Monique Gillett-Chambers 6B

Communication Studies
Communication- the process of relaying information from one person to another
Elements/Components of the process
Encoder/Sender

Response/Feedback

Message channel/Medium

Decoder/Receiver

Processes involved in communication

Conceptualization- thinking about what it is that will be conveyed
Encoding- putting the message in a form so it can be conveyed
Selecting the medium/channel
Transmitting of message
Decoding/Interpreting of the message
Sending feedback
Barriers to communication/Noise
Noise is anything that can prevent or hinder efficient communication. There are
two types:
Internal
External

Internal

Monique Gillett-Chambers 6B
i.

Physiological- disabilities/challenges e.g. speech impediment, hearing

ii.

impairment, visual impairment etc.

Psychological:
Prejudices/biases
Emotional state
Previous knowledge
Previous experiences
Ignorance (No message received in this instance)
Negative attitudes
Fatigue/Stress/Hunger/Thirst/Pain
Eagerness to speak
Differences in culture
External

i.

Semantic- associated with the language and structure of the language. For

example:
Poor pronunciation
Ambiguity of words/phrases/expressions
Foreign accents
Different languages
Technical jargon
Incorrect grammar
Poor punctuation
Different stress
Unfamiliar words/phrases/expressions (No message received in this
instance)

ii.

Non semantic
Noise/low volume
Distance between the communicators
Use of inappropriate medium
Technical difficulty/failure
Non-linguistic barriers

Facilitators- whatever allows communication to be easily received and sent however

facilitators can also prove to be a barrier

Monique Gillett-Chambers 6B
Components of language
1) Phonology- sound system of a language
2) Morphology- the smallest unit of language that has meaning e.g. suffixes,
prefixes, verb endings etc.
3) Syntax- logical order of the words/sentence structure
4) Lexicon- words/vocabulary
5) Semantics- meaning
Lexical semantics
Characteristics of Language
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)

Human
Verbal
Symbolic
Developmental/Maturational
Language is non-instinctive; ability is instinctive
Dynamic (language changes)
Systematic
Caribbean languages

Acrolect- The most prestigious dialect or variety of a particular language

Mesolect- Any variety of language in a creole continuum that is intermediate
between the basilect and the acrolect.
Basilect- The variety of speech that is most remote from the prestige variety,
especially in an area where creole is spoken.
Standard language- the language of prestige
Creole- a variety of language formed from contact between at least two languages
and which has become the native language of a people.
Pidgin- language formed from contact developed for a specific purpose.
Idiolect- unique way in which a language is used by an individual
Historical factors affecting the language situation in the Caribbean
1. History of colonisation
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Monique Gillett-Chambers 6B
a) Who came?
b) How long did they remain?
c) Who left last/ who colonised last?

2. History of movements of the peoples

a) Did they come directly from Europe?
b) Or did they come from other Caribbean territories?
Linguistic division of the Caribbean
1)
2)
3)
4)

Anglophone Caribbean
Francophone Caribbean
Spanish speaking Caribbean
Dutch speaking Caribbean
Factors influencing language in the Caribbean

1) Historical factors
Colonisation
Migration
2) Social factors
Social class/status
Economic status
Educational background
Social setting
3) Cultural factors
Acculturation- process of becoming adapted to a culture
Assimilation- process of becoming adapted to a culture to an extent
where one begins to lose features of their native language and adapt
the foreign language
4) Political factors
Language policy
Political decisions
Political disputes
Code mixing- phenomena in which two languages are used interchangeably in the
same communication act
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Monique Gillett-Chambers 6B
Code switching- use of two languages based on the situation
Creole Features
Phonological differences
Phonological features which make Creole different from English.
In English, not in creole
Voiceless th - thin, thick, think, thousand
This English sound is consistently rendered [t] in corresponding Jamaican
Creole words and corresponding words in other Creoles of the Caribbean.
Voiced th that, them, this
This English sound is consistently rendered [d] in corresponding Jamaican
Creole words and corresponding words in other Creoles of the Caribbean.
[o] pot, clock, form, morning
This English sound is consistently rendered [a] in corresponding Jamaican
Creole words and corresponding words in other Creoles of the Caribbean.
[aw] trauma, cough, fall
This English sound is consistently rendered [aa] in corresponding Jamaican
Creole words and corresponding words in other Creoles of the Caribbean.
[er] mother, father, water
This English sound is consistently rendered [a] in corresponding Jamaican
Creole words and corresponding words in other Creoles of the Caribbean.
[ing] in verbs coming, morning, going
This English sound is consistently rendered [in] in corresponding Jamaican
Creole words and corresponding words in other Creoles of the Caribbean.
[dl] middle, fiddle, waddle, model
This English sound is consistently rendered [gl] in corresponding Jamaican
Creole words and corresponding words in other Creoles of the Caribbean.
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Monique Gillett-Chambers 6B
[tl] little, kettle, bottle
This English sound is consistently rendered [kl] in corresponding Jamaican
Creole words and corresponding words in other Creoles of the Caribbean.
Changed sound

[er] burn, curse, dirty, turn, work

This English sound is changed in some words to [o].
[v] vex, never, devil, navel
This English sound is rendered [b] in corresponding Jamaican Creole words

and corresponding words in other Creoles of the Caribbean.

[tr] truck, trousers, trumpet
This English sound is consistently rendered [ch] in some corresponding
Jamaican Creole words and corresponding words in other Creoles of the
Caribbean.
Consonant cluster reduction

Initial [st] stick, stand, stop

This consonant cluster is reduced to [t]
Final [st] first, best, worst
This consonant cluster is reduced to [s]
Initial [sk] scatter, scrape, scrawny, skin
This consonant cluster is reduced to [k]
Omission of sounds
Final [d] sound hand, end, find
The [h] is omitted in corresponding Creole words e.g. hand, house, happen.
The [h] is added in corresponding Creole words e.g. evening, all, eye.
This omission and adding of [h] is not as widespread as the others.
Insertion of sound

[u] before a long vowel sound score, goal, gold, whole, fold, more
This English sound is consistently rendered [uo] in corresponding Jamaican
Creole words and corresponding words in other Creoles of the Caribbean.
[u] smoke, smell, smile
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Monique Gillett-Chambers 6B
[i] snake, sneakers, snow, Smith, taste
Final syllable is added to words must, gourd and such Creole expressions as
rat, gerli gerli, liki, liki, roni roni.
Reversal of sounds

[sk] desk, ask, husk

[il] film
[tifi] certificate
[io] - violence
Words pronounced differently

Cutlass kotlis
Meagre maaga
Celotex salitex
Slippery sipl
Catch kech
Shove shub
Escoveitch skobiich

Morphological differences
Morphology is concerned with the smallest units of language which convey
meaning.
The smallest units of a language which convey meanings are referred to as
morphemes.
Present tense

English has two forms of the present tense

JC represents present time with one form of the verb for all persons.

mi taak

wi taak

yu taak

unu taak

im taak

dem taak
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Monique Gillett-Chambers 6B
mieri taak

di bwai dem taak

The verb in the present is unmarked.

Past time

SE uses ed as the past time morpheme.

JC does not mark the verb for past time.
mi com fi yu
mi com fi yu yeside
JC uses other ways of marking past time.

The context is enough to indicate past time.

yu taak to im wen yu go a di yaad?
yes, mi taak tu im
Adverbs of time indicate past time.
mi tel im yeside/laas wiik/tuu mont a bak
chuusde mi go a maakit an me bai, mi si. Mi chat wid im mi waak til
mi taiyad
Marking the pluperfect

Particles (wen/ben) indicate the pluperfect.

dem wee go a maakit
Present dem kom
Past dem kom yeside
Perfect dem kom
Pluperfect dem wee kom
The continuous

SE adds ing to the verb and uses to be.

They are dancing.
JC uses the particle a and the unmarked verb.
dem a daans
The past continuous uses a past time particle
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Monique Gillett-Chambers 6B
dem en a daans
Pluralization

SE adds s to the noun

JC nouns are unmarked for number.
wan man. tuu man.
The particle dem is used after the definite article.
di man dem a plie futbaal

Words which themselves indicate number are used.

nuf mango, werl a gerl, plenti fish, huol hiip a dem
Morphological differences
The grammatical structures marked in English with morphemes are NOT
marked with morphemes in Creole because the words remain unmarked.
Syntactic differences
The syntax of a language is its sentence structure.
Questions/Interrogatives
SE (in its simplest syntactic arrangement) reverses the order of subject and
verb for interrogatives.
She is here. / Is she here?
JC uses the same syntactic structure for declarative and interrogative
sentences.
shi de ya / shi de ya?
As an oral language, intonation is sufficient for indicating interrogatives.
Negation
SJE places not before the word to be made negative (in its simplest
syntactic arrangement).
JC inserts no before verbs and adjectives to make sentences negative.
dem taiyad/priti
dem no taiyad/priti
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Monique Gillett-Chambers 6B
im skip skuul

im no skip skuul
Double negatives

English does not allow double negatives.

Creole uses double negatives.
Absence of the copula
The verb to be is an integral part of the syntax of some sentences in
English.
In corresponding Creole sentences, the copula is absent.
Insertion of the se
The word se is inserted after cognitive (thinking) verbs such as think,
believe, know.
It is a Twi word.
Serial verbs
In SE, a conjunction must separate a list of verbs.
She ran, skipped and jumped to school.
A serial verb has more than one verb in a sentence without any interruption
by a conjunction.
piita ron go tel ar (3 verbs in the series)
Predicate adjectives

The predicate in SE must have a verb.

She dances
In JC, an adjective can form the predicate of the sentence.
shi sik
mwe malad
Fronting/Front focus

JC can place different parts of the syntactic structure at the beginning for
emphasis.

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Monique Gillett-Chambers 6B
Fronting is achieved by using the particle a before the word placed at the

beginning of the sentence.

im tiif di bag
a im tiif di bag
a tiif im tiif di bag
a di bag im tiif
Reduplication

This is the repetition of parts of the syntax for emphasis.

SE uses adverbs of manner to express what JC emphasizes through
reduplication. e.g. very, extremely
Lexicon
The lexicon of a language is its set of vocabulary items/words.
English Pronoun/Adjective
SE uses different pronouns as subject, object and possessive
pronouns/adjectives.
JC uses the same pronouns for subject, object and possessive
pronouns/adjectives.
Second person pronouns
o There is no distinction between singular and plural English second person
pronouns (you).
o Creole makes a distinction between the singular second person pronoun (yu)
and the plural second person pronoun (unu/yaal/aalyu)
Pronouns (Gender)
SE makes a distinction between masculine and feminine pronouns.
JC sometimes uses the masculine pronoun for both males and females.
No gender distinction
English uses words which distinguish between males and females.
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Monique Gillett-Chambers 6B
Creole does not always use nouns which distinguish between the genders.
cow (cow and bull)
Adjectives/Adverbs

SJE makes a distinction between the form of adjectives and that of adverbs.
The dress is beautiful.
She is beautifully dressed
Her pronunciation is good. She speaks well.
JC uses the same form for adjectives and adverbs.
di frak priti
shi jres priti
a waa gud spiich
shi taak gud
Words in different grammatical categories

o
o
o
o

Some words are only used as nouns or prepositions or adjectives in English.

These nouns are used as nouns and verbs in Creole
These prepositions are used as prepositions and verbs in Creole.
These adjectives are used as adjectives and verbs in Creole
Words with different meanings

ignorant shi ignarant sa

favour im fieva im faada
disadvantage dem disadvantij di likl gyal
Words with wider meanings

han hand and arm

fut foot and leg
stomok stomach and chest
dark di pikni daak. im go haid wen wi kom
dead how di plies so ded?
Juxtaposed words/Calques

Words that SE expresses in one word

drap dong faint
yai waata/mout waata tears/saliva
fut batam/Han migl/beli batam/nek bak
Words existing only in creole
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Monique Gillett-Chambers 6B
nyam - eat
chink - bedbug
pikini - child
bunununus extremely beautiful
duotish stupid/foolish
krumoojin - selfish
butu person
African retention
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Use of paralinguistic features to convey/change meaning.

This was already demonstrated with declaratives and interrogatives
E.g. it kyaa iit. (It is edible)
it kyaa iit. (It is inedible)
Reduction of English clusters.
Unmarked verbs
Unmarked nouns
Use of particles (preverbal markers) e.g. continuous, past time markers, se
Serial verbs
Predicate adjectives
Front focusing
Reduplication
Insertion of final syllable
Insertion of se, a Twi word, after cognitive verbs.
Calques
Some Creole words are African words.
Purposes of English
Official documents
Education
Formal functions
Business
With international speakers of English
Parliament
Benefits of using creole in the classroom
Facilitates comprehension
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Monique Gillett-Chambers 6B

Identify with other creole speakers

Develop and appreciation of culture
Help improve self-concept of creole speakers
Create an environment conducive to learning English because they

feel comfortable speaking

Help students to make the distinction between English and creole

Benefits of using English

Communicate intentionally with the other speakers of other English dialect

Promote social advancement
More opportunities for advancement professionally and more job

opportunities
Educational advancement
Language register

Register

Formal

Consultative
Used in business and
speeches

Informal

Frozen
Used in
swearing in

Intimate

Characterised by terms of
endearment

Situations in which people communicate

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Casual
Typically used
amongst relatives
and friends

Monique Gillett-Chambers 6B
Intrapersonal- communication with oneself
Interpersonal- communication between persons/person-to-person e.g.
doctor and patient
Small group communication setting/group (3-10 persons)- share
interest; something in common e.g. a study group
Organizational- communication takes place based on rules and

structures e.g. business meetings, classroom setting.

Kind of communication- Vertical- communication at diff levels e.g. superior to
subordinate and Horizontal- communication amongst persons at the same
level.
Public- one main communicator and many receivers e.g. church,
speeches
Mass communication setting such as TV announcements, radio
announcements and print medium e.g. prime minister to the
nation
Educational/Academic e.g. textbooks, teacher and student,
essays
Inter-cultural/Cross cultural- communication between foreigners

Functions of language
a. Informative/communicative e.g. memo, bulletin, instruction booklets, school
textbooks, news broadcast etc.
b. Expressive e.g. diary, journal, memoir
c. Directive/cognitive- allows you to evoke responses from someone/others e.g.
inspirational speech, debate, sermon, political speech, jokes, comedy, horror
story
d. Phatic/social- used to establish/maintain relationships e.g. how are you, hi
there, good morning, hello
e. Poetic- focuses on rhythm, structure and style, used to comment
aesthetically on the world e.g. haiku, poem, play
f. Ritualistic- used in rituals and ceremonies e.g. swearing in ceremony, litany,
anthem, canticle
g. Metalinguistic- language used to comment on language e.g. critique of a poem,
reviews, essays

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Monique Gillett-Chambers 6B
Purposes of language
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.

To inform, to convey information

To express ideas, opinions, feeling emotions
To evoke a response, to persuade, to convince
To establish/maintain relationships
To entertain, to provide aesthetic pleasure
To maintain tradition, to ordain, to swear
To question linguistic phenomena

Roles of language
- Social: allows persons to make and maintain contact with each other in a no.
of ways
- Political: establishes nationalism
- Ethical
- Psychological
Types of discourse
Types of discourse
Expository

Features
Definitions, examples, facts, statistics,

Descriptive

quotations, illustrations
Adjectives, adverbs, sensory images,

Narrative

minute details
Characters, plot, suspense, setting,

Persuasive/Argumentative

dialogue, conflict, resolution

Rhetorical questions, emotive words,

Reflective

connotative words, repetition

Has features of all

Types of Speeches
1)
2)
3)
4)

Memorised- speech given from memory without aid

Manuscript
Extemporaneous-use of aids
Impromptu- speech given without prior preparations; done on the spur of the
moment
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Difference between speech and writing

Speech
Uses contractions
Uses slang/colloquial expressions
No opportunity to plan
Immediate feedback
It is ephemeral/transient
Cannot be edited
Casual register/tone
Ellipsis/fragments
Non-verbal/Communicative behaviours

Writing
Does not use contractions
Does not make use of these
Opportunity to plan
Feedback is delayed
It is permanent
Can be edited
Formal tone/register
Complete sentences
No visual; sole dependence on

aid in meaning
Pronunciation varies
Audience is within earshot

punctuation
Spelling does not usually vary
Audience is not necessarily within

Audience need not be literate

Audience is known
Repetition may be used

earshot
Audience must be literate
Audience is not usually known
Repetition is inappropriate

Types of non-verbal communication

1) Vocalic/ Para language
a) Volume
b) Pitch
c) Stress
d) Speed
e) Tone
2) Posture/Movement
a) Body language
b) Gestures
c) Eye contact
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Monique Gillett-Chambers 6B
d)
3)
4)
5)
6)

Facial expression
Objects/ Artefacts
Proxemics- use of space to communicate
Chronemics- use of time to communicate
Senses- use of senses to receive non-verbal communication

Principles of non-verbal communication

1) We constantly communicate
2) Non-verbal communication can be misinterpreted (ambiguous)
3) Non-verbal communication is well suited for communicating emotions,
feelings and attitudes.
Functions of non-verbal communication
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

Substituting function- action in place of words for e.g. nodding to mean yes
Reinforcing- non-verbal communication along with the verbal
Regulating- control e.g. police and traffic
Contradicting
Managing impression
Establishing relationships

Elements to be considered in speech preparation

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Audience
Age group
Gender
Interests
Social background
Size of the audience
Educational background
Context/Setting
Location
Occasion
Method of delivery- medium/channel
Purpose- type of speech
Length of time

Elements to be considered in speech presentation/delivery

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Monique Gillett-Chambers 6B
-

Eye contact
Voice modulation
Voice projection/volume
Posture
Attire
Body language and gestures
Facial expressions
Pronunciation
Speed of speaking
Enunciation

Research steps
1) Formulate a topic- specific
2) Formulate a hypothesis- statement whether true or false/formulate
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)

research questions
Conduct a review of literature
Select the methodology
Select or design the instrument
Select the sample
Gather data
Analyse data
Report on the findings

Types of research
1) Quantitative- gathers numerical data
2) Qualitative- gathers narrative data
3) Action- research conducted to solve a particular problem in a particular
context. Action research is not concerned with generalizability.
Population- group from which the sample will be taken from/ everyone who meet
the criteria for the research
Sampling frame- the part of the population which is accessible to the researcher
Sample- selection from the sampling frame/ group used in the research to provide
data
Subject/ element- persons or individuals from the sample
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Monique Gillett-Chambers 6B
Techniques for sampling
Random sampling
- gives everyone a chance of being selected
Quantitative research
Types
1) Survey- gathers data and analyses using a counting procedure e.g. avgs,
percentages
2) Causal-comparative- seeks to establish a cause-effect relationship between
variables
3) Experimental- seeks to establish a cause-effect relationship between and
among variables by manipulation and control of variables. They are two
groups: experimental (gets treatment) and control (does not get treatment).
Instruments

Questionnaire- hand delivered, emailed, mailed

Tests
Checklist- list of behaviours which the researcher is interested in to study

Types of questions on research instruments

- Closed- selection of answers from which the subjects will select
- Open/ open-ended- questions which require free response
Advantages of using the questionnaire
- Results can be easily quantified/analysed
- Facilitates a large sample size thus increasing the possibility of the sample
-

being representative of the population and the findings being generalisable

Research can be completed quickly
Facilitates quick distribution
Facilitates cover of a wide geographic area
Facilitates collection of data from remote, hard to reach areas
Facilitates anonymity thus encouraging honest responses

Disadvantages of using the questionnaire

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Monique Gillett-Chambers 6B
-

Low response rate thus decreasing the sample size

Researcher is not present to offer clarification
Time-consuming to design
Does not facilitate probing questions
Does not facilitate follow-up questions
Cant add/delete questions
Eliminates the illiterate
Closed questions might not include a respondents answer
Cost can be high
Cannot gather additional behaviour from non-verbal behaviours
Cannot easily develop rapport

Qualitative research
Interview instruments
- Interview schedule
- Aide memoire
Advantages of conducting an interview
-

Can receive additional data from non-verbal behaviour

Can add/delete questions on the spot
Flexibility in questions
Researcher is present to offer clarification
Easier to develop rapport
Facilitates follow-up questions
High response rate
Easy to formulate the instrument
Illiterate can be included in the sample

Disadvantages of conducting interviews

- Access to interviewees can prove challenging thus decreasing the sample
-

size
Sample size is small
Time consuming to conduct
Time consuming to analyse
Time consuming/ challenging to find mutually suitable times to conduct
interviews
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Monique Gillett-Chambers 6B
- Cost can be high
Types of interviews

Face-to-face
Telephone interview
Focus group- interview groups of people at a time

Advantages of conducting a telephone interview

-

Easier access to interviewees

Increases anonymity and can encourage participation
Cost reduced
Sample size can be large
Research can be completed in a shorter time
Able to cover a wider geographic area

Disadvantages
- No access to most non-verbal behaviours
- Potential interviewees without telephone service are automatically
eliminated from the sample
- Length of time of each interview must be eliminated
- Response rate is lower
Advantages of the focus group
- Sample size can be large
- Research can be completed in a shorter time
- More willing to participate because they are sharing similar experiences
Disadvantages
- Group control can be challenging
- Data can get lost in the recording
- Some may not share because they feel intimidated by the overpowering
personalities
- Data might be lost because some may not share because their experiences
are not similar

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Monique Gillett-Chambers 6B
Sampling techniques
- Simple random sampling
- Stratified random sampling- represent the characteristics of the population
in the sample
- Purposive/judgement sampling- expertise of the researcher is used to hand
pick the sample
- Convenience sampling/haphazard sampling selection of people available to
the researcher
Sources
Types
- Primary: original source of the information
- Secondary: second-hand sources of information
Validity- extent to which research measures what it was designed to measure
Reliability- extent to which research consistently measures what it was designed
to measure
Validity and Reliability of sources for background information
-

Is the author known in the field?

Is the author respected in the field?
Is the author an authority on the subject?
Is the information factual or opinionated?
Does the source acknowledge the sources from which it got its information?
Is the information current or outdated?
Is triangulation of sources evident?
Are the conclusions drawn logical?
Are the conclusions drawn based on the facts presented?
Is the website updated recently?
Can the website be edited by visitors?

Validity and reliability of data sources

- Is the source primary or secondary?
- Does the source have reason to be biased?
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Monique Gillett-Chambers 6B
- Are the subjects members of the population?
- Is the sample representative of the population on important
variables/characteristics?
- Is the sample size large enough to be considered representative of the
population?
Validity and reliability of mediums
-

Is the instrument/methodology suitable for collecting that type of data?

Are the questions biased?
Are the questions/statements clear?
Are the questions/statements concise?
Are the questions double-barreled?
Are the questions long/complicated and requiring too much information?
Is the instrument so long that it discourages completion?
Does the instrument included request for information not relevant to the
research?

Validity and reliability of context

-

Was
Was
Was
Was

the
the
the
the

environment free from distractions?

environment conducive to data gathering?
environment comfortable for the researcher and the subject?
time of day appropriate/convenient for the data gathering?

Listening
Students need to be aware that listening involves much more than hearing. It is
the active process by which spoken language is converted to meaning in the mind.
Therefore it requires conscious mental effort. Generally people listen:
-

Appreciatively
Discriminatingly
Pragmatically
Critically

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Monique Gillett-Chambers 6B
Unlike the reader, the listener cannot vary at will the speed of receiving the
message but like the reader, he/she can choose the message which suits a purpose.
General listening
1. Remember significant details accurately
2. Remembering the simple sequence of words and ideas
3. Following a sequence in plot development, character development and the
speakers argument
4. Understanding the denotative and connotative meanings of words
5. Understanding the meanings of words from spoken contexts
6. Listening for implications of significant details
7. Listening for implications of main ideas
8. Answering and formulating questions
9. Identifying main ideas and summarizing
10. Understanding relationships among ideas
Critical listening
1.
2.
3.
4.

Distinguishing fact from opinion

Inspecting, comparing and contrasting ideas and arriving at conclusions
Evaluating the use of fallacies
Recognizing and judging the use of various devices the speaker may use to

influence the listener such as music, loaded words and voice intonation
5. Detecting and evaluating the bias and prejudice of a speaker or of a point of
view
Reasons for listening
-

Comprehensive for e.g. listening to the news

Appreciative for e.g. listening to music etc.
Empathetic
Critical

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Monique Gillett-Chambers 6B

ALL THE BEST!

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