiststeach:

such

to

us

5. That

That

; 4.

principlemust

there

can

principleextrinsic
be immediately

no

of

be

must

gible
intelli-

made

such

being except God;

ideas,are not psychological,

universal

our

be

things can
be

not

knowing truth;

and
directlyintelhgible,

and

ideas,even

our

of

power

suppliedby

that in it all other

nature

be

must

soul

the

to

present

the

essence

this extrinsic

That

it; 3.

to

own

this power

That

2.

its

of

in virtue

That

i.

i. e., having
by our souls,but ontological,
to us.
Still,
objectiveexistence,being the objectsknown
of
mind
O otologistsallow that our
by means
can,
many
form to itself psychological
ideas,which it can then
reflection,
/. ^., formed

with

compare

to

the

the

Thesis

188.

be

formable
con-

properly account

for

thus knowing
ontological,

objectivetruth.
X.
Ontologism does

not

them

to

originof our ideas.

for the origin
Proof. That theory does not properlyaccount
does not give a good explanation of
of our
ideas, i. Which
false supmakes
facts ; 2. Which
known
gratuitousand even
positions
the

; 3. Which

Ontologism.
It fails to give
I.
It is

leads

certain fact that

things by
to

very terms

their

own

false conclusions.

But

such

is

facts: {a)
good explanationof known
our
knowledge is intimatelydependent

sense-perception
; why
(b) We know all thingsin

on

to

is this so, if we

truth

in

God

phantasms : bodily
ence
by referthings immaterial

connection

images, and

see

with

from
matter
images borrowed
; why
appliedto immaterial thingsare taken

is this ?
from

The

material

immaterial ; an
acute, sharp,
e. g., incomprehensible,
objects,
etc.
dull,clear intellect,
(c) We have no consciousness,even
if we see Him ?
God ; why is this,
that we
see
on
reflection,

and

Sensitive

gratuitousand

// makes

2.

Rational

Cognition,

121

:
falsesuppositions
{a) That

even

beingsare not cognosciblein themselves; why are

tity
enthey not cognosciblein themselves,if they have their own
?
{b) That we see thingsin God, and stillwe do not see
God
by speciestaken
God; why is this ? {c) That we know
directlyfrom Him, and other thingsby speciestaken fi-om
finite

actual

God

oppositeis evidentlythe

; the

3. It leads to false conclusions

are

terms, if finite

convertible

it will
telligibihty,

In

by

us

Divine

claims

their

not

God,

Rothenflue

but

divided

are

that all

His

in-

own

entity

own

we

we

do

act, Ens

we

of

gible
intelliin the

see

behold

not

existen-

creans

God

"merely as
Ontologism does not

see

Therefore
etc.
being," esse simpliciter,
explainthe matter
properly.

number

things become

that

creative
that

supposes

into

archetypes,which

maintains

; Gioberti

of

essence

of their

means

essence

tias ;

other, and

Malebranche

schools:

the

each

refute

to

their

not

that they are one

with God
entity,
; thus
from Ontolois arrived at as a logicalconclusion
dict
strivingto refute this argument, Ontologistscontra-

Pantheism

and

things have
they have

that

follow

and intelligibilit
for,as entity

God's

distinct from

gism.

case.

speak
189. In connection with the study of ideas we must
ideas by words
articulate
of the expressionof our
or
briefly
articulate sign of an
idea ;
language. A word is an arbitrary
word has not the same
therefore the same
meaning in different
languages.

ideas

our

with

ideas

would

be

words:

in

and

so

words

Hence

other

to

as

to

we

express, and

to

of their

their
say

have

articulate

cate
communi-

they are readilyassociated

inseparablecompanions. It

that

no

we

articulate

language

would

without

think

cannot

we

experience feelingswhich

thought without

force

ideas,judgments,trains

often form

deaf-mutes

own

; but

men

become

incorrect

fact,we

cannot

have

no

signsat

of

ing,
reason-

words
all.

be far less

to

Still,

distinct,

Psychology,

122

embarrassed

more

would

develop
the

for

not

As

190.

he

fall, in

Genesis

is

with

do

improvement

of

been

never

higher

No
it

is

upon

do,

scientific.

it

were

an

doubts

difficult

to

deny

language,
always

as

before
than

have

vented
inbeen

decided

any

there

appears

might,

history

Evolutionists

most

tion
direc-

have

would

make

whether,

could

it

that

give

To

the

perfection

Still,

tongue.
to

task,

it

that

us

ning,
begin-

then,

was

man

now

the

discussed

been

powers,

effected.

idle

he

to

historical

the
from

bodily

and

be

under

but

often

nation's

of

is

one

from

elaborated

mental

reason

gradually

to

children
if

not

language

20);

has

need

know

mental

even

any

development
attempt

xix.

present

conclusive

no

of

imperfectly

it

We

extent

question

and

had

certain

language.
to

minds

the

language,

man

(Gen.

his

but

difficult

have

The

to

to

state

now.

none

be

that

Creator

of

speculation.

he

and

slowly

more

origin

vague

the

process

speech.

the

which
of

of

use

of

account

its

much

to

of

subject

his

in

perhaps,
of

the

posed
sup-

sometimes

unsatisfactory

and

III.

CHAPTER

APPETITE.

RATIONAL

AND

SENSIBLE

Appetite, in its widest sense, was, in the language of

the Schoolmen, any tendency of a being towards a good suitable
to its nature
:
{a) If the being does not apprehend the good
inclines it,its appetitewas
its nature
to which
by them called
191.

is the

such

natural;

ground, of

tendency

plant to

of

fall down

to

stone

the
produce fruit,

and

grow

{b) If it apprehends
by the Creator,
the appetiteis sensible,
{c) If by reason,
sense,
the
use
appetiteor will. In English we never

intended

except for the tendency

192.

for that

good
essentially
the
of

of

and

reason

193.

An

is called

act

givingrise

In

the

but

194.
of

may

as

not

they are

whole,

two

tends
and
to

the

free;

free

to

is the

extrinsic constraint
this.

The

thus

being

good by

it is rational

appetite

term

good.
what

to

is

for the
the

and

species;
specialgood

intellectual good.

whenever

however, only

the

; the

principle
are

the acts

taneous.
sponof

sible
sen-

of the rational

acts

voluntary. Now,
we

voluntary is
desire happiness,
voluntarily

desire it or
absence
is

the

distinct faculties,
differing

spontaneous

termed

are

Freedom

enjoy

being

called spontaneous

will

same
are

we

rational

appetites tend

stricter sense,

appetiteare
not

to

result

it is in the agent ; thus, all vital acts

to

appetiteor

or

objects,viz.,sensible

their formal

by

being as

rational

and

sensible

sense

appetite of

natural

The

sensible

to

to

not.

of constraint.

from
liberty
absence
X23

of

coercion

The
;

intrinsic

even

absence
brutes

constraint

is

Psychology.

24

freedom from

called

properly so
between

action.

necessary

This

it enables

our

last is freedom
will

choose

to

liberty

or

for itself

alternatives;it is also styledliberty

of indiffer-

two

ence.

195. Sensible

appetiteas such, whether

trulyfree ; it is,indeed,free from

is not
but not

from

in

brute,
constraint,

man

or

extrinsic

intrinsic

is that its action

necessity.The reason
is organic,the heart probably being its organ ; and all organic
action is subjectto the physical laws of the material creation.

When,
or

when

delectable,or
in the

aroused

are

objectis apprehended by

therefore,an

sense

good,

as

the

animal, the

phantasm of such an objectis

sensible appetite must, by a physical

ter.d to that delectable

necessity,
good. Brutes, therefore,
for their appetites.
irresponsible
entirely

196.

But

has

man

certain extent, the

indirect

an

workings of

of

power

his sensible

to
controlling,

and
appetites;

he is

in

i or good
duty bound to regulatethem by the law of reason,
order
requiresthat the superiorfacultyshall rule the inferior.
can
indirectly control his animal appetitesin
Now, man
external
He
such
avoid
various ways;
can
i.
objects as
in their stead obexcite his appetites.2. He can
jects
would
use
that will affect him differently.
when
he cannot
3. Even
recall phantasms
change his material surroundings,he can
tion
tendency. 4. He can with 'raw his attenfrom
particularobjects or phantasms. 5. He can
any
often, by a powerful effort of his will,compel his sensible

of

different

appetitesto

members

as

so

197. The

obedience.

reluctant
not

yield

to

of

essence

obedience

liberty consists

everythingis ready for action,the

own

with

to

the

ways

regard

choice in various

6. He

he

action.
may

his

to

in

animal

petites.
ap-

this,that, when

will has stilla choice

Man
choose

can

to

his

control

can

act

of its

exercise
or

not

to

that

act,

126

Psychology.
ihe intellect proposes

thingswhich
and
now.

will

desirable in other

not

to

reason,

199.

respects, and

Our

intellect does

any

choice
particular

Objections: i.
called
at

is

the

human

is

the

all "

is

is

self-caused ; but

facultyof

"

the

that

fact

that

soul

can,

avoid

it follows

to

the

to

deny

manner

to

we

decide

the

is

not

the

between

:
liberty

of

different

we

our
are

of

from

the
our

to

matter;

finds it

courses

acts

of

consciousness
conscious

acts,

our

fore
acts, there-

Consciousness

Answer.

our

of

our

of the act

manner

conscious

are

existence

causes

liberty.

direct object of
our

the

nor

their

the

not

the will.

libertyof

testifies to

testifies to

often

of

it does

its action,and

soul

our

the

cannot

grantingthis logicalconclusion,Huxley

not

the

that

were

by

matter

Rather,

determine

cannot

is caused

that

so.

caused

if it

be

and

play on

is not

action; but

do

spiritcannot

Consciousness
not

of its

nature

matter

necessary
".

It is true

that

"

Science
is

it would

of volition

act

the free will.

determine
follow

the

is

self-caused

(Huxley,

volition,which

of

act

the

made;

improperly
that, occasionally

We
Morals"). Answer.
deny it. This
the word self-caused:
the act of volition

by

of the

the assent

of that which

volition
at

just

necessary

choice

doctrine

free-will

respects

some

be in the will itself.

must

essence

caused

say, not

to

not

compel

our
still,

''The

rate,

any

then

not

the choice

therefore,of

desirable in

as

that

as

well.

by which
conduct;
is the
we

sides,
Bewe

i. e.y

exercise

make

free

choice.
3. We

mistake
We

spontaneous

action for free action.

swer.
An-

free and not

clearlydistinguishbetween
free; thus, we do not call the pleasure free which we
find in food, though our
perceivingit is spontaneous.

and

Sensible

We

free.

not

are

If this

help preferringwhat

choose

and

which

choosing that

it is false ; if it

If

and

good

deceive

the

out
no

cannot

help

stronger attraction,
would

one

be

in

be

ble
accounta-

about

error

consciousness

own

not

cannot

we

would

evil,our

we

would

us, etc.

could

we

choose

choice

that

choose

is

what

holds

what

would

is nothing without

be

for

the weaker

out

without

reason

there

always

we

The

Answer.

is less attractive is

tion,
attrac-

but

reason,

it; therefore

attractive.

more

choosing what

for

that

means

true,

were

that

means

thing,it is true, but

holds

127

therefore

best;

prefer,we

we

action,all mankind

for his
moral

if it

But

point.

the

choose

not

yet

like

we

Answer.

cannot

to

Appetite.

help choosing what

cannot

we

Rational

reason

that it is less

not

but it is reason
attractive,
at

enough that it is attractive

therefore capable of excitingour
appetite.
always obeys our last practicaljudgment;

all,and
will

Our
but

believe

ourselves
like

we

influenced

be

may

make

is not

judgment

our

it; in this

case

last

practicaljudgment,
will,the

when
we

still do

can

judge

to

God

tells

another;

less useful

be

knows

what

do

because

it.
I

consequent

will
on

least influence

am

ought

we

we

can

less

free.

freelydo
the

fact

the fact.

we

also

We

know
do

to

thing,

one

choose

that,

what

we

agreeable.

do

I shall

when

always obeys our

is entirely
independent

is false.
us

will,as

ment
judg-

will

which

or

not

free

Our

thing is right because

judgment is free. But if

therefore I

to-morrow;

must

Answer.

our

statement

intellect

our

our

that

that

objection means
our

by
our

the

of

free.

Answer.

God

it :

knowledge

known

and

is

does

knows

by
not

it,

nature

in the

Psychology.

128

8.

Statistics
each

occurs

law.

even

between

habitually

men

free

one

explained
in

way

uniformity
to

the

such

things

commission

than
in

by
case,

another,
the
of

circumstances
crimes.

the

remote

some

fact

are

and

sary
neces-

crime;

and

single

any

obey

show

may

crimes

of

average

temptation
be

can

though

same

Statistics

Answer,

than

certain

the

therefore

year,

proportion
more

that

show

but
that

more

that
which

no

men,

inclined
there

is

tempt

CHAPTER
THE

NATURE

OF

XII.

Thesis

200.

IV.

The

THE

of

soul

HUMAN

SOUL.

is

man

a
essentially
simple

being.
Proof. Our soul takes in simpleideas;for instance,those of
truth,holiness,justice,
infinity,
being, etc. ; but a principle
take in or conceive
that can
if it
a simple idea is simple. For
were
composed of parts, then either, i, Each
pari would
take in the whole
would

man

of

not

consciousness

would
an

be

take in

idea

each

but

and

which

we^

of

is

common

be

idea, the other parts

would

simple,as

part is itself compound,

part would

we

maintain

it is.

part
is

not

take in the

it ; then

be the soul.

every

testimony

simple idea

apprehending

not

apprehendingthe simple idea

is simple,the soul is

one

soul, and
or, 2, Each

sense;

Only

or, 3,

against the

part of a simpleidea; but

aggregate of parts;

whole

part would

the part

If this part
But

if that

reasoning must
again be
be avoided
appliedto it ; and the absurdities arisingcannot
except by grantingthat the principlewhich conceives simple
ideas is simple,or that the soul is simple.
201.

2.

the

same

Objections: i. A simple soul is unthinkable,i. e.,

be
It is
cannot
thought of,says Huxley. Answer.
unimaginable,not unthinkable ; if we could not think
could
of it,we
not
point out the essential notes by
from all other beings.
which it is distinguished
intellect is affected by our
Our
bodily ailments; it
deranged,enfeebled,excited,etc.;
may be disorganized,
129

Psychology,

130

therefore

it consists of

itself cannot

be

presented to

are

Now,
it is

our

The

intellect

deranged, but its co-natural

objects
it by the phantasms of our imagination.
be
imagination can
deranged, for
; and

organic power

an

Answer.

parts.

in

all
reality

mental

enfeeblement, excitement, etc.,

traced
3.

affections of the

to

is not
it is not

founded
science

and

Elevations

certain

in

the

therefore

ogy
Phrenol-

principles
; therefore
do

brain

is modified

Answer.

scientific conclusions.

draw

cannot

in the

elevations

to

the brain.

upon

be

can

imagination.

Phrenology shows that all action of the soul

according to the modifications of the brain
the soul is identified with

rangeme
de-

always

not

cranium,

do

nor

spond
corre-

mental

dispositions
always correspond to specialmodifications
of the brain.
if they did, it would
Even
only prove
that the action

of

the soul is modified

is affected ; for the brain

; and

assist

of

tion
imagina-

the

extrinsic influence
it the

images

that

thought.

Thesis

202.

the

imaginationexerts an
understanding,presentingto

the

on

is the organ

its organ

when

The

XIII.

soul

of

Explanation.Spirituality
expresses
is simple,but a thing may
every spirit
spiritual;such is the
when
being is spiritual

is

man

more

simple without being

be

soul of the brute.

it

and

act

can

spiritual.
than
simplicity;
(See No.

145.)

exist without

material

organs.

Proof I. The
proved further
exist and

Proof
cannot

such

act
2.

ideas

an
as

on

(Nos.

without

The

have

soul will

actuallysurvive
214);

213,

the

body

soul,even

now,

intrinsic share

the

body,

this supposes

therefore,that it

performsacts

; for

as

that it
is

in which

instance,when

will be

we

can

spiritual.
matter

conceive

God, angel,
virtue,
holy,honest,will,intellect,

The

Nature

etc.
spirit,

; also

affect any

organism.

are

and

concrete

when

love

we

the reach

beyond

the

of

Soul,

131

which

spiritual
good,

cannot

fact,all abstract,all universal ideas

In

of matter

; for

singularcannot
Likewise

singularobjects.

Human

being essentially

matter

but

represent any

and

concrete

all judgments,reasonings,
volitions,

is

is inorganic in its
intellectual,
distinctively
extrinessence
; the imaginationdoes furnish it with materials
into its specificaction.
but cannot
enter
Now, it is
sically,
therefore
evident that a being acts according to its nature;
the nature
of the intellect is spiritual,
distinct from
matter,
every

that

act

in its own
independent of matter
specificsphere of activity;
therefore intrinsically
capable of acting and existingwithout
be stated
thus : An
a
organic
body. The
argument
may
of its
a
as
con-cause
faculty /. e.^ a facultywhich has matter
make
a
only perceive such objects as can
operations can
material
intellect perceives
it; but our
impression upon
material
make
cannot
a
impression upon it;
objects which
"

"

intellect is

organic but

spiritual
faculty.
But
a
facultyis necessarilyproportioned to the subject in
the soul is spiritual.
which
it resides ; therefore
is above
its
Proof 3. No being can tend to a good which
above
nature
goods, essentially
; but the soul tends to spiritual
therefore

our

not

an

all material

natures

; therefore

Proof

Matter

cannot

4.

soul acts

but

our

our

soul

IS

Proof
an

soul is conscious

5. Our

therefore

the

soul
203.

are

spiritual.

materialists grant ;

freely,as
above

(No. 198) ;

of its

own

inorganic action

therefore

double

cannot

acts

of

and

acts

; but

consciousness

itself back
and

the

sciousness
con-

inorganic being.

a being dependent
inspectitself,

cannot

matter

on

is

nature

matter.

not

organ

act

as proved
freely,

supposes
For

its

on

its

nature

acts;

own

of

sically
intrin-

scious
con-

spiritual.

Objections:

t.

All

intellectual

action

begins

in

Psychology,

132

therefore

sense,

for all its

of

state

in

than

exercise

one

world,

body

present

our

body

the

on

for its

phantasms, and
generally;but since

intrinsically
co-operate
nothing impossiblein

is

action of the soul,without

and

is,in

soul

the

on

viz. : for its communication

way

its faculties

of

not

there

dependent

The

Answer.

acts.

the visible

does

is

soul

existence,
extrinsically
dependent

more

with

the

for the
matter

in its intellectual acts,

separate existence

the

the extrinsic aid of the

body.
2.

soul is the form

The

being

is the

of

being

of the
the

body.
the body,

being with
exhausted
by the being of
it is the form of the body,
makes

of the

one

the

3. AVhether
be

; it is

body

aid of organs

called intrinsic

Answer.

body.

because

necessary,

the
we

circumstances
are

in

room,

its very

; therefore

Though it
stillits being is not

Answer.

the

body

but

it is

; in

other

only

not

words,

the

form

more.

in the acts

of the

it is necessary
extrinsic,

or

action ; therefore
the

body

the soul

cannot

intellect
for intellectual

act

without

phantasms is now
being acts dependently on
every
in which
it is placed; thus, when
The

we

of

aid

depend

on

window

the

to

see

objectsoutside. The soul,therefore,being at present

with
act in union
now
one
being with its body, must
that body, using the aid of that body as far as it can
think
now
aid the act of intelligence.Therefore
we
things in connection
however, the body will be

of

with

all

the latter

acquired;

can

it

no

phantasms.

more

can

know

its

own

by reasoningon all this,know

receive divinelyinfused
can

essence

the

soul,
speciesformerly
directly,
and,

one

retain all its intellectual

with

When,

its Creator

knowledge,

besides,it

and

knowl-

Psychology,

134

breathingin
in the
All

2.

the

in
lungs,digesting

the

ing
stomach, mov-

muscles, etc.

organic action
soul

and

in

body;

is the action

man

for matter

of the

do

can

pound
com-

nothing

cept
ex-

in virtue of its form.

soul is

3. The

united with the prime matter

directly
or
potentialprinciple,
being itself the active principle
: it
and
its very nature
gives to the body all its powers
such
of a body, and
when
the soul
a
body. Still,
to be
cease
a
departsat death, the body cannot
body
of some
kind; for the potentialprincipleof matter
exist without

cannot

be
the

form

one

form.

for the whole

corpse,

by the laws
flesh,bone, sinew,etc.,have
purpose

death

before
and

under

Whether

the

this
form

of nature,

control

supplied for
whether

or

its own

each

form

new

the

ing
form, exist-

of the life principle

little.
acting independently, matters
very
(Pesch,Inst. Phil. A at, No. 210.)
206. Those
understand
the Peripatetic
who do not
system
and form are greatly embarrassed
of matter
to explainhow
body and soul act on each other. Various theories have been
imagined,all of them unscientific. Plato supposed that the
it rules the body as the
soul is seated in the brain, whence
now

rider does

his horse.

maintains

that soul and

God

on

acts

in the

occurs

teaches
in the

body
and
the

and

course
so

either
other.
that
of

The

one

assistance

body

do

not

of them

Leibnitz's

theory

has in his wisdom

life,

constructed

that it will

act

on

oi

Descartes

each

whenever

God, foreseeingall

of

theory
a

other, but
modification

mony
harpre-established

that any

given

soul
to

would

each

do

soul

automaticallyact just when

wills,
though the soul does not influence it in
The
least.
the soul
theory oi physicalinfluencemakes
each
other
distinct beings.
the body act
two
on
as
as

the soul

The

Giinther

imagined
which

psyche^
intellectual

be,

activity

form

the

body;

Thus,

the

living

eye,

The

whole

thus

ceases

the

it
is

is

acted

not

living

be
there

the

action

the

question
are

not

is

at

two

common

body,

the

eye

all

for

of

nor

there

both.

the

does

it

of

the

the

or

of

each

agents
to

form

own

essential

having

be

the

but

sound.
and

body

on

body.

ear,

can

body.
act

and

color

interaction

its

man's

principle

perceiving

acts,

ear

the

by

upon

the

as

active

the

about

soul

by

itself

with

harmony

the

upon

question
to

but

acted

but
soul

in

theory

the

makes

having

each

beings,

with

which

scientific

him

by

united

substantially
be

135

called

life,

animal

can

two

views

not

where

action,

but

which

is

be

to

Soul.

Human

of

system

one

only

that

The

No

not

the

is

unity

supposed

soul.

to

man

principle

he

the

of

Nature

no

its

soul
action
inter-

own

CHAPTER
ORIGIN

AND

V.

DESTINY

OF

THE

HUMAN

SOUL.

Many ancient philosophers,

findingthe soul of man
the entire
above
evidentlyand immeasurably elevated

207.
so

material

of the

man

higheststep
The

most

found

favor

with

which

may

208.

Darwin's

is

as

may
in

very

different

be

mere

universal

error

substance

very
has

not

physical sciences

evolution

some

of the

a
:

few-

they

brute, and

of evolution.

movement

has
popular shape in which this vagary
the modern
pubHc is the Darwinian
theory,

cluded,
inplants and animals, man
inferior species,
from
evolved
are
and, as many of
from unorganized matter, by
add, ultimately
disciples
be

stated thus

of natural
follows

numbers

the

from

the votaries of the

among

imagine that

means

emanated

Divinity. To-day

advocates

the

have

other,must

or

way

creation, erroneouslyconjectured that it,in

in

:
a

selection.

All

The

of natural

process

tend to
plants and animals
geometricalprogression; hence
All

in which
strugglefor existe?ice,

nature

increase
arises

causes

their
severe

the

structed
speciesto perish,and the best-conthus producing the survival of the fittest.
to multiply,
Consequently,organic life must ever be ascending in perfection,
and lower specieshave thus been developed into higher
species. (See Mivart's Genesis of Sjfedes,pp.17, 18.) This
and ingenious; but its disastrous consequences
theory is interesting
and to individual
to morahty, to religion,
to social life,
weakest

individuals

contest

selection

happinessfor

and

time and

are
eternity

136

so

obvious, that noth-

ing but

the most

excuse

those

love

theory,far

yet the Darwinian

beyond

Soul.

137

possibly
principles.

its noxious

disseminate

to

Human

of its truth could

convincingevidence

who

And

209.

Destiny of the

and

Origin

devoid
doubt, is totally

of

from

lished
being estabdemonstration, and

Charles
Elam, M.D.,
figment of the intellect.
temporary
after an
accurate
analysisof facts in three articles of the Concontinues thus (Dec, 1876, p. 132) : **The
Review
J
servatio
follow
the foregoing obfrom
which
conclusions
necessarily

is

mere

not

of

Evolution

Organic

intellect

of the

embracing
syllogism,

one

also the

largertheme

generally:

verification

"'Without

figment

in

brieflysummed
up
only Natural Selection,but
be

may

'

conception is a mere
Fragments of Science^p.
(Tyndall's
a

theoretic

469).
theoryof Organic

the

"

But

"

Therefore

To

the

prove

Huxley,

Organic

modification

experienceupon
in the

yet received

See

further

have

We

plantsand
With
regard
animal
soul
add

"

the

such

Mazzella's

of

lower

can

to

the

in which

that

the

are

Deo
above

we

rule

is

'^

by

the intellect

he

Now,

by

sive
progres-

observation

Darwinian

ception.
con-

laid down

hypothesisof

of life."

and

grants

hypothesis has

{Lay Sermons,

p. 226.

Creante, Disput. iii.art. i. " 3.)

(ThesisVIII.) that

the

species

fixed, incapable of transformation.

evolution

of the

point with

in

of man,

particularfrom

intellectual

which

we

from
here

are

tive
the sensiconcerned

the

following:
The gulf between
brute
Thesis XV.
impassableby any process of evolution.

"

unverified

an

figment of

the

any

demonstration.
De

is

mere

quote

existingforms

species,and

the main

be demonstrated

proved

animals

is

may

only w:ay

paragraph

same

not

210.

Evolution

minor, we

that the

Evolution

and

man

is

absolutely

Psychology,

138
Proof. The
animated
by
form

nothing

; it

all its
of

entirelymaterial

the

neither

can

soul

principleof
exist

act

nor

organism.

Schoolmen.

is

only the
bodily action
in material

is

stantial
suband

fications
modi-

is admitted

much

is

in matter,

scientists

what

Now,

This

though it

except

life,all its activityconsists

philosophersand

modern
the

body,

material

is

simple soul, still that

of the

more

that

so

animal

brute

generally,as
merely material can

well

by
by

as

be

never

or
developed, whether
by the Darwinian
by any
process
being ; or, which is the
system of evolution,into a spiritual
ing,
cannot
same
thing,matter
possiblybe evolved into a thinkfication
a
reasoning being. For all evolution is merely a modi-

of matter

; but

therefore

matter;

but

evolution

Now,

matter.

in all its modifications

matter

of matter

matter

produce
possiblyreason;

cannot

cannot

reasoning implies universal ideas, since

be

must

term

conceive

universal

object,and
image of a
is

idea

our

and

of

never

; hence

reasons

human

32);
idea

and

is

matter

can

what

is neither

for

cannot

image

an

thing
any-

its middle

matter

only be
singularthing; while

cannot

can

an

least

at

a
a

of the

concrete

universal

concrete

nor

possiblybe imaged in matter.

become
capable of reasoningmaterial
be
a
being can never

soul ;

or,

the

gulf

is

man

As

therefore

into the

evolved

in

image

matter

soul

For

and

abstract

Therefore

idea.

concrete

an

{Logic.No.

image

every

and
singular,

But

distributed

remains

brute

between

absolutelyimpassableby any process

fact,evolutionists find it impossible to

of evolution.
account,

in

their theories,for the

they

either

matter,

and

deny
become

soul ; hence
of the human
spirituality
in nothing but
this spirituality,
believe
MateriaUsts

or

which
flow from
logicalconclusions
they
and, to veil their inconsistency,
positionof Agnostics.
the

they

reluse

draw

principles,
the sceptical

their false
assume

to

and

Origin
Thesis

211.

Destiny of the

XVI.

The

of

soul

i. e., by beingmade
by creation^

made

Proof. If it were

spiritual.It

or

neither:

Not

i.

would

of

acts

can
justproved, no change in matter
thinking. 2. Not spiritual
; for it cannot
since a spirithas no
part of that spirit,

out

of

out

of the whole

when

out

human

being;
Plato

be

cannot
soul, therefore,

it is created,made

hence
As

212.

would

for,

fit it for the

be

made

parts:

then

nor

to

cease

be

begins to be. Among all the wanderings of

maintained
that the soul is
philosopherhas ever
of a previous spiritwhich
then
to exist.
ceases

genius,no
The

which
spirit,

terial
ma-

soul

the

made

of that

be

material;

have

we

as

139

originateexcept

cannot

ftian

anything, this

of

be

can

Soul.

of nothing.

out

out

Human

questionwhen

to the

supposed

out

of

made

nothing.

the souls of

that all human

souls

of another

out

lived

men

are

created,

in the stars,

before

they were banished for crime; others have taught the

of souls from one
transmigration
body into another, even into
nitz
brutes,as a punishment for their moral
degradation; Leibwhence

and

the

Wolf

beginning of

tillunited

to

soul

its work

when

and

it can

human

souls

of

do

The

begins.

soul

is derived
of each

Before

All such

to

by

its

nature

theories
should

The

careful

must

man

in

intelligence

plausibiHty.Why
suited

work

created

were

without

bodies.

even

is that which

facts.

known

all human

world, but remained

proof

exist before

scientific answer
from

the

their destined

destitute of

are
a

pretended that

biology became

reasoning
begin to exist
a

science,it

soul was
created
till the
not
supposed that the human
sufficiently
organized first by a previous vegetabody was
tive,
and
become
the fit
next
to
by a merely animal soul
to build it up
was
organism of that higher principlewhich
was

"

"

into

human
distinctively
soul.

At

body.

present

rational soul is created, and

it is far
made

principlewas

That

the

more

tellectu
the in-

probable that

substantial form

the

of the

Psychology,

I40

body,

from

has

day

the very

of

moment

immortal

alreadyan

conception:

soul j hence

infant of

the

the

wilful

tion
destruc-

of its lifeis murder.

Thesis

213.
the

XVII.

The

human

soul

does

perish with

not

body.

Proof

This

1.

common

is

of the

one

judgments

of

sense.

Proof
there

The

2.

justiceand

shall be

shall be

for vice

shall make

as

the wicked.
where

such

rewards

the

such

But

virtuous

the

the wisdom

sufficient sanction

that there

often

are

Thesis

214.

XVIIL

God

for the

requirethat

moral

for virtue and

sanction

of

much
good ultimately

death ; therefore it must

unto

universal

most

does

"

/. "f.,

punishments
happier than

exist in this

world,
oppressed,despised,
persecuted

exist in

The

law

human

not

future

Hfe.

soul is immortal.

Proof 1. The Creator has given us a longing for a neverendless

could
an
ending existence,
not
happiness; bwt He
have

done

if

souls

less
reallydestined for an endlife. For it would
be unworthy of His
goodness to give
a longing after a
could
us
not possibly
great good, which we
attain; and it would conflict with His truthfulness to give us,
in such natural desires,an implicitpromise of immortality,
if
so

did not

He

Proof 2.
for ever;
no

our

enable
A

in

us

be

dissolved

it is natural

Therefore

to

its Maker.

annihilate

attain it.

to

spiritual
being is capable
fact,immortalityis natural

parts, it cannot

by

not

were

it,as

existence ; now,

it

But

long
can

as

the
it

can

answer

thus

the power,
justice,
contributingto His

nothing useless ;

but the

actingand existing

to

it,because, having

corrupted as

or

natural

its substance.

to

for it to exist tillit be

Creator
answer

that purpose

forth the

and

of

and

the

external

have

can

the

no

hilated
annireason

purpose

for ever,

by

goodness

of

of its

ing
show-

God,

glory. God makes

of the soul
indestructibility

Psychology.

142

deep

for

investigations.Still,while

pretending
from such matters, they are constantlyalluding
to keep aloof
to them, arguing againstthe great truths of philosophy in a
their thesis,but they
covert
manner.
They do not prove
too

are

our

the Unknown,
if no man
as
granted,callingGod
knew anything about the necessityand the greatness of the
of the soul,as if it were
Creator,sneeringat the spirituality
a self-contradiction,
etc., etc.

take it for

Philosophy.
Proof. That

system

existence of the soul

the

state, of

future

good

of

all sound

which

Philosophy

: in
important inquiriesimpossible
ticular,
parknow
denies
that
we
can
anything certain

which
about

is destructive

of

destructive

all the most

renders

Agnosticismis

Thesis XIX.

217.

evil ;

and

there

whether

wise

distinct from

personal God,

the

anything worth

body,

the rewarder

which, consequently,makes

and

is

and

as

of
of

it doubtful

livingfor beyond

the

fication
grati-

passions. For Huxley himself admits that

The questionof questionsfor mankind, the problem which
than any
is more
all others,and
underhes
deeply interesting
of the place man
occupies in
other, is the ascertainment
nature, and of his relation to the universe of things. Whence
what
has come,
to
are
tending, are
goal we
our
race
of

the

"

...

the

problems which present themselves

anew,
born
into
to
man
interest,
every

and

with

settlement.
The
questionsincapable of satisfactory
trouble
ourselves
writer acknowledges this: "Why
of which, however
be,
matters
important they may

P-

nothing and

we

can

know

nothing?

"

'^

this world

(Man^s Place in Nature^ p. 57).

futileand
Now, Agnosticismrenders all such inquiries

know

diminished
un-

such
same

about
we

do

{Lay Sermons,

145)The

Mental

Philosophy

of the

Schoolmen,

so

far

briefly

and

Origin

outlined,

Its

voice

by

strengthened

to

comes

the

the

the

from

us

approving

Soul.

Human

all

of

tation.
hesi-

distant

most

accents

143

without

and

clearly

questions

these

all

answers

of

Destiny

past,

intervening

generations.
The

its

weakened
confirms

satisfies

of

advancement

and

more

the

teaching,

reason

has
the

more,

and

science,

true

the

so

confirmed,

strikingly
of

truth

heart

of

far

its

man.

doctrines.

having

from
and

It

daily
alone

BOOK

IV.

NATURAL

218.

Natural

Theology

without

the

reason,

exclude

We

Revelation

his

grope

full

in the

live

not

of this

as

the

essence.

out,
in

sceptics

pagan

who

wish

Christians,
can

understand

the

nature

and

relations

We

set

there

reason

viz.

Christian

shall
3.

in which
consider

His

He
:

i.

truth

will
and

unaided

of

quest
be

the

such

reverently

prefer

it

to

of

His

cause

but

the

far

dom,
wis-

as

en-

what

above

Creator,

us,

and

creatures.

existence

attributes.

so

were

of

investigate

matter

to

We

unknown

to

his

reason.

cause,

of

close

therefore, in the pursuit

stands

quiescent

tion.
Revela-

indirect,guidance

perfections

The

lightof

supernatural

the

of

the

civilization, which

about
the

by

teaching,

glimmer

world, if perhaps

hghtened
our

We

ignore.

folly to

not

Divine

of

of

blaze

of

investigator of

faint

the

by

way

influence

earnest

no

of God

study

our

direct, but

bright Hght

the

is

direct

the

for

to

eyes

THEOLOGY.

of
4.

His

God.

2.

operative

His
tributes.
at-

CHAPTER

obviouslyconceived
all

are

we

refuse

to

Atheists

theoretical
been

kind

have

ot

His

We
such

virtue.

to

are

He

do

220.

The

we

Thesis

I.

I.

The

who

are

called

The

of them

none
are

spicuous
con-

recent

very

than

of intellectual

God

exists,but

that the

chapter

existence

outline

of God

moral

losophe
phi-

pretend

existence

of

God,

world

is
can

is its first efficient

cause

of this world
a

be demonstrated

can

arguments.

metaphysical argament
cause

contingentbeing

and

validlydemonstrated.

present in bare

the first efficient

the

that

be

cannot

by metaphysical^
physical^and

Those

God

of

whom

to

obviouslyconceived by man, is absolutely

lowing,
select the folbe given ; we
proofs may

is most

which

Proof

existence

intelligent

Lord

conduct.

Agnostics

deny

not

in this

prove

Various

certain.

moral

rather
physical scientists,

existence

as

first and

Supreme

comparatively few,

been

wJio

that

the

for our
responsible
acknowledge the

for
school

the

viz.,as

man,

is most

He

as

practicalAtheists deny Him by their conduct, and

Atheists in their speculations.Unfortunately there
practicalAtheists;but those of the theoretic
many

have

by

universe^ and

the

of

Cause

GOD.

begin by considering God

shall

We

OF

EXISTENCE

THE

219.

I.

considers

; it may

be

God
thus

system of contingentbeings; but

exist without
; therefore

a
a

necessary
necessary

of the world.

which is the firstefficient cause

X45

as

posed
prono

being which
being exista

Natural

146
We

prove the major:

exist

or

other

words,

is not

exist

not

being that

contingentbeing is

far

as

Theology,

as

its

is not

is concerned

nature

own

that may

one

self-existent. But

"

in

the world

proved in Cosmology (No. 103).

Therefore
the world is a contingent being.
We prove the minor :
There
be nothing without a sufficient
can
have
a
reason
a contingentbeing must
reason
; hence
is not in the contingent
for its existence.
But
that reason
it must
therefore
be in another
being itself;
being. This is
its cause
is a being that influences the existence
; for a cause
is a necessary
of another
being. Now, if that cause
being,
then our
propositionis proved; if it be not a necessary being,
then it is contingent,
and
therefore must
have a cause, as we
have
must
we
reasoning,tillwe
just proved. Thus
go on
as
self-existent,

to

come
or

first

must

we

was

which

cause

that there

suppose

contingentcauses

without

the fact that such

in the past could

the infinite

is not

any

contingentbut

has

been

necessary

have

an

But

cause.

besides

(becausean infinite series

since
to a particular
effect,

series is absurd

never

necessary;
infinite series of

come

passed through or left behind),even

if it were
not
absurd,it would be inadequate to produce such
effect.
For
of contingentbeings without a
multitude
a
an

existence.
exists

could

the

not

have

sufficient

being which is its first cause.

The physicalargument, supposingit proved
is contingent (No. 103), views God
its
as

world

and proves His existence from

order conspicuousin the world; it is this : There

the

intelligent
cause,
world

ends

ears

to

for existence;

reason

necessary

Proof 2.

221.

be

for
contingency is the want of an intrinsic reason
exist unless
Therefore
no
contingent being can

smce

that

never

cause

necessary

there

can

most

[a)

to

hear,

wonderful

order,

particularends,
of

the

tongue

as

to

or

suit

exists in the

adaptation of

of the

eyes

physical

to

means

to

see, of the

various purposes,

etc.;

Existence

The

{h) of

all the

parts

of the

whole.

to

of

visible
adaptation,

such

Now,

147

end, viz.,to the preservation

common

God,

in its cause,
world, requiresintelligence

and

even

in the

amount

an

and
intelHgenceproportionateto the vastness, the variety,
the perfectionof the
order
produced; therefore the first
Cause of the world must
be intelligent
ception.
beyond all our conof

The

in the
of

minor, viz. : order in the effect requiresintelligence

cause

for

means

the relation
it

an

end

is

certain ; for a disposing

analytically
implies the intellectual perceptionof

existingbetween

requiresintellect
of

consent

common
e,

[a) It

g-.,that letters

or

in the

and

means

end,

type put down

by

the

one

could

beHeve,

at random

would

produce

for

mankind;

therefore

is attested

{b) It

cause,

and

no

certain
a
as
(c) It is always insisted on
truth, even
by the Agnostics in their scientific researches;
for, when
they find any fossil which has a regularshape or
mark, they claim it as an undoubted
proof of human, L e.^
a

grand

poem,

intelligent,
workmanship.
222.
a

inteUigencein
Proof 3. The

the

Lord

whom

supreme

moral

conduct.

to

as

in the effect supposes

cause.

moral

It is

order

Therefore

argument
all

men

follows

proves

All

there

responsiblefor

are
:

that

men

when

in

the

is

their
full

possessionof reason, in any part of the world, in all stages

of society,among
all races, even
newly discovered
among
in the firm conviction,which acts as a constant
tribes,
agree
Lord
check
their passions,that there exists a supreme
on
Master
and
to whom
they are responsiblefor their moral
be
conduct.
Now, this firm and universal judgment cannot
erroneous

; else it would

show

that

it is natural for

man

to

instead of being the

and the human
intellect,
judge falsely,
of a universal
facultyof knowing truth,would be the source

deceptiorw

Natural

48
223.
1.

Theology.
the

Objections:I. Against
This

is too

argument

metaphysical argument.

abstruse

be reliable.

to

Answer.

is,on the contrary, an obvious applicationof the

principleof causality:
analyticaland common-sense
everybody judges as readilythat the world must have
It

had

first cause

that

as

house

have

must

had

builder.
2.

Science

itself to

confine

must

the

tracingof physical

Answer.
physical causes.
Physical science
the highest
investigate
so, but philosophymust

effects to
do

may
causes.

Evolution

for all

account

can

Evolution

does

not

even

things physical.
touch

the

upon

originof the world, but only on its development ;

if the theory of evolution were
true, there would
have

be

to

of

Creator

before

matter

begin to change its forms.

A
self-evolvingworld might be
Answer.
Impossible. The series

that

swer,
Anreal

even

still

matter

could
4.

had

have

beginning,a

proved

of

being.

necessary
evolutions

first stage ; if that

it could

then

necessary,
is
world

must

stage

were

the
besides,
Cosmology (Thesis I.) not to be

in

not

change

self-existent.
5.

tingent,
consingle being in the world were
collection might be necessary.
the whole
swer.
AnThere
be nothing in the collection which
is
can
tially
suppUed by the parts, especiallywhen it is essen-

Although

not

every

excluded
is both
not

finite and

such.

6. From

from

the parts.

mutable, and

thus have

being

necessary

is

(No. 103.)

the existence of

conclude

Besides,the collection

to

that

more

of

contingentbeing

necessary

in the conclusion

being;

for

cannot

we
we

than in the

should

premises.

Natural

T50

Theology,

ends, it is because

their

Creator

the

has

suited

so

them.

5. All

order

the

of

would

This

Answer.

nature

wonderful

most

in

mean,

effect

; for blind

cause

be

may

that

words,

without

is not

chance

accident.

mere

other

be

may

the

sufficient

sufficient

ot

cause

ordtr.
order

6. The
of

selection,the survival

natural

If it

Answer.

make

only

the

admirable;

more

of such

machine

that such

true

were

place,it would
world

evolution

results from

of nature

the

had

would

who

in wonderful

machines

evolve

whether
7. An

true

false,is not

or

adaptationof

to

means

end

does

an

thereby
make

to

tion,
objec-

thesis.

againstour

an

in

this

ber
num-

variety,and

separately. Therefore

the

make

perfection of details,would
ever-increasing
if he were
than
exhibit far more
intelligence
all these

taken

displayedin

order
he

means

etc.
fittest,

evolution

that it should

nature

machines

of other

for

of

by

require

not

builds
without intelligence
intelligence
; e. g., the bee
The
most
its honey-comb
symmetrically. Answer.
the
bee and all brute
animals,in followingirresistibly

promptings of
their

their

Maker, just as

wisdom

instincts,display the
a

displaysthe

machine

of

skill of the

inventor.
225.
1.

due

are
sponsibiUties

may

be

developed

they are
without
2.

moral

Against the
Objections:III.
Our
judgments concerning our

This

so

other,e.

essential to
and

education

sense

and

of

to

education.

perfectedby
man

amid

that

an

they

duties and

re-

Answer.

They

education

; but

are

known

even

all varieties of education.

comes
responsibility

g.^ from

moral

argument.

idle fear of

from

some

passionot

punishment.

Answer,

The

Existence

passionswould

The

do

restraint,to

that is

judgment
As

of

he

prompt

151

check

constant

to throw

man

Hkes, while

punishment, it

the fear of

to

rather

what

God,

of

it is

upon

is

our

off

moral

passions.

our

not

consequence,

of

responsibility.
of responsibility
sense
simply results from the
3. The
intellectual apprehension of rightand wrong.
Answer.
It also impliesthe judgment that there is a law obliging
and avoid the wrong,
to do the right
and
that there
us
is a Law-giver who enforces this law, for there can
be no
law without a law-giver.
have always been
atheists ; therefore the judgments
4. There
in question are
universal nor
not
essential to
a

cause

our

sense

Answer.

man.

comparativelysmall
maintained

who

is

God.

no

vinced

for

Some

number

of

the

existence

historydoes

not

tell of any

was

habitual

an

of

also been

atheists,

perhaps,have
been

c'bn-

convinced

by

doubtful ; but

was

sensible and

his moral

in

their lives that there

God

conviction

responsiblefor

not

have

been

theoretical

may,

may

have

there have
of

these

or
tl^.emselves,

felt

there

portionof

others, that

who

that

grant

practicalatheists ;

ages

many

We

sincere

through
conduct

man

life that

to

he

supreme

Being.
5. We

find

is

man

learned

only matter,
From

Answer,

who

men

and

reallyconvinced that
therefore irresponsible
for his
are

the fact that such

Pyrrho,
Fichte, Berkeley, etc., argued againstthe certain

acts.

Hume,

existence

firmlybelieved
it does

not

bodies, it does

of

in their

follow

from

own

all the

not

men

as

follow

theories; so,
theorizingof

that

they
likewise,

ists
material-

they bona fide consider themselves as irresponsible

heaps of matter, unless it be that abnormal

that

Natural

152

extinguishedin
We

do

but

if it

possible;

Now,

pretend

reason

possiblybe
confound

know

of

God

as

existence

to

essence

and

it

pretends to

of

God.

the

important.
led

be

For

who

the

existence

cannot

theorists

such

priori^

from

the

very

specious but fallacious,

the

because

of

to

ontologicalargument,

through

see

/m".

cause

exists 'is

existence
is

argument

reprobated

those

suspect that

to

solid

This
to

more

the

prove

God

dJ

priorijudgment

an

be

can

existence
But

process.

priori argument with

that the judgment
they reallymean
or
analytical. This is called the
because

His

is

states

of God
from

science.
con-

case

sense

reason

cause,

of

abnormal

the

an

from

not

common

no

such

proved by

such

heart,

or

ordinary hght

man's

prove

has

of mind

whether

priori means

effect ; and

an

to

the

be, it is

judgments
gathered.
Some

them

not

that the

226.

conditions

abnormal

surroundings,or
have

Theology,

the

God

matter

is

fallacymay
is incapable

so

be
of

proof.

227.

ontological
argument

The

has been

variouslyproposed

by well-meaning men, such as Descartes, Leibnitz,and even

God
is the infinitely
1)y St. Anselm
to this :
; it always comes
else He
perfectBeing exists,
perfectBeing; but the infinitely
"

would

not

middle

be

term

The
exists."
infinitely
perfect; therefore God
'infinitely
perfectBeing' is ambiguous; in the

major itis taken abstractedly/. "?.,it is a

"

abstract

God

'

; the existence

but only
implicitly,

even

He

term

exists.

In the

minor

referred
the

same

is not
to

definition of the

mere

meant

to be

asserted

i. e.,
conditionally,

middle

term

is used

if

with

concretelyand, as includingexistence,
unconditionally. It is a trick of logic, which may
escape
but it is nevertheless a sophism.
the detection of many,
g,

new

meaning,

It is true

/. ^.,

that the existence of God

is immediatelyknow-

Existence

The

able

in

order;

but

it

obvious

is

process
to

the

not

it

but

ord^r,

logical

is

it

itself;

first

of

Cause,

even

first

the

immediately
becomes

reasoning

God,

of

in

truth

known
known

153

to

to

posteriori

/.
"

us,

by

us

ontological

the

^.,

i.e.,

in
of

means

from

the

the

an

fects
ef-

CHAPTER
THE

228.

The

which

ESSENCE

of

essence

making

shall consider

We

OF

thing is

it what

thing can

II.

it is ;

neither

GOD.

that which
it is the note

exist

nor

His

in this

Physical

I.

The

further
sum

230.
is its

on;

total of

the

But

essence

to

as

His

3. The

tween
be-

The

2.

simplicity

Essence

introducinginto

viewed
it such

exactlyas
distinctions

objectivereality. Now,
of God, as we
the essence

in

His

physical essence

is

there

shall

simply

perfection.
notional

or

conceived

us, /. "?.,as

by

essence

of

it is traced

being
by
logical
out

out

in different

not

real,though they have

objectively

perfectionswith

is
reality. The metaphysical essence
from the attributes,
and, in a created
distinguished

foundation
as

essence

metaphysical

mind, and marked

which are
distinctions,

viewed

is the

therefore

our

of God.

it in the

distinctions

real

show
the

belong

not

no

are

difference

God.

physicalessence

not
being itself,

itis in the
do

The

Metaphysical

and
OF

as

out
with-

notes

or

physicalessence.

Article

229.

it intrinsic

be conceived.

chapter: i.
the physicaland metaphysicalessence
infinite perfectionof His physicalessence.
of

constitutes

in

the

In
being,as distinguishedfrom the accidents.
is all that He
no
are
accidents; for He necessarily
IS4

God
is.

there

Now,

The

the

being,and
The

231.

155

as,

{a)

which

God

perfectionin

that

God.

being as to distinguishit from every 'other

{b)so primary that all the attributes flow from it.
of God, therefore,must
be
metaphysical essence

to

proper

so

of

the attributes is conceived

distinct from

as

essence

Essence

is conceived

finite
by our
Him
distinguishes

that it
{a) so peculiarto God
all other beings,and {b) so primary or principalthat
from
all His other perfectionsflow from it. Now, this perfection
God
from
to be
self-existence
seems
; for {a)it distinguishes

intellect as,

be proved to
beings,since a self-existentbeing can
be necessary,
independent, infinite ^in a word, to be God;
and
{b)it is primary in Him, since from it all His other perfections
all other

"

232.
total of
two

flow

and

We

have

His

perfection
;

with

theses

can

be

logically
proved.

said that God's

regard to

in
perfections
distinction of any

an

and

we

it :

infinite

kind

i.

physicalessence
shall

now

That

God

degree.

between

2.

is the

proceed

to

prove

all

ble
possi-

contains

That

sum

there is

real

no

those

perfections.
God is infinitely
perfect.
233. Thesis II.
by a perfectionany real entity,
Explanation. We mean
anythiHgwhich it is better to have than not to have. A being
is infinitely
perfectwhen it'has all possibleentityin the highest
that God, being the
possibledegree. It is clear at once
of

cause

actuallyin

the world

effect which
we

world,

the

is not

must

have

; for there

in the

imply

between
^.

^.,

contradiction.

no

be

can

But

cause.

that
maintain, all perfections

all that

all the

are

mean

We

must,

/^r^ perfections /. ^., such

"

has

the

have,

as

however,

guish
distin-

imply

fection,
imper-

knowledge, goodness,justice,power,

that God

must

are

/. ^.,
intrinsically
possible,

"

we

perfectionin

no

besides,He

/."?.,such as imply some

w/lT"?^perfections
truth
reasoning,which impliesthat some

Now,

perfectionsthat

all pure

no

etc. ; and

imperfection,
e.g.^
was

first unknown.

perfections
formally01

Natural

156
as

such, and

without

way,

; but

is. He

limit

to

His

being

any

the

excluded

in other

would

possesses

ter
bet-

Being is,it is that necessarily

God
is the necessary
Being ; therefore,whatever
is that necessarily. Therefore, if there is
any
that limit is necessary
perfection,
; /. e., further

perfectionis
essence;

He

i. e., in
eminently,
imperfections.

Whatever

Proof.
He

the mixed

Theology,

by
words,

exclude

excludes

necessary

other

the

His

of

physical
the entity or perfection of
His
further perfection. But no
some
fection
peris incompatiblewith further
or
perfection,
nature

very

be no
contradiction between
perfection
good
; there can
and good, entityand entity,
but only between
good and not
good, entity and non-entity,perfection and imperfection.
Therefore
no
perfectioncan exclude any other perfection;
hence no perfectionis excluded
either in kind or in degree;
therefore God
is infinitely
perfect.
finite intellect cannot
know
the
234. Objections: i. Our
nature

know

of

the

the nature

infinite

Being.

We

Answer,

cannot

of the infinite

Being adequately,but
know
we
can
things about it; for they are
many
of firstprinciples e. g., that there can
be
applications
"

no

effect without

than

the

opposed

2.

cause,

cause,

that

that

no

entity or

effect

good

be

can
as

such

greater
is

not

but to non-entity,
etc.
entity,
The
into
not
to search
man
Holy Scriptureswarn
that is a searcher
of
He
thingstoo high for him:
majesty shall be overwhelmed
by glory" (Proverbs
to

"

is

high, but most

his Creator, that he may
to know
Him
he ought :
For the invisible things
reverence
as
of God
from
the creation
of
the world
are
clearly
being understood by the things that are made :
seen,
27). Answer.
appropriatefor man
XXV.

It

not

too

"

His

eternal

power

also

and

divinity;so

that

they

Natural

158

Article

II.

235. We
must

we

from

have
now

Perfect

that

Simplicity

all

they are

except in

God,

of

perfectionsbelong

all

that

seen

prove

another

one

The

Theology,

our

God;

to

reallyone, not distinct

of conceivingthem
:

manner

by saying that God is perfectlysimple. For

simplicity,as explained in Ontology (N ). 90),is the perfection
makes
which
a
being identical with all that is in it;
this is meant

implies a
composition,the opposite of simplicity,
of parts.
the parts
Composition is real when

while

distinct from
it
itself;

is

between

our

is

of God's

form

; in

we

cannot

take

His

essence,

learn

in

observe

in His

prototype

attributes of God,
show

to

now

are

they

are

the

but

in

of God

so, and

the
at

our

reality.
glance;

piecemeal from what we

have
some
perfectionsmust

it were,

as

whose

own

nature;

and

we

that

the

have

therefore

are

do

God

But

so.

which

reallydistinct

not

different aspects under

distinct

affirm

we

to

reasons

perfectionsof

distinct concepts

to our

help doing

being

we

tinctions
logicaldis-

trace

foundation

there

which

concepts

are

object
is only

pretend that

not

cannot

in all the

creatures,

do

we

true

distinction

not

various

the

fact,we

distinctions have

mental

we

between

do

we

that
perfections,

in Him

For

Now,

concepts.

compound

the

when

or
mental,
logical^

distinction

no

in fact, in the

another

one

tinction
dis-

which

we

in

we

spond
corre-

Him;

view

the

reality.

same

236. Thesis IIL

Proof. That
kind

every

He
The

is

simple.
absolutely
excludes
being is absolutely simple which
is God; therefore
such
real composition; now,

is

absolutelysimple.
be proved \ \.
minor may
must

equal

of

God

to

the

consist
whole

of finite
; but

no

In

general.Any

real

position
com-

parts, else the parts would

union

of

finitethingscan

be

make

The

infinite

an

up

of parts.

I.

Oi

Essence

II.

particular, God

In

physicalparts
in

make

(c)Of
the
2.

Of

be

accidental

and

the necessary

{b) Oi
and

finite,and

viz.
^

form

union

no

; for

of finite

can

accidental

be

in

existence

and

for existence

accident

finite and

these

tity,
quan-

is essential to

being.

substance

something

and

matter

as

parts; for nothing

metaphysical
parts
essence

up

being.

necessary

{a) Of

make

the infinite.

make

thingscan

all composition.

absurd.

would

part

integralparts

for

parts, such

substantial

each

sist
con-

have
to
being they would
quantity; but an infinite quantity

actuallyexistingis

{p) Of

excludes

not

infinite

the

infinite

up

does

He

{a) Of integralparts ;
and

159

is ; therefore

God

being,as

God.

of

the

finite

two

for the

substance

things would

accident

would

be

something

finite;

constitute

an

finite
in-

being.
{c) Oi power
all

action

{d) Of

and

perfection,and

is

and

essence

were

mere

for

Being
all

has

tially
essen-

action, since
of

power

action.

all its attributes

are

its physicalessence.
and

really distinct

finite,and

therefore

attributes

attributes

some

infinite

perfectthan

more

essential,
are
\e) Of

for the

act ;

finite

other

from

each

things would

attributes

for

other, they
make

up

genus

and

if these

would

be

infinite

an

being.
(/)

Oi

genus

and

species/for

difference would
genus
of

be finite.

nothing

creature.

is

the

Besides,God

the
is not

univocally predicatedof

(No. 16.)

specific

Him

in any

and

Natural

i6o

(^ )

Theology,

Of

is

God

for

speciesand individual ;
whatever
He
is,and therefore

His

very

flow

from

essentially

individuality

is essential to Him.
Some

That

God

I.

or

corollaries

important

237.

power

is

as

distinct from

substantial act,

further

3. That
once

the nature

learn

we

in

Persons
individual

same

God,

the Persons

as

is the

all

that
there

can

and

of God

God

; and

therefore

thingsGod, is an absurdity.
and therefore that,
divisible;

know
nor

pure

that there

we

nature

the nature

between

yet He

Revelation

by

b.

part of

is not

of God

act without

potentiality
action or
from
the receptionof
infinite act, embracing all the
That
matter, which is essentially

perfection,one
objectsof His activity. 2.
be
God
cannot
nor
potential,
that Pantheism, which makes
any

this thesis:

the

three

are

they
be

really

real

distinction

Persons,but only between

such, so that the Father

same
being as the Son.

is not

the

238. Objections: i. Holy Writ attributes hands

all which supposes
to God, as also passions,
Answer.

in
of

2.

Son,

and

and

feet

an

ism.
organ-

Writ

usuallypresents God to us
figurativelanguage wisely adapted to our manner
with our
understanding,viz.,in connection
nation.
imagi-

Pantheists
all

finite

must

be

Holy

that

argue

that

be conceived

3. But

for

from

if God
these

therefore

part of God

and

another

infinite substance

an

substances, and
between

to

the

have

must

tinct
dis-

of
as

the
has

are

the

Ansutfer.
existence

bodies

which

whatever
There

of the

finite substances

excludes

is

exists
no

tradiction
con-

infinite substance
these

are

naturallyexclude

not
one

place they occupy.

all

entity.He

entities.

entity eminently,but

contains

all creatures,

Answer.

God

contains

the

formal

entities

not

all
that

The

the

constitute
various

that

making

is

Pantheism
in

proved

the

we

each
With

of

us

such

obligation,
human

responsible

not

are

God,

is

and

society.

fully
doctrine

there

implicitly

pantheistic,
being.

men

certainly

we

to

justified
there
would

is

if

for

do

can

no

doing
an

soon

he

as

end

to

be

an

as

is

also

are

we

wrong,

and

Judge

supreme
in

it

but

Costtiology^

among

Now,

absurd,

metaphysically
of

here

remark

to

necessary

chapter

morality
of

parts

one

i6i

proper

are

only

not

of

or

the

first

destrucdve

God,

theories

world

the

is

It

creatures.

modern

God,

of

Essence

Lord;

pleases.
moral

all
end

to

III.

CHAPTER
THE

We

239.

have

stated

is generallyheld
which

ATTRIBUTES

QUIESCENT

be

to

metaphysical

the

knowledge,
other

/. ^.,

quasi-essence

"

perfectionsdiscerned

that

attributes

These

do

from

are

in
and

do

that

Proof
or

I.

IV.

not

not

will such

that

of God

not

were

every

If there

various

infinite

in its

the

but

all the
manner

created

being.

for convenience'

may,
"

action.

class,and

shall

we

the

sider
con-

eternity,

God.

of

be

can

were

than

gods

more

God,

only one

they

one,

opposite effects; if they

independent, not

effects,
they could

2.

Proof
be

is

flow, after

unity,the immutabiUty,

free and

be

which

of

tial
par-

its essence,

from

of

forms

put order

to

as

formallyregard

contradictorywills,
they
being

concept,

essence

of the former

will

not

by

one

note

heads

God

namely. His quiescent

formally regard action, and His

There

If there

could

they would
could

treat

immensity
Thesis

240.

to

particularthe

the

could

now

God

two

which
operativeattributes,
We

in

the

classified under

those
attributes,

the

attributes

perfectionsor

sake, be

as

of

mind, incapable

designate self-existence

we

self-existence

essence

strives

perfectionsand

of His

GOD.

our

we

concepts

that

(No. 231)

above

that when
simply mean
understandingthe infinite being by

only

OF

could

way

be

infinite is

gods

more

beings ;

not

but
162

this

could

not,

infinite ; if

give efficacyto

not

either

they
their

all-powerful. But
not

than
cannot

God.
one,

be.

there

would

For, being

Quiescent Attributes

The

such
infinite,

gods
the

everythingthat
would

then

differ

not

the

would

reallyseparatedin

is

of
individuality

the first.

real distinction

between

Therefore

Objections: i.
well

prove

as

God.

Answer.

is

in God
the three
2.

therefore

would

also

have; they

But

they

numerically; for this would

suppose
their
would be reallydistinct from

essence

241.

and
perfections,

numerically.

differ except

not

163

the other

had

one

all

have

God,

of

The

But
the

arguments

that

there

They

of nations

3. One

gods

as

the

cause

God

can

is in

down

would
in

Person

one

the

world.

anything,and

it is not

one

will

does

not

and,
not

unworthy

considered

owe

to

the

for the

account

The
as

of

Being, the

supreme

Answer.

evil ;

it ; for He

time in favor

one

nations

subjectsof

of the moral
cause

at

was

only God.
infinitely
perfect God

evil that

but

be

Most

polytheism. Answer.
one

God.

divine Persons.

consent

so-called

dividua
in-

only this,that everything

Being, and such are really

prove

individual

one

is no

His

and

just laid

can

the

from

that there

God

only one

The

since

essence,

god

seen

of

essence

is

there

have

we

that their individua

second

the

could

is

creature

physicalevil,
His

of Himself

creatures
to

give

fering,
happiness of mixed enjoyment and suftheir sufferings
turn
can
especiallysince men
of the brute animal,
As for the sufferings
into merit.
they are far less than we often imagine. (See Dublin
them

Ethics of Animal
ing,"
SufferJan., 1888, "The
Vaughan.)
But an infinitely
perfectGod could not create a being
This
solutely
abwe
capable of doing moral evil. Answer.
deny : in givingus a free will God gives us
a very
good thing,and He does so for a very good

Review,

4.

finite

Natural

164

that

purpose,

ourselves

we

Theology,

may

with it and

Him

honor

benefit

how
to
gift,He knows
draw
good out of evil,exercisingHis mercy in pardoning
and
His justicein punishing.
Among the civilized nations the unity of God is now
242.
universally
recognized. In ancient times,though the worship
of many
it
the masses,
gods was a wide-spread error
among
found
httle favor with the philosophers,
except in the form
of dualism, which
supposed two necessary
beings,the one
all good and
the other
all evil. In the
beginning of the

Christian

Persians,and

adopted

made

Historical

abandoned.
of

with

the

and

borrowed

it

absurd

same

century

His

abuse

popular in
Manichaeans, and

the
the

we

Gnostics

the

era

Afterwards

if

erratic Pierre

the

by

theory.

Critical

that

It

on

the

revived

was

Bayle, the

Dictionary^ but

from

the

parts of Europe.

several
later

error

it is

now

Albigenses,
in the sixteenth
of the

author

universally

culty
the diffitheory was
good God
reconcilingthe existence of one infinitely
of evil in this world.
They imagined,
presence
The

only ground

for

the

being,which they
have
been
supposed could not
produced by a good cause,
therefore they considered
and
it as self-existent. Bayle conjectured
that the good and
the bad
a
principleshad made
therefore,that

compact

to

difficult to
all

evil

blend

proceeded

their works

imagine a

evil would

have

more
no

from

an

with

each

evil

other.

It would

For
unphilosophicerror.
perfection,and therefore no

be

being
entity

be driven
pact
comto make
a
being that would
with the evil principle
would
be either wicked
or
weak,
of the
This is one
certainlynot the infinitely
good God.
the
examples which
history of philosophy affords,
many
will often refuse
self-conceited theorizers
showing us how
truths
well-established
to accept some
owing to some
parent
apdifficulties,
and, rather than
modestly acknowledge
at

all ; and

Natural

66

Further

difficultieson

on,

in connection

were

considered
245.

with

VI.

this

will be

point

the

libertyof God
treatingof human

when

Thesis

Theology.

God

further

answered

(No. 256);

others

liberty(No. 199).

is eternal.

Proof. Eternity,as beautifullydefined by the Christian

philosopherBoethius, is the simultaneouslyfull and perfect
end"
possessionof a life that has neither beginning nor
"

"

Interminabilis

viice tota simul

possessionbelongs to
{a) Since God
being. His
because

God.

is

such

perfectapossessiojnow,

et

For,

and
self-existent,

therefore

necessary

life is without
is

He

beginning and without end;

His life
immutable, He must
possess

in all its fulness; and

He
because
simultaneously
it perfectly.
infinitely
perfect,He must
possess
{b) Since God is absolutelysimple, there is in Him
real distinction between
and

act

one

another;

substantial
His

life,not

as

broken

and

His full

essence,

without

and

pure

not

impliesan
course,

of

measure

He

His

because

but

taneously;
simul-

is His

of life is without

enjoyment

of

fulness

moments,
existence

and

pure

the

possesses

into

up

All

realitymust

very

beginning

be

in

pure,

but

successions

for

God;
Answer.

time

but

Every

formally; but
for time is the
mixed
reality,
in finite beings ; as
such it

imperfectionor

cannot

God;

between

nor

is,therefore,one

reality;therefore it is in God.
perfectionor reahty is in God

time is

in

act,

no

end.

246. Objections; i.
is

He

; therefore

act

and

power

is

be in God.

limit of existence
Time

which,

of

is,however, eminently
all the

eternitycontains

perfectionof

time.
2.

Eternity,as
would

seem

explained in
to

be

full at

the

proof

each

of

moment;

this thesis,
but

we

The

Quiescent Attributes

co-exist with
co-exist

with

God,

who

For

we

moments

cannot

but

Eternitymay

said

be

each

yet

it is not

that

divisible

into

with

each

does

moment

God.
each

moments.

moment,

co-exist

not

we

with

the

co-exist

to

co-exist

eternityof
eternity is full at

that

say

We

with

167

therefore

Answer,

eternity.

is eternal,
but not

moment,

and

of those

some

God,

of

with

all

eternity.
Thesis

247.

VII.

Explanation,
His

means

in

; His

immensity

outside of Him.

space

implying

of Him

unless

is

it had

such

to

there

creatures,

exist

it is

"

God

of

eternityin respect
is and

He

no

and

God

other

2d

have

present
there

existence.
for

"

it is

God

is unbounded.

limits

of

if He

kind,

some

Proof
were

2.

not

is extended
it is with

But

it is with

as

space

But

and

He

nothing can
nothing, and

Therefore

Part,

be infinite.

as

His

entire wherever

is.

effect.

trulyinfinite.
create

in

being, and

; for whatever

to

of

immensity should

is whole

He

His

omnipresent. Proof. All

God
that
than
gives

reason

is not, since
any

He

is

them

keeps
is not

He

time

whenever

1st Part,

for

in respect

to

relative

possible

or

God,
be
predicated
perfection
; but

cannot

God's

3.

imagined as something extended

has quantityand therefore cannot
immensity

real

no

perfectionof

be

the

is

essential existence

Besides, the omnipresence

beginning.

no

His

means

2.

absolute

an

limit.

that

creatures

immensity

without

so

relation

is omnipresentand

omnipresence or ubiquity of God

all existingthings,and
therefore in

limit of space,

without

His

The

i.

presence

all real space

as

God

He

confined

existence
act

where
it

where

cause

nothing cannot
duce
prois present in everything.

God

Proof
and

Else

i.

therefore

would
to

them

cannot

be

exist

creatures

any

not

be

space;

He

would

would
not

be

all-powerfulto
but

He

is all-

Natural

68

therefore

powerful,

is

could

He

space,

confined

not

evident;

not

if

for

to

He

beyond

create

it

where

act

cannot

is

He

proposition

major

Theology.

is

not

any

confined

were

that
He

to

since

space,

therefore

The

space.

would

any

being

all-

be

not

powerful.
There

248.
I.

His

His

By

power,
and

the
It

said

to

or

i.

"f.,

by

be
his

in

and

when

confined

that

making

kingdom
reviews

he

to

the

in

his
but

knowing

compass

known

is
of

be

may
to

power,

it.

to

king

he

By

ence
exist-

it

presence,

2.

giving

thus,

by

creature

creature.

Himself

them,
narrow

that

His

creatures;

his

is

creature,

By

3.

cases

with

throughout

substantially

has.

some

different

troops

in

God
in

existing

by

working
it

which

in

ways
"?.,

everything

very
to

i.

essence^

creature

is

three

are

be

ent
pres-

essentially
his

body.

IV.

CHAPTER
ATTRIBUTES

OPERATIVE

THE

The

operative
imply action; they are
249.

attributes
His

GOD.

OF

God

of

which

those

are

will, and

knowledge^ His

His

power.
I.

Article

but

is

God

Since

250.

made

identical

the

one

be

be

may

i.

His

essence,

knowledge
all that is

His

future.

would

scientia

comprises His

knowledge

of actual

and

the assertioai "If

have
not

assumed
know

the

whether

one

or

been

not

is either

VIIL

God

knows
i6p

; it is

all

styled

For

true

slain,he
or

the other ; but

"

all that

positionbetween

propositions, God alone knows."

by His conditional knowledge.

251. Thesis

regards

possiblebeings.

had

royalpurple "

all such
mean

middle
of

Caesar

past, present,

circumstances

that

it is the

be

in itself and

essence

knowledge

any

it holds

media, because

own

in creatures, whether

under

do

may

of

intelligence embraces
His
2.
possiblecreatures.

in

conditional

His

edge
knowl-

classes

knowable

are

ideas,

act, which

three

to

jectively
sub-

of pure

imitable

actualized
3.

creature

things that

knowledge

of vision

ever

substantial

Objectivelyconsidered. His
all

as

knowledge,
of different

up

distinguishedaccording

divided:
own

with

essence.

objects,into which

God.

of

absolutelysimple, His
be

constitutes His

any

Knowledge

considered, cannot
must

or

The

This

false ;
we

the
stance,
in-

would
we

do

say about
is what

things possibleand

we

all

Natural

170

thingsactual,whether
that any freecreature
know

that

judgment;

the

assertion

perfect,He
infinitely

it.

know

For

instance,

slain,he

been

not

must

judgment that may

the contradictory
of

in

or

must

had

Caesar

If

all

even

case.
give?i

any

matters

God

and

futurej

or

is truth in any

therefore
"

is

God

of these

any

on

do, in

would

all truth; but there

be formed

have

past^ present,
Since

Direct.

Proof 1,

Theology,

would

royal purple'"' is true, or its contradictory

all truth must
be known
by an infinitely
perfect
the

assumed

is true; now,

being.
Proof
He

could

He

might

free

not

His

govern

man

things,

infallible wisdom;

with

by

unawares

thus

would

He

angel;

or

all these

know

not

creatures

disappointed,taken

be

of

act

did

If God

Indirect.

2.

unexpected

an

infinite in

be

not

wisdom.
252.

Objections:
would

choose
He

as

to

i.

that will must

will which

with

will,nor
in

choose,

not

because

we

That

given
would

which

so

and
has

a
no

act

in

is

not

so

being

conditional

way

We

fixed way

with

our

of

our

knowledge
what

we

would

choose, but
we

its

to

would,

only
is

an

truth.

knowable

Answer,

the

; for that

choose

intimately
given case ;

certain

knows

mtist

so

cause
be-

Answer.

free.

not

be

must

choice, owing

that

He
we

in

choose

conditional

case.

because

knowledge, but
have no
being.

cannot
acts

They

have

be
never
no

object of
happening
but
physical,

an

logicalbeing; for judgments can be formed

them, and those judgments have truth or falsity.

they have
about

that

God's

objectivetruth
2.

must

reallyfree; but

is not

it
will

of that

it is

person'swill

any

given case,

make

therefore

nature;

grant that

choice

that will must

what

therefore
very

in

the nature

knows

see

do

to

what

knows

If God

Operative Attributes

The

God

3. What

and

will

knows

it

therefore

of

happen

171

necessarily
happen,

must

be

cannot

God.

free

Answer,

act.

has
two
'necessarily'
meanings: it Avill
/. ^., infallibly,
happen, for what is future
necessarily,
is infallibly
future,justas what is past is infalHbly
past;
The

word

but it will

i. "?., without
happen necessarily,

not

dom
free-

free when
we
just as our past acts were
does
not
: knowledge
destroy liberty.
God's
explanation given makes
knowledge

them
The

4.

what

we

cannot

God's

dependent on our choice ; but God

in any way
Answer.
depend on any creature.
pendent
knowledge, subjectivelyconsidered, is indeknowing

of

from

does

receive

not

known,

it argues

and

of

knowledge

is consequent
The

word,

be

our

our

supposes

the

God

object

that

free acts

His
and

acts.

attribute of wisdom

ranked

imperfectionin

free acts

our
on

no

His

but, objectively

creatures;

considered,knowledge necessarily
supposes

253.

of

do

would

of all creatures, for He

power

did

may,

in

one

sense

of

the

with that of Divine

knowledge ; for wisdom

the knowledge of things in their highestcauses.
often means
is properly
Thus
considered, all the knowledge of God
wisdom
knows
all thingsas they stand
denominated
; for He
related to their highest causes.
In another
and
usual
more
St. Thomas
wisdom
as
fullyexplains{Contra Gentes, c. i.),
sense,
the
comprises both knowledge and action,and means
direction
of things to their highest ends.
As such,
proper
is manifested
God's wisdom
by the effects of His providence,
of which

we

shall

treat

in connection

with

His

power.

( No.

266.)
Article

254.

The

will of God

occasionallyinto

II.

The

Will

is not, like

acts, but

it is

one

of

ours,
act

God.
a

power

loving

and

passing
willing

Natural

172

all that is necessary,

Theology,

His
viz.,

own

and

essence,

determining

freelywhat contingent things shall be, and what

for the free choice of
not be, allowing meanwhile

others

shall

His

gent
intelli-

will

to

creatures.

God's love of creatures

nothing else

His

than

conditional,His

will is often

This

happiness.

is

stow
be-

actual

being made
dependent on the free
sires
He
earnestlydecreatures, whom
acceptance of intelligent
free
to
to make
happy. His will viewed as antecedent
will ; viewed
as
taking
acceptance is called His antecedent
conferringof

into

benefits

the

account

acceptance

styledHis consequent will.

is

the

but
the

because

conditions.

aspects

as

255. "I.
two

whether

implied

always

with

required

the

will of God

the

cious;
effica-

inefficacious,

remain

comply

it

under

three

free^as holy^and as good.

tween
Freedom, or liberty,is the power of choosing beof
or
more
choosing
things: {a) The
power
diction,
thing shall be or not be is called libertyof contraThe

good

as

to

shall consider

We

{p)
such

refuses

creature

latter is

The

will may

antecedent

of free creatures,

refusal

or

in

between

contraries,

two

evil,is liberty of contrariety;

and

the

of choice

power

power

of

choosing evil,and,

defect is

of course,

it is

{c)The power of choice between one thing and

another
not
contradictoryis the libertyof specification
; we
attribute to God
libertyin all its perfection.
God is free in all His external acts.
256. Thesis IX.

not

in God.

all His acts in

Explanation, By external acts we mean
regard to creatures ; and we maintain that God from eternity,
or
by a singleact of His will,determines affirmatively
tively
negaall possiblequestionsconcerning all possiblecreatures,
so,

however,

creatures.

but

as

to

as

His
its term

not

to

act

of

interfere with

the free

determiningis

/. ^., He

must

not

free

determine

acts

of

His free

to

its entity,

every

question,

as

Natural

174

or

Theology.

motives
design would suppose that He has learned new
for deciding,or
that He
changed His mind without
is far above
reason.
our
Besides,though the matter
there is but one
in God;
act
grasp to explain fully,
hence
no
change is possible,and still that act is
free with regard to creatures.
the love of what is right
258. Holiness, or sanctity,means
morallygood, and the hatred of what is wrong or morally

evil;viewed
immutable
in

attribute of

an

as

God

will of
a

Thesis

259.

Proof.

X.

Goodness

it is infinite in

act

in

it may

God.

Goodness,

i.

in the moral

sense

of

with

it is then synonymous

as

sanctity
;

infinitely
perfectBeing. 3.
relative sense, and signifies
an
sense

then
; it is

it is infinite

His

fection,
per-

often
as

an

it is clear that God

infinite

called

being,

Goodness
the law

it must

Goodness
earnest

is
transcendental.,

conformityto

the

happy

defined,the

conformitywith

being,viewed as desirable;in this sense

He
is
is infinitely
as
good, inasmuch
infinite objectof desire.
therefore an
2.
taken

be

Perfect
worthy of Himself.
sanctityis
to the infinitely
perfectBeing.
God is infiniiely
good.
has various meanings, in each of which

manner

evidentlyessential
*

to

God,

be

is often
will to

may

of God

be

of reason;

perfectin
taken

make

bountyor beneficence.

attribute

and

in

others
In

; for it has

this
been

priori that the self-existent Being is infinitely

fect.
perHis bounty, however, is not infinite in its manifestations
for all the works of God
be finite in finite
must
or
effects,
that God
Therefore we cannot
creatures.
prove a posteriori
bountiful.
is infinitely
260. Objections
: i. If God
possessedinfinite moral goodness,
manifest
would
His hatred
of sin by not
He
God, indeed,detests
allowingsin to exist. Answer.
and forbids it absolutely;
but there are
sin infinitely

proved

OperativeAttributes

The

two

in which

ways

hatred

God.

of

of sin

175

manifest

can

viz.,
by preventingits existence,and, without
it, by repairingthe
God

of the

made

F.

compensation.

He

of infinite merit

for the

(Nos. 115, 118.) (See on this matter

againstCreation," by Rev. R.
ScepticalDifficulty

sins of
A

full

ing
prevent-

punishes some
punishment, and He has

atonement

an

with

latter way;

endless

guilty with

Himself

"

the

chooses

often

evil

itself,

men.

Catholic

Clarke, S.J.,American

Quarterly Review,

April,1887.)
2.

If God

would

bountiful,He
infinitely

were

make

all

would
He
seriously
happy. Answer,
make
them
wish all to be happy, we
grant ; He would
happy againsttheir will,we deny. The manifestation

His

creatures

of His
to

determine,

determination

Thesis

XL

God

is

limit,which
he

so

it is for Him

chooses, in the

free will.

The

III.

place, if

to

or

of man's

Article

261.

have

goodness must

Power

God.

of

omnipotent.

Proof, Omnipotence is infinite power ; now, power is a

something which it is better to have than not to
perfection,
fore
have, and the self-existent Being has all perfections
; thereis omnipotent.
He
262.

God

Objections: i.

can

do

He

cannot

do

constitute
all

possiblethings
infinite number

an

things.

Answer.

He

all things; but

is not
anythingself-contradictory
fact that all possible
thingscannot be

trulya thing.The
actualized togetheris
power,

all

create

they would

because
together,
; therefore

cannot

but

for these

to

cannot

not

necessary
co-exist

owing
limit
without

to

any

in

limit in God's

all finite

making

things,number.

Natural

176
and

Theology.

infinite number

an

is
things actuallyexisting

of

absurd.
God

2.

create

cannot

and
circle,

Thesis

at every

moment

the

laws

; but

exist,if God

to

cease

once

Proof. The
be
by itself,

the

contain

must

contain

act

giving it

then

And

no

not

itself
the

againstthe action
created being would

any

Therefore

there

in

virtue of another

and

and

existence

to

virtue of

an

dependent,

will of God.

is

which

This

may

maker
not

it is made.
power

no

continued
made

out

to

of

of

If

no

permanence,

material

exist from
influence

nothing
be

else

illustrated
article
of the

terial
ma-

used,there

were

except

cause

of action.

power

continue

could

another, except in

contingent nor
power

must

cause

being. If this other cause

contingent,it,too, will be unable to

just then, except

to

another

of that

or

and

existence j for the cause

present existence does not

the

contingent being

of which
be

will

actuallyto

moment

protect

or

that the strength of a manufactured

by reflecting
depends on the strength,or power of permanence,

could

of its future

permanence

exist and

moment

for

figureof

the

effect,and

be itself unnecessary

than

ceased

cause

the

exist for the

one

creatures

need

God

that

mean

that all and

the future existence.

thus

it is

would
body of water
exist if the vessel holding it were
to
destroyed.
present existence of a contingentbeing cannot,

its existence,just as
at

that

of created beingsrequires
preservation
active influence
of God's power and will.

do not
Explanation. We
against other
every creature

cease

fact

the very

to

The

XII.

of the natural

essential

the roundness

by

dictions
contra-

perfect.
infinitely

be

cannot

creature,

263.

creature^

infinitely

an

involve

these

Both

denies

square

nor
circle,

square

Answer.

perfect being.
J for

as

far

as

give it existence; now, all creation

a
pre-existingmaterial; therefore

the

is
its

Operative Attributes

The

depends

preservation
of the

264. By

depend

be proved
reasoning it may
thingsin existence,but that He

all

act

of

totally

that

every

God

on

"

is in every

but there

act

acting; therefore the

must
depend on God.

power,

265.

God's

with

concurrence

in the least interfere with

not

that
one

He

another,

or

way

and

is man's

God's,

the

water,

but

efforts of man,

by

proceed trulyfrom
directs

thingsto
XIII.

Thesis

He

propelled and

by

of

God

the

the very

it in

with

The
:

directed

of the water

as

is

boat

the

actions

of God.

wisdom

whereby

their proper

ends.

Every

in the world

is directed

of

sense;

event

acting

trulyby

concurrence

is the

fact

free act

human

so

does

creature

difference

but with

man,

of

concurs

with

means

Providence

The

free act

free will chooses.

but

entity;

is

its liberty
; for

free

the

as

it is

supported by

266.

being

the

makes

creatur^a

beyond the mere

also,and not merely the

act

God

actually

all their

is,according to

entity which

an

that

For

creature.

every

of

power

fluence
in-

active

the

on

similar

with

concurs

moment

any

177

Creator.

only keeps

not

at

God,

of

He

by Divine

Providence.

Proof
look

and

and

God

to

up

fate,as

This

I.

all

as

dictate

the

while

nations,even

common

Controller

supreme

did, still prayed

some

to

of every

believingto
God

the

as

all

for

men

tiny,
des-

one's
extent

some

in

Dispenserof good

evil.

Proof

It is the

2.

their proper

wise, since

things to
not

is

do

ends
He

is

proper

so

therefore He

unless

by

part of wisdom

direct all

but

means;

proper

to

God

is

infinitely
perfect; therefore He
ends
Now,
by proper means.
directed

He

directs every

:
267. Objections

i.

event

All

men

every
in the
agree

event

things to
infinitely
directs all
He

in the

could

world;

world.

that

some

things

Natu7'al

178

Theology.

but accident means

the absence of
happen by accident,
All agree that thingshappen which
design. Answer.
the result of design on the part of men;
not
are
but
they do not deny that everything which happens is
willed or permitted by Almighty God.
If God
cially
speand

directlyintends

anything with regard to

dence
creature, it is said to proceed from a specialproviof God
dence
; else it is attributed to the generalproviof God, who
all the
and wills distinctly
sees

any

of the natural

consequences
2.

least

At

wicked

plots of

actions of

actions cannot
the

does

direct

the

murderers.

the worst

even

and

actual

Writ
all

God

with
of

concurrence

g.,

of the
"We

says:

things

that

He

in

know

work

He

intended

general.

that

together

not

and

can

by

increase the merit

may

good

physical

permissive will

the

ends

g.^ the

effects of such

the

God;

these to proper

even

martyrs and

Holy

and

e.

The

Answer,

men

exist except

evil-doers,e.

of His

design

proceeding from human

by the providence of God,

events

directed

not

are

the

laws.

to

unto

Therefore
that love

them

good

"

(Rom.

viii.28).
3. It

unworthy

were

No

4.

of God

mind

little

it is

swer.
things. Angood painter

unworthy of a
to mind
every detail of his painting. Besides,the most
is as nothing compared to God, and
perfectcreature
directed by Him
viewed
as
nothing is little when
to a high purpose.
do nothing.
If God rules all events, men
need and can
Answer.

regard
case,

He

more

This
to

than

to

true

were

the

actions

allows

meanwhile, how

free
to

draw

if God

ruled all events

of

; but

causes

men

to

ultimate

act

not

if,as

without
is the

freely,knowing,

good from presentevil.

The

virtue;
Answer.

It

world,

where

If

there

much

vices

of

should
the

**

Order
is
More
This

all

Denies

world.

in

the

next

manifest

His

His

said

first

and

must

rich,

all

be

more

greater

wise;

denies.
sense.''

common

The

"kd.

so

men.

among
from

the

for

in

time.

Often

grand

design

reason

why

due

His
is

alike

no

on

the

the

law,

be

hinder

there

creatures

truly

not

comes

of

part

are

heaven's

who

for

Besides,

has

is

not

atoned

be

souls.

poet

done

would

life

of

need

inequalities

treat

One

God

will

sanctifying

this

in

inequality

evils

the

which

and

sufferings

reward

and

to

there

much

so

of

which

but

God

and

men,

eternity

an

Providence,

Much

be

179

justice.

misery

it will

that

has

His

were

Answer.

of

God

crime
done

always

not

follows

only

and

goodness

is

this

but

God.

of

punish

would

Providence

wise

Attributes

Operative

and,

this

than

the

confessed.
rest.

ent,
pres-

trary,
con-

ALPHABETICAL

I. refers

to

the

Logic

Abstract, ideas, 1.

II.,to

to 124,

122

11,

opposed

13 ;
50,

Act, pure,

I. 237.

being,

Adaptation

of

II. 6,

; division, 91.

12

means

103,

216, 217, 219,

Angels,

genus,

Anselm,

to

138, 152

10.

66.

to

97.

II. 130.

Apparent conflict,of
I. 3;

139,

141

to

reason

II. 191, 192,

Causality,
Cause,

55,
and

elation,
Rev-

Aristotle, II. 48,

to

for

II.

man,

148.

21

logisms
syl-

I.

II.

48.
to, II. 85 ; principle

limits

195, 196.

materially, 76

79 ;

II.
;

74 ;

formally,

material, formal,

efficient,

81 ;

to

first, second,

properly, accidentally, principal,

instrumental, free,necessary,

physical, 83;

22.

hominem,
loi,

defined,

substantial, accidental, final,jj

Appreciation,power of, II. 167.

Apprehension, I. 9, 75 to ^^.
ad

148 ;

soul, 146

Categories,

of sciences, 68.

Argumentation,

I.

of, 86 to 88.

objections,I.

Argumentum

; necessary,

23.
16 ; II.

St., II. 118.

Appetite,

of, 14

Categorical, propositions, I.

speciesfixed, II. 155.

Answering

to 27

not

I. 144.

II. 157I. 13

possible, real,

63, 125

I. 17,

reasoning, 64

Anatomy,

I. 58.

13 ; determination

Brute, animals,

I. 16, 50 to 52 ; II.

question,

logical,physical, 11;

12;

Berkeley,

middle, I. 57.

Analytic, judgments,
to 127

God, 239.

156.

to

II. 6 ; actual,

Boscowich,

Analogy,

; of

36

46, 47.

the

possible, 17

234-

Ambiguous

131, 133.

Belief, I. 153.

II. 70.

Agnosticism, II.

143

7,8,
a

end, II. 150.

to

II.

Begging

65, 78, 79, 85.

to

I. 152

Authority,

Being,

Action, II. so, 55, 63

Aevum,

theory,II.

Beauty,
II. ^^.

cause,

etc., to the paragraphs.

II. 49,

58, 59.

Accidental

Actual,

Atomic

i, 2, 3,

Attribute, I. 13 ; II.

substance,

to

148 ;

predicables,I.

of the

one

Philosophy ;

38.

II. 176, 182 ; number,

Accident,

the Mental

INDEX.

contains

al,
mor-

effect

uniformally, eminently, virtually,

I. 54.

vocal, 84

127.

has

Certainty, I.

Atheists. II. 219, 225.

x8o

70,

reahty, 85.
71,

78,

112,

113;

Alphabetical Index,

l82

defined, 167
of

; the

certainty,169,

of, 250

267

spirits,

125 ; I. 147.

to

Evolution, II. 156

260

253 ; will of, 254

to

holiness

170.

Evil, II. 45, 241, 242,

123

criterion

ultimate

of, 258

Goodness,
Growth,

21.

20,

cause,

Exercise

reasoning, I. 69.

Existence, II. 33

of God,

of

bodies, II. 127,

Extreme

II.

etc.

220,

II. 50, 73.

Harper,

Rev.

Highest

genus,

I. 14.

Holiness, II. 258.

I. 145

Hume,

132 to 134.

II. 53, 123.

I. 10, 164; II. 123, 155,199,

Huxley,
201,

209.

Hypnotism,

II. 124.

Falsity,I. 73

Hypothesis,

I. 53.

; II. 42.
; I. 144,

of reason,

Figment

II. 14, 41, 133.

Thos.,

Fallacies, I. 56, etc.

102

of, 44.

; kinds

36, 43

I. 29.

terms,

Fichte, II.

dence
provi-

II. 140, 143.

Habiliment,

of sitions,
propopredicate, 21 ; of

Extension, of ideas, I. 16
20

263 ;

II. 80.

Exemplary
in

to

of, 266, 267.

to 210,

226.

Exemplars, II.

of, 261

of, 264, 265

concurrence

158, 208

to

goodness of, 259,

omnipotence

to 257 ;

Hypothetic, proposition,

145.

II. 7.

to

34

37 ;

21

gism,
syllo-

impossibility,II. 96.

Figure, II. 136, 140.

Final

Idea, I. 9

II. ^^ to 79.

cause,

First, fact, principle,condition, I. 98

principles,60,
of

83.

II. 199 ; 250

to 252.

II.

bodies,
matter

Formal,

and,

144,
"

see

sciences, I. 67

84

object

objects of
of

cause,

II.

83; will, in

199 ; in God,

man,

physics,
meta-

I. 81 ;
194

183

; of

God, 15, 16

; of

I. 144 ; II.

102.

12;
to

; how

being

not

infinity,
95.

I. 78, 82.

Ignorance,

Imagination,

of error,

source

180 to

119

11

Identity,II. 39, 57.

II. 3, 8, 133.

Free, will,the

acquired,
IdeaUsm,

primary,

innate, II. 178, iPo

; not

that of

206;

to

203

Matter."

II. ^^,

cause,

121

ing
19, 29 ; of liv-

syllogism,I.

singular,particular,universal,
distributed, 16

II. 35 ; cause,

Foreknowledge,
Form,

abstract, concrete,

to

I. 105 ; II.

Immanent

action, II.

Immensity

of God,

Immutability,

255.

II.

165.

65.

II. 247.

98

\ of

God,

243,

244.

Genus,

I. 13 to 15.

II.
Impenetrability,

Geology, II. iii.

Glory, II. 115, IS3-

Indirect

defined, II. 219

of, 228
227 ; essence

God,

233, 234 ;
attributes
241 ;

exists, 220

;
;

perfection of,

simplicityof, 235
of, 239

246

to

unity of,

immortality of, 243,

of, 245,

to

238

240,

nity
244 ; eter-

omnipresence,

ixnmensityof, 247, 248 ; knowledge

reasoning,

135.
I. 54.

Individuality,II. 41.
Induction, I. 44 to 48,

170.

Inertia, II. 138.

Infinite, II. 92

to

94 ; idea

of, 95 ;

perfection,253.
Inhesion, II. 58.
Inner

sense,

I. 103 to

139 to 141.

105,

able,
115 ; reli-

Alphabetical Index.
Instance, I. 54.
Instinct, II. 149
Instrumental

Matter, of syllogism, I. 19, 29; not

ble,
self-existent,II. 104 to 107; divisi-

to

152.

cause,

II,

Intellect, I. 107,

112,

126 ;

83.
148

113,

; in

action, receptive,II. 177, 182.

I. no,
128
Intellecturl,memory,

McCosh,

II. S3.

Memory,

I. 106, no;

Metaphysical,

Intuitions, I. 152.

certainty,I.

II. 30,

Invincible

error,

I. 80.

whole, 91.

Irrelevant

conclusion, I. 58.

Metaphysics,

I. 17, 18, 108

etc.,
posteriori,

17,

practical,79
125 to

127

priori,a

Method,

18, 63

tive,
specula-

Methodic

to

142

156

sense,

analytic is
consequent

sense-perception,
common

liable,
reon

of

151;

164.

to

of

of

possibles, II.
32 ; of

essences,

253;

19,

God,

20

250

;
to

II.

to 4;

term,

Mill, J.

S., II.

II.

189,

Minor, term,

184.

premise,
to

121

I. 23 to 29, 32.

125.

accidents, II. 59;

distinction,

40.
II. 130.

Monads,

truth, I. 72;

of nature,

Laws

possibiUty,18

190.

II. 119 to 125.

falsity,
73;

Liberty, II. 194

197 ; kinds

to

199 ;

of, 255

Mosaic

of,

essence

; of God,

256,

257.

good,

83;

cause,

44^, 45 ; evil,

of creation, II.

account

Motion,

II.

69,

137.

MultipUcity, II.

38.

in.

Mysticism, II. i86.

Life, 11. 139, 140.

Local
motion, II. 137.
Locke, II. 34, 53, 57.

Logic,

Nature, of
119

I. 2, 5 ; formal, material, critical,

Logical,order,
to

n\

I. 61 ; truth,

beingi H.

being,

II. 34 ; laws

of,

125.

Natural, appetite,II. 191

n;

falsity, Necessary, being,

tion,
distinc-

40 ; relation, 62 ; whole,

Lunacy,

to

theology,

4, 218.

6, 70.

73

tainty,
cer-

"5.

II. 45, 53, 130, 206, 212.

Leibnitz,

formal

I. 29.

86, 87 ; II. 123;

Language,

sence,
es-

doubt, I. 95.

Moral,

"Cognition."

see

174.

86 ;

133.

Middle

Modal

to

I. 59 to 67.

Miracle, II.

Kant, II. 71, 130,

Knowledge,

to

230, 231 ; truth, 72;

I.

object of, 8,

Judgment,

reliable, 128

II. 123, 124, 172

Mesmerism,
brutes, II. 148.

in

form, 127, etc., 144.

and

131 ; sensible, II. 166.

to

131 ; life,II. 139.

Intelligencenot

183

91.

I. 118, 145.

II.

96, 220;

cause,

83.

Negative argument,

I. 54.

Nominalists, I. 124;
Notion, 1.9.

II.

184, 185.

Major, terms,
32,

premises,

I. 23 to 29;

Notional,

etc.

Material, logic,I. 6, 70
77.

Materialism, II- 216.

; cause,

II.

essence,

Objections, answers

II, 230, 231.

to, I. 55.

Objects of, sense-perception,I. 148.

Occasion,

II. 82.

84

Alphabetical Index.

Omnipotence,

II. 261 to

Omnipresence,

moral, physical,18.

Ontological,order, I. 61

proof

of

existence, II. 226, 227.

Ontologists, II. 187, 188.

Ontology,
Operative

attributes

Opinion,

221,

94 ;

of God,

II. 239.

II.
Potentiality,

in the

II. 122,

world,

of

of,

action

102;

the world, II.

184

soul, 207

; of

; of

loi

ideas,

language, 190 ; of the

to 212.

Paleontology,II.
Pantheism,

48.

Prejudices,I. 83.
of

263.
Primary ideas,

157.

II. loi, 103. 237,

238.

; propositions,

20.

Prime

created

I. 119

Perception, I. 145
163.

to

65.

to

II. 160

148 ;

to

II.

Person, II. SS ;

Procession,

Philosophy, defined,
important,
II.

Phrenology,
evil,45

86,90,

91;

I.

11

Physiology,

123;

30,
;

reason

I.

divided,

good,

44 ;

I.
certainty,

possibility,

229, 232

laws, 119

; cause,
to

125.

I.

I. 49.

of

sense-perception,

148.
13.
II. 47.

Psychology, II.
Punishment,

of, 21, 33.

19 ; kinds

of God,

Providence

II. 266, 267.

4, 139.

II. 115, 118; eternal,215.

act, II. 237.

Purpose,
112

II. 157.

cient
suffi-

II. 74, 75-

Property, 1.
Proportion,

Pure

of

causality,86 to 88.

reasoning,

I.
Propositions,

II.

II.

whole, 91

Physics,II.

201.

beauty,46;

18 ; essence,

4.

Physical, being,

and

Proper objects

I.,85,91.
Philosophic certainty,

83.

middle, II. 35;

Probable

57.

121.

Principle,of identity,contradiction,
excluded

identityof,

II.

Principiant,II. 74.

Perfection, II. 43 ; absolute, relative,

of the world, 117, 118.
117;
I. 10, 115.

to

things,

II. 127.

matter,

Principal cause,

Passion, I. 83; II. 50, 61, 63

Phantasm,

II. 206.

harmony,

Pre-established

Premises, I. 23, 25, 29, 60.

Particular, ideas, 1. 12

74 ;

263.

Predicate, I. 19 ; extension, comprehension

Preservation

27.

of, 20.

Origin,of

to

of, I. 13.

II.

Predicaments,
I.

II. 195.

175 to

94, 253 ;

22

128.

127,

II. 261,

God,
Predicables, heads

Power

of sense,

God,

17 to 27,

Posture, II. 50, 72.

224.

Organs

of,on

dependence

I. 78.

Order, I. 61

beings, II. 6, 7, 12,

knowledge of, 19, 20,

Possible

God's

II. 4, 5.

tree, I. 15.

Positivists,II. 34.
intrinsic,extrinsic,II. 17;
Possibility,

Unity."

"

see

Porphyrian

II. 247.
II. 253.

Omniscience,
Oneness,

263.

of

work, of workman,

II.

to 115.

Pythagoras, II.

loi.

Place, II. So, 66.

Plants, II. 139, 141

to

Plato, II.

2X3.

lOI,

127,

143; 153 to 154.

Quality,
I. 30"

II. 50, 61 ; of

proposition,

Alphabetical Index.
of proposition,

II. 50, 60, 93, 94;

Quantity,

I,

166 ; judgments, 167 ;

196.
Sensitive,cognition, II. 159

20.

etc. ; appetite,

191, 192.
8 ;

7,

relation, 62

distinction,40.
effects,II. 85.

and

I. 22;

of

rules

32 ; demonstrative,

; of God,

tic,
syllogisprobable,

Sleep,

to

134. 170.
II.

Redemption,

56.

II. iii,

syllogism, I.

211,

II.

67

II.

of

127;

matter

origin

of

; formal

objects

of

a,

Substance,
II.

Sufficient reason,

of

to

141;

163

; where

Sense, outer,
151 ; inner,

crete
perceives con-

reliability,
139

effected, II. 161

to

effected, 164.
1. loi,
103,

102,

104,

Supposit,

to

II.

to

141 ;

163, 164; perception,

I.
160; objects of,
148.

Sensible, memory,

species, I. 14.
II. 77 ;

principle,

I. 106, 128;

II.

II. 86 to 88.

II. 55,
82.

Syllogism,I. 23;
abridged

form

; rules

34

to

64

of, 27

; parts

of, 31, 32

of, 29
;

I. V]\

thetical,
hypo-

37.

Synthetic,judgment,
to 66.

of,24,
affinna"
;

construction

tive, negative, 28
valid, 30

103,

common,

I. 147.

241, 267.

Suspicion, I. 78,
25 ;

138, 142
138

13 to 15.

132, 144, 145.

is reliable, 142

its

pressed,
ex-

101.

cause,

Sensation, 1. 135, 136 ;

how

impressed,
163.

genus,

Suffering,II.

objects,137;

are

II. 193.

Self-contradiction, I. 54.
Self-existence, II. 104, 220, 239.

to 147 ; limits

animals

II. 49, etc.

Substantial,

loi.

body,

15 ; Eucharistic,II.

Spirits,II. 66, 137;

Spiritism,II. 174.
Subordinate,

203 ; when

214.

to

II. 52,

Spontaneous,

simple,

69, 137.

to

of plants and

Spinoza,

is

survives

212;

Specificdifference, 1.

67.
Scotus,

13

II. 144,

body,

spiritual,
202,

II. 162,

ideas, 182.
Science, I. 5

the

206; the human,

31, 32.

the, system, of

form,

and

200,

201

of

fixed, 156, 157;

93, 94, 97, 99 ; II. 85.

Schoolmen's,

to

134;

118.

II. 39.

Sceptics, I.

204

39, 40.
form

Species, 1.

Retort, I. 54.

Sameness,

Soul, the

Space,

Relation, II. 50, 62.

of

II. 171.

I. 56.

213 ; immortal,

Reid, I. 160.

Revelation, I. 3;

169, 172.

Somnambulism,

created,

Reduplication, II. 135.

Rules

soul,

66; gives certainty, 132

to

the

238.

235 to

II. 168,

Sophisms,
priori, a teriori,
posSorites, I.
62, 63; analytic,synthetic,

49 ; indirect, 54 ;

64

90, 145 ; of

Singularideas, 1, 12; propositions,aa

I. 109.

Reasoning,

truth of,

75 to 77.

200
causes

167;

life,139.

Simplicity,II.

II. 185.

Realists, I. 124;

to

Simple apprehensions, 1.8;

Real, being, II.

Reason,

appetite,191

to

Rational, cognition,II. 175,

Reality of

185

ing,
reason-

Index,

Alphabetical

i86

T. lo,

Term,
Thomas,

i6,

St.,

118,

31,

29,

I.

91;

yniverse,

32.

II.

108,

41,

Univocal

no,

IL

50,

70,

71.

Traditionalism,
Transcen

II.

dentals,

I.

16.

the

Vegetable

II.

Holy,
II.

beauty,

Truth,

I.

to

72

Tyndall,

II.

II.

99.

74,

life, II.

237.

II.

36,

148;
44.

acts,

Voluntary,

170

of

certainty,
of

particles

Undue

assumption,

Unity,

II.

I.

matter,

I.

36;

58.

Whole,

63,

II.
II.

Will,

God,

Wisdom

ideas,

20

to

139

193.

II.

major,

I.

12,

183,
25

13,
etc.

122,
;

; cause,

224;

181,

tion,
proposiII.

84.

115.

God,

of

age

the,

192

116

II.

no;

of

70.

91.

of

World,

reflex,
I.

II.

199
of

of, 37;

kinds

241.

direct,

129,

59.
II.

sequent,

Universal,

127,

42.

127.

240,

II.

155.

criterion

to

84.

principle,

When,
Ultimate,

139,

II.

cause,

Vital,

good,

47;

^^\

induction,

30;

65.

Transubstantiation,

Trinity,

I.

48.

9.

II.

syllogism,

Virtual

II.

"World."

see

terms,

Valid,
179.

II.

action,

Transient

165

100;

127.

Time,

True,

II.

117

of

of

antecedent,

II.

is

man

purpose

198,

253.

origin
the,

con*

free,

258.

to

254

God,
100:

of

the,

loi

to

perfection

in;

of

the,

112

to

TO

INTRODUCTION

PRACTICAL

Rhetoric:
English
Precepts

Exercises.

and

Coppens, S.J.

By Rev. Charles

$1.25.

of the

Speaking
best

thing

did

I ever

"

(Discount is allowed

Rhetoric", Very

for education

was

of the

most

Rudolph

Rev.
to

Schools.)

Father

urge

SJ., said

Meyer,

that

publish

to

Coppens

"The

book."

"

in

have

We

best

our

We

The

of which

one

entire

Introduction
of

academies

departments

The

book

book, but

we

book

into

not enter

is the

who
have
on

it would
admires

of

result

given

the

rhetoric

work
that

use

loves

has

the

in

or

to

yet

and

cultivate

feel

schools

The

tical
Prac-

far

wider

higher departments
in the

themselves
where

so

of work
Fathers

as

extended

professor

in this

of

lower
course

interesting

in

book

good English.

-pvLbWshtA."Michigan

of rhetoric
It is

country.
the

From

justifiedin pronouncing

been

the

But

have

must

the

teachers

admirable

together, contain

alone,

the

plan of study." /^7o/.

Jesuit

the

useful

we

sex,

of the

thirty years

by

make
and

the

for either

of schools

taken

Schools

author,

his

universities.

colleges and

exceptional

Its

through

perfectly adapted for

for

colleges conducted

various

man

girls, and

does

in

English Rhetoric,

usefulness, being
for

of rhetoric

to

studied

English

Catholic

for

books, taken

two

use

Review.

Quarterly

well-known

to

an

unqualified praise.

already
His

to

parts

some

Catholic

of

terms

Composition."
as

in

Introduction

new

to the list of text-books

S.J., is

of rhetoric

course

sphere

only iu

Coppens,

of Oratorical

"Art

"

this

and

way"

Ahterican

another

write

with

in

text-books

popular and approved

them

every

latter.

to add

can

Charles

Rev.

is in

to the

happy

are

compared

and

result

favorable

"

some

schools

Rhetoric.

degree

taken

in

class-

library of

any

the examination

it the

best

Catholic.

English

Thk

Art

ok

ORATORICAL
COMFOSIT
Based

on

Precepts

the

Great

is

"It
sources

will

as

text-book,

is

grasp

he

find

here

exposition, with

practical under

saying

in

masters

entire

the

from

course

the
of

Coppens

United

States,
of

master

the

be

acquired

Father

Coppens'

to

yet

art

is

offered

with

the

ancients

so

he

art, but

is

practicable, lets

for themselves,

that

so

only,

to

been,

has

the
that

modems."

the

his

long trial,

Ca/Ao//c

only

not

great
World.

the

imparting

in

rostrum

the

masters
made

the

skill in

Father
.

reason

strength by
seminaries,
of

class

the
we

sacred

writers

on

full

equipment

his

of
on

knowledge

the
the

Coppens,

of oratorical

familiar, and

of Oratory in

Professor

practicalclass-book

most

pupil is

to

years,

book

invaluable

schools.

of the

school

as

Quarterly Review.

this

to

Coppens

his

proves

merits,

general

Father

modern

it is also

But

For

twenty-five

acknowledged

leading precepts
and

all the

perhaps
American

Catholic

over

after

its

has

simply

preparatory

brings

and

from
all

from

illustrations

his profession

eloquence in theology.'^" American

Father

of

he

Schools.)

circumstances.

apart

I,east

to

such

our

something

against distrust, for

of the

has

the

Coppens, S.J.

{Discount is allowed

understand

guard himself

to

it

make

which

will

teachers

clear, didactic

of

Masters.

By REV. Charles

$ 1 ,25.

Models

and

teacher.

speaker's

wherever

composition

in

their

oratory

among

own

it

speak

words,
both

the