Sociotechnical

systems (STS) in organizational development is an approach to complex

organizational work design that recognizes the interaction between peopleand technology in workplaces.
The term also refers to the interaction between society's complex infrastructures and human behaviour. In
this sense, society itself, and most of its substructures, are complex sociotechnical systems. The term
sociotechnical systems was coined by Eric Trist, Ken Bamforth and Fred Emery, World War II era, based
on their work with workers in English coal mines at the Tavistock Institute in London.
Socio technical systems pertain to theory regarding the social aspects of people and society and technical
aspects of organizational structure and processes. Here, technical does not necessarily imply material
technology. The focus is on procedures and related knowledge, i.e. it refers to the ancient Greek
term logos. "Technical" is a term used to refer to structure and a broader sense of technicalities.
Sociotechnical refers to the interrelatedness of social and technical aspects of an organization or
the society as a whole.[2] Sociotechnical theory therefore is about joint optimization, with a shared
emphasis on achievement of both excellence in technical performance and quality in people's work lives.
Sociotechnical theory, as distinct from sociotechnical systems, proposes a number of different ways of
achieving joint optimisation. They are usually based on designing different kinds of organisation, ones in
which the relationships between socio and technical elements lead to the emergence of productivity and
wellbeing.
The goal of a small business is to grow and make money. To do that, it is important that all
employees are on board and that their performance and behavior contribute to the
company's success. Employee behavior, however, can be affected by external
factors outside the business. Small business owners need to be aware of these factors and
to watch for changes in employee behavior that could signal trouble.

Factors in the External Environment That Influence Employee Behaviour

Organizational Culture
The overall culture of a company impacts how employees conduct themselves with coworkers, customers and suppliers. More than just a work environment, organizational culture
includes management's attitudes towards employees, company growth plans
and autonomy/empowerment given to employees. "Tone at the top" is
often used to describe the organizational culture of a company. A positive tone can help
employees be more productive and happy. A negative tone can lead to employee
dissatisfaction, absences and even theft or vandalism.

Local Economy
An employee's view of his job is impacted by the state of the local economy. If
jobs are plentiful and the economy is booming, employees are happier overall and their
behavior and performance mirror that. On the other hand, when times are tough and
unemployment is high, employees can become fearful and anxious about holding their job.

This anxiety leads to lower performance and lapses in judgement. In some employees,
however, fear of job loss can be a motivating factor to perform better.

Reputation of Company in Community

Employees' perceptions of how their company is viewed by the local community
can impact behavior. If an employee is aware that her company is considered to be
underhanded or cheap, her actions may also be that way. It is a case of living up to
expectations. However, if a company is seen as a pillar of the community with lots of
goodwill, employees are more likely to exhibit similar behavior because customers and
suppliers expect that from them.

Competition in Industry
The degree of competitiveness in an industry can impact the ethics of both management
and employees, especially in situations where compensation is based on revenues. In a
highly competitive environment, ethical behavior towards customers and suppliers may slip
downward as employees scramble to bring in more work. In a stable industry where
attracting new customers is not an issue, employees are not motivated to lay their internal
ethics aside to chase money.

Perception
Perception Definition: A perception is a belief held by a person, or many people, based upon how
they see the world around them. The process of selecting, organising and interpreting information in
order to make sense of the world around us. The dynamic and complex way in which individuals
select information (stimuli) from the environment, interpret and translate it so that a meaning is
assigned which will result in a pattern of behavior or thought.

Perception in Organisations
Often the main aspects of perception in an organisation is how an individual views others, as this
can be a major point in how that person will behave within the business. It is also a aspect of how an
individual is motivated within an organisation. If they preserve people in a certain way than they may
believe they are disliked, not listened to or ignored by this person and therefore their motivation to do
anything will be far smaller. This is why in organisations there needs to be a way of making sure
employees fit before being hired and then when they are hired their first perceptions of others need
to be good.
To achieve a good first impression companies will often introduce new employees and current
employees in ways which show off key skills, highlight the importance of these people to the team,
so that perceptions are built around positives instead of negatives. The perceptual process is how
organisations cope with the aforementioned.

Perception Process
1.

Receiving Stimuli Picking up all external and internal factors.

2.

Selecting Stimuli Selecting the stimuli which will be most important This is where the
introduction of new employees is important, they need to be presented in a way where the
selected stimuli are positive.

3.

Organising Grouping and selecting which are the perceptions to keep.

4.

Interpreting Fundamental Attribution Error, stereotyping, Halo Effect and projection.

5.

Response The perception is then turned into attitudes, motivation, feelings and beliefs,
which will change the behaviours of the individuals.

Attitudes are all around us and indeed impact our behavior. There are three main aspects of
attitudes at work, and in this lesson, we will focus on those and help you to develop an
understanding of their place in the work environment.
What Are Attitudes?

Anyone who has ever had a 2-year old fully understands the 'terrible twos' and the attitude a 2-year
old can give you. While that person might be pint-sized, his attitude during the terrible twos can be
over ten feet tall and bulletproof.
Now, not all attitudes are as intense as our little 2-year old, but they are indeed present in every
person, and they are part of who we are. Our attitudes are shaped by our experiences, and as we
experience more, our attitudes can change. You see, attitudes are a way of thinking, and they shape
how we relate to the world both in work and outside of work. Taking this a step further, attitudes have
several different components, and those are cognitive, affective and behavioral.
Components of Attitudes

Before we can discuss how attitudes impact the workplace, we need to understand the components
of attitudes. Those components are:

Cognitive: This represents our thoughts, beliefs and ideas about something. Typically these
come to light in generalities or stereotypes, such as 'all teenagers are lazy,' or 'all babies are
cute.'

Affective: This component deals with feelings or emotions that are brought to the surface
about something, such as fear or hate. Using our above example, someone might have the
attitude that they hate teenagers because they are lazy or that they love all babies because
they are cute.

Conative: This can also be called the behavioral component and centers on individuals
acting a certain way towards something, such as 'we better keep those lazy teenagers out of
the library,' or 'I cannot wait to kiss that baby.'

Each one of these components is very different from the other, and they can build upon one another
to form our attitudes and, therefore, affect how we relate to the world. For example, we can believe
teenagers are lazy (cognitive), we do not have to hate the teenagers for being lazy (affective), but we
could still try to keep them out of the library because of that fact (conative). Or, we could indeed
believe they are all lazy (cognitive), hate them for it (affective) and that would drive our behavior
towards them (conative).
Attitudes and the Workplace

Taking this a step further, we can assemble some ideas of how these three components can impact
the workplace. The challenge in the workplace is that now these components are tied to work
functions, policy, procedures and organizational structure, as well as the people and individuals
present in the organization.
For example, we could have thoughts or beliefs (cognitive) about managers in general, and those
thoughts or beliefs could manifest themselves in not trusting a manager (affective), and thus we
would never want to develop a close relationship with a manager (conative).
It is important to make the point here that these are attitudes - and yes, they can be wrong. Just
because we have an attitude (remember our 2-year old), that does not mean it is correct. It is just
how we feel about a person or situation. The problem, though, is if employees let attitudes like this
direct their personality at work, it can indeed stunt their ability to grow in an organization.
Obviously not every manager is trustworthy, but if we let our negative attitudes dictate how we view
and react to managers, we will never be able to see if some are indeed good people and can be
trusted. Certainly having a good relationship based on trust with your manager is a great thing to
have in the workplace
KEY POINTS

o
o

An attitude could be generally defined as a way a person responds to his or

her environment, either positively or negatively. The precise definition of attitude is
nonetheless a source of some discussion and debate.
Work environment can affect a person's attitude.
Some attitudes are a dangerous element in the workplace, one that can spread to
those closest to the employee and affect everyone's performance.
Attitudes are the confluence of an individual and external stimuli, and therefore
everyone is in a position ofresponsibility to improve them (managers, employees,
and organizations).
A strong work environment is vital for an effective and efficient workplace.

o
o

Definition & Characteristics Group cohesiveness

You are on a work project with three co-workers and aren't able to make progress because of conflict. Or
maybe you are in a therapy group for depression and feel connected to, and safe with, the other group

members. These are examples of group cohesion types that one can experience while being a member of
a group.
Group cohesiveness can be defined as a bond that pulls people toward membership in a particular
group and resists separation from that group. In addition, group cohesion generally has three
characteristics. They include the following:
Interpersonal Attraction
This means group members have a preference or want to interact with each other. Group members enjoy
this interaction and seek it out.
Group Pride
This involves group members viewing their membership to a specific group with fondness. They feel
proud of their group membership, and staying in the group feels valuable.
Commitment to the Work of the Group
Group members value the work of the group and believe in its goals. They are willing to work together to
complete tasks which are aligned with these group goals, even through adversity.

Factors
The ability of a group to be more of less cohesive is dependent on several factors. Here are some
important factors that have been found to impact group cohesiveness.
Similarity
The more similar the group members, the easier it will be for the group to become cohesive. The similarity
can be due to several factors, such as having similar values, beliefs, life circumstances, or pressing life
issues.
Example: A group of patients with depression might be more cohesive than a group with ten members
each with different mental health diagnoses.
Group Openness to New Members

When a group is open and welcoming to new members, group members more easily develop cohesion.
Often over time, group membership will change due to various life circumstances or changing individual
needs.
Example: Josh's bowling team lost Frank when he moved out of town. James joined the team in Frank's
place. The rest of the bowling team welcomed James with open arms. James felt accepted and began to
really look forward to bowling nights.
Trust
When group members feel they can trust each other, group cohesiveness is more easily developed.
Example: A veteran shares with his PTSD support group things he did in Iraq for which he feels guilty. The
other veterans in the group provide reassurance and don't judge him. The group is closer as a result.
Stage of the Group
A new group forming tends to have an initial burst in group cohesiveness because the first goal of any
group is often to form.
Example: Jaime joined a new weight loss group to help keep her weight loss on track. When Jaime and
the other new group members went to the first meeting, they started sharing their weight loss struggles.
Jaime instantly felt close to the other members and was happy she joined the group.
Past Group Experiences
When members of a new group have had previous positive group experiences, they are more easily able
to establish group cohesion. When members have had past group experiences that were unfavourable,
they will resist developing cohesion.

Social Groups
Social groups are everywhere and are a basic part of human life; everywhere you look there seems
to be groups of people! A main focus of sociology is the study of these social groups. A social
group consists of two or more people who regularly interact and share a sense of unity and common
identity. In other words, it's a group of people who see each other frequently and consider
themselves a part of the group. Except in rare cases, we all typically belong to many different types
of social groups. For example, you could be a member of a sports team, club, church group, college
class, workplace, and more.

Primary Groups
No two groups are created equal. Each typically has its own purpose, culture, norms, etc.
Sociologists differentiate between several different types of social groups. In this lesson, we'll discuss
primary groups, secondary groups, and reference groups. Primary groups are those that are closeknit. They are typically small scale, include intimate relationships, and are usually long lasting. The
members of primary groups feel a strong personal identity with the group.

The nuclear family is an example of a primary social group

nuclear family
Although the nuclear family is considered the ideal primary group by some sociologists, it is not the
only example. Many people are also a member of a group of close friends. This group is usually
small, and the relationships are still close-knit and enduring, so it is also a primary group. The term
'primary' is used with these groups because they are the primary source of relationships and
socialization. The relationships in our primary groups give us love, security, and companionship. We
also learn values and norms from our family and friends that stay with us for most, if not all, of our
lives.

Secondary Groups
Secondary groups are another type of social group. They have the opposite characteristics of
primary groups. They can be small or large and are mostly impersonal and usually short term. These
groups are typically found at work and school. An example of a secondary group is a committee
organized to plan a holiday party at work. Members of the committee meet infrequently and for only a
short period of time. Although group members may have some similar interests, the purpose of the
group is about the task instead of the relationships. Sometimes, secondary groups become pretty

informal, and the members get to know each other fairly well. Even so, their friendships exist in a
limited context; they won't necessarily remain close beyond the holiday party.

Non-Financial Motivators are Inevitable for Organizations

1. Interesting Job Responsibilities - Job responsibilities define what an employee does
every day at his/her job. This is one of the major motivational factors. A study, published in
1999 by Kenneth Kovach of George Mason University, compared associates' ranking of what
they wanted from their jobs. As per the results of this study interesting work was on the top
of the list. I have seen so many people working happily on low salary just because of the
inspiring and challenging nature of their job. If employees are working in their favorite
technologies and getting tasks as per their talent, skills and abilities they will put their 100%
efforts to accomplish it.
2. Unbiased Performance Review - Measure your team members performance
systematically without favoritism. Individual goals and targets must be realistically defined
and discussed with team at the start of the year. Performance factors e.g. Quality of work,
target achievement, productivity, dedication, innovation, discipline, dependency of members
etc. must be considered. At the end of performance evaluation all successes and failures of
team member must be discussed with him/her to make a clear picture of his performance in
his/her mind. Also consider previous years performances while evaluating current years
performance.
3. Recognition and Appreciation - Recognize the efforts of your team and use positive
adjectives to highlight their good work to keep them motivated and productive. According to
Andrew (2004), commitment of all employees is based on rewards and recognition.
Deeprose (1994) argued that the motivation of employees and their productivity can be
enhanced through providing them effective recognition which ultimately results in improved
performance
of
organizations.
4. Working Environment - Employees spend 9-10 hours in their offices daily. A healthy,
disciplined and harassment free environment keeps them motivated. Spacious cabins,
comfortable furniture, open and airy halls with proper lighting do make a difference as well. I
can share an example of one of the local companies which is enjoying low turnover rate in IT
industry despite of paying low salaries. Certainly the reason is a healthy, productive and
harassment free environment with a professional ambiance.
5. Nature of Relationship with your Employees - If you develop a stronger relationship
with your employees, they will be more motivated to work for your organization as a result.
Try to get to know your team members, their children, wedding anniversaries, hobbies and
interests, favorite restaurants and food. Informal gatherings like trips, dinners, sports galas
and team building activities must be arranged. Celebrate their birthdays as well. Listen to
and act upon employees' ideas and suggestions. In the words of Roy E. Moody, a
motivational speaker; The greatest motivational act one person can do for another is to
LISTEN.
6. Learning Opportunities - Provide employees with ample opportunities to learn new and
advanced skills. Take a genuine interest in your employees career paths and believe me, it
does wonders for an employees positive motivation. Mentoring, coaching, suggesting
additional training or coursework all of these can be helpful to employees, and of course
highly valued.
Sustainability of the motivation is very important and to sustain its high level organizations
are required to establish reliable and comprehensive systems, policies and processes in the
workplace. Long-term motivation of your employees will take you to the desired
organizational outcomes such as high level of productivity, high sales and low turnover rate.

Organization Development Interventions

Organization Development (OD) Interventions Techniques Are The Methods Created By OD
Professionals And Others. Single

Organization

Or Consultant Cannot Use All

The

Interventions. They Use These Interventions Depending Upon The Need Or Requirement. The
Most Important Interventions Are,
1.

Survey Feedback

2.

Process Consultation

3.

Sensitivity Training

4.

The Managerial Grid

5.

Goal Setting and Planning

6.

Team Building and Management by Objectives

7.

Job Enrichment, Changes in Organizational Structure and Participative Management

And Quality Circles, ISO, TQM

Survey Feedback: The Intervention Provides Data And Information To The Managers.
Information On Attitudes Of Employees About Wage Level, And Structure, Hours Of Work,
Working Conditions And Relations Are Collected And The Results Are Supplied To The Top
Executive Teams. They Analyse The Data, Find Out The Problem, Evaluate The Results And
Develop The Means To Correct The Problems Identified. The Team Are Formed With The
Employees At All Levels In The Organization Hierarchy I.E, From The Rank And File To The Top
Level.
Process Consultation : The Process Consultant Meets The Members Of The Department And
Work Teams Observes Thie Interaction, Problem Identification Skills, Solving Procedures Et.
He Feeds Back The Team Eith The Information Collected Through Observations, Coaches And
Counsels Individuals & Groups In Moulding Their Behavior.
Goal Setting And Planning : Each Division In An Organization Sets The Goals Or Formulates
The Plans For Profitability. These Goals Are Sent To The Top Management Which In Turn Sends
Them Back To The Divisions After Modification . A Set Of Organization Goals Thus Emerge
There After.
Managerial Grid: This Identifies A Range Of Management Behavior Based On The Different
Ways That How Production/Service Oriented And Employee Oriented States Interact With
Each Other. Managerial Grid Is Also Called As Instrumental Laboratory Training As It Is A
Structured Version Of Laboratory Training. It Consists Of Individual And Group Exercises With
A View To Developing Awareness Of Individual Managerial Style Interpersonal Competence
And Group Effeciveness. Thus Grid Training Is Related To The Leadership Styles. The

Managerial Grid Focuses On The Observations Of Behaviour In Exercises Specifically Related

To Work. Participants In This Training Are Encouraged And Helped To Appraise Their Own
Managerial Style.
There Are 6 Phases In Grid OD:
First Phase Is Concerned With Studying The Grid As A Theoretical Knowledge To Understand
The Human Behavior In The Organization.
Second Phase Is Concerned With Team Work Development. A Seminar Helps The Members In
Developing Each Members Perception And The Insight Into The Problems Faced By Various
Members On The Job.
Third Phase Is Inter Group Development. This Phase Aims At Developing The Relationships
Between Different Departments
Fourth Phase Is Concerned With The Creation Of A Strategic Model For The Organization
Where Chief Executives And Their Immediate Subordinates Participate In This Activity.
Fifth Phase Is Concerned With Implementation Of Strategic Model.. Planning Teams Are
Formed For Each Department To Know The Available Resources, Required Resources,
Procuring Them If Required And Implementing The Model Sixth Phase Is Concerned With The
Critical Evaluation Of The Model And Making Necessary Adjustment For Successful
Implementation.
Management By Objectives (MBO) Is A Successful Philosophy Of Management. It Replaces
The Traditional Philosophy Of Management By Domination. MBO Led To A Systematic Goal
Setting And Planning. Peter Drucker The Eminent Management Guru In 1959 Has First
Propagated The Philosophy Since Then It Has Become A Movement.
MBO Is A Process By Which Managers At Different Levels And Their Subordinates Work
Together In Identifying Goals And Establishing Objectives Consistent With Organizational
Goals And Attaining Them.
Team Building Is An Application Of Various Techniques Of Sensitivity Training To The Actual
Work Groups In Various Departments. These Work Groups Consist Of Peers And A Supervisor.
Sensitivity Training Is Called A Laboratory As It Is Conducted By Creating An Experimental
Laboratory Situation In Which Employees Are Brought Together. The Team Building Technique
And Training Is Designed To Improve The Ability Of The Employees To Work Together As
Teams.
Job Enrichment Is Currently Practiced All Over The World. It Is Based On The Assumption In
Order To Motivate Workers, Job Itself Must Provide Opportunities For Achievement,
Recognition, Responsibility, Advancement And Growth. The Basic Idea Is To Restore To Jobs

The Elements Of Interest That Were Taken Away. In A Job Enrichment Program The Worker
Decides How The Job Is Performed, Planned And Controlled And Makes More Decisions
Concerning The Entire Process.

Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is based on the premise that a physical event termed a stimulus
thatinitially does not elicit a particular response gradually acquires the capacity to elicit
thatresponse as a result of repeated pairing with a stimulus that elicits a reaction. Learning
of thistype is quite common and seems to play an important role in such reactions as strong
fears,taste aversions, some aspects of sexual behavior and even racial or ethnic prejudice.

Theories of Motivation
Overview: At a simple level, it seems obvious that people do things, such as go to work, in
order to get stuff they want and to avoid stuff they don't want.
Why exactly they want what they do and don't want what they don't is still something a
mystery. It's a black box and it hasn't been fully penetrated.
Overall, the basic perspective on motivation looks something like this:
In other words, you have certain needs or wants (these terms will be used interchangeably),
and this causes you to do certain things (behavior), which satisfy those needs (satisfaction),
and this can then change which needs/wants are primary (either intensifying certain ones, or
allowing you to move on to other ones).
A variation on this model, particularly appropriate from an experimenter's or manager's
point of view, would be to add a box labeled "reward" between "behavior" and "satisfaction".
So that subjects (or employees), who have certain needs do certain things (behavior), which
then get them rewards set up by the experimenter or manager (such as raises or bonuses),
which satisfy the needs, and so on.
Classifying Needs
People seem to have different wants. This is fortunate, because in markets this creates the
very desirable situation where, because you value stuff that I have but you don't, and I value
stuff that you have that I don't, we can trade in such a way that we are both happier as a
result.

But it also means we need to try to get a handle on the whole variety of needs and who has
them in order to begin to understand how to design organizations that maximize
productivity.

Part of what a theory of motivation tries to do is explaining and predicts who has which
wants. This turns out to be exceedingly difficult.
Many theories posit a hierarchy of needs, in which the needs at the bottom are the most
urgent and need to be satisfied before attention can be paid to the others. Maslow's
hierarchy of need categories is the most famous example:
self-actualization
esteem
belongingness
safety
physiological
Specific examples of these types are given below, in both the work and home context.
(Some of the instances, like "education" are actually satisfiers of the need.)
Need Home Job
self-actualization:

education, religion, hobbies, personal growth

training,

advancement, growth, creativity

esteem

approval of family, friends, community

recognition,

high

status,

responsibilities
belongingness

family, friends, clubs teams, depts, coworkers, clients, supervisors,

subordinates
safety freedom from war, poison, violence work safety, job security, health insurance
physiological food water sex

Heat, air, base salary

According to Maslow, lower needs take priority. They must be fulfilled before the others are
activated. There is some basic common sense here -- it's pointless to worry about whether a
given color looks good on you when you are dying of starvation, or being threatened with
your life. There are some basic things that take precedence over all else.
Or at least logically should, if people were rational. But is that a safe assumption? According
to the theory, if you are hungry and have inadequate shelter, you won't go to church. Can't
do the higher things until you have the lower things. But the poor tend to be more religious
than the rich. Both within a given culture, and across nations. So the theory makes the
wrong prediction here.
Or take education: how often do you hear "I can't go to class today, I haven't had sex in
three days!"? Do all physiological needs including sex have to be satisfied before "higher"

needs? (Besides, wouldn't the authors of the Kama Sutra argue that sex was a kind of selfexpression more like art than a physiological need? that would put it in the self-actualization
box). Again, the theory doesn't seem to predict correctly.
Cultural critique: Does Maslow's classification really reflect the order in which needs are
satisfied, or is it more about classifying needs from a kind of "tastefulness" perspective, with
lofty goals like personal growth and creativity at the top, and "base" instincts like sex and
hunger at the bottom? And is self-actualization actually a fundamental need? Or just
something that can be done if you have the leisure time?

Alderfer's ERG theory

Alderfer classifies needs into three categories, also ordered hierarchically:
growth needs (development of competence and realization of potential)
relatedness needs (satisfactory relations with others)
existence needs (physical well-being)
This is very similar to Maslow -- can be seen as just collapsing into three tiers. But maybe a
bit more rational. For example, in Alderfer's model, sex does not need to be in the bottom
category as it is in Maslow's model, since it is not crucial to (the individual's) existence.
(Remember, this about individual motivation, not species' survival.) So by moving sex, this
theory does not predict that people have to have sex before they can think about going to
school, like Maslow's theory does.
Alderfer believed that as you start satisfying higher needs, they become more intense (e.g.,
the power you get the more you want power), like an addiction.
Do any of these theories have anything useful to say for managing businesses? Well, if true,
they suggest that
Not everyone is motivated by the same things. It depends where you are in the hierarchy
(think of it as a kind of personal development scale)
The needs hierarchy probably mirrors the organizational hierarchy to a certain extent: top
managers are more likely to motivated by self-actualization/growth needs than existence
needs. (but try telling Bill Clinton that top executives are not motivated by sex and
cheeseburgers...)
Acquired Needs Theory (mcclellan)
Some needs are acquired as a result of life experiences
Need for achievement, accomplish something difficult. as kids encouraged to do things for
themselves.

Need for affiliation, form close personal relationships. as kids rewarded for making friends.
Need for power, control others. as kids, able to get what they want through controlling
others.
Again similar to maslow and alderfer.
These needs can be measured using the TAT (thematic apperception test), which is a
projection-style test based on interpreting stories that people tell about a set of pictures.
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
This theory suggests that there are actually two motivation systems: intrinsic and extrinsic
that correspond to two kinds of motivators:
intrinsic motivators:

Achievement, responsibility and competence. motivators that come

from the actual performance of the task or job -- the intrinsic interest of the work.
extrinsic: pay, promotion, feedback, working conditions -- things that come from a person's
environment, controlled by others.
One or the other of these may be a more powerful motivator for a given individual.
Intrinsically motivated individuals perform for their own achievement and satisfaction. If
they come to believe that they are doing some job because of the pay or the working
conditions or some other extrinsic reason, they begin to lose motivation.
The belief is that the presence of powerful extrinsic motivators can actually reduce a
person's intrinsic motivation, particularly if the extrinsic motivators are perceived by the
person to be controlled by people. In other words, a boss who is always dangling this reward
or that stick will turn off the intrinsically motivated people.
Note that the intrinsic motivators tend to be higher on the Maslow hierarchy.
Two Factor theory (Herzberg)
According to Herzberg, two kinds of factors affect motivation, and they do it in different
ways:

hygiene factors. These are factors whose absence motivates, but whose presence has no
perceived effect. They are things that when you take them away, people become dissatisfied
and act to get them back. A very good example is heroin to a heroin addict. Long term
addicts do not shoot up to get high; they shoot up to stop being sick -- to get normal. Other
examples include decent working conditions, security, pay, benefits (like health insurance),
company policies, interpersonal relationships. In general, these are extrinsic items low in the
Maslow/Alderfer hierarchy.

motivators. These are factors whose presence motivates. Their absence does not cause
any particular dissatisfaction, it just fails to motivate. Examples are all the things at the top
of the Maslow hierarchy, and the intrinsic motivators.
So hygiene factors determine dissatisfaction, and motivators determine satisfaction. The two
scales are independent, and you can be high on both.
If you think back to the class discussion on power, we talked about a baseline point on the
well-being scale. Power involved a threat to reduce your well-being, causing dissatisfaction.
Hence, power basically works by threatening to withhold hygiene factors. Influence was said
to fundamentally be about promising improvements in well-being -- when you are influenced
to do something, it is because you want to, not because you were threatened. Influence
basically works by offering to provide motivators (in Herzberg's terms).
Equity Theory
Suppose employee A gets a 20% raise and employee B gets a 10% raise. Will both be
motivated as a result? Will A be twice as motivated? Will be B be negatively motivated?
Equity theory says that it is not the actual reward that motivates, but the perception, and
the perception is based not on the reward in isolation, but in comparison with the efforts that
went into getting it, and the rewards and efforts of others. If everyone got a 5% raise, B is
likely to feel quite pleased with her raise, even if she worked harder than everyone else. But
if A got an even higher raise, B perceives that she worked just as hard as A, she will be
unhappy.
In other words, people's motivation results from a ratio of ratios: a person compares the
ratio of reward to effort with the comparable ratio of reward to effort that they think others
are getting.
Of course, in terms of actually predicting how a person will react to a given motivator, this
will get pretty complicated:
People do not have complete information about how others are rewarded. So they are going
on perceptions, rumors, inferences.
Some people are more sensitive to equity issues than others
Some people are willing to ignore short-term inequities as long as they expect things to work
out in the long-term.
Reinforcement Theory
Operant Conditioning is the term used by B.F. Skinner to describe the effects of the
consequences of a particular behavior on the future occurrence of that behavior. There are
four types of Operant Conditioning: Positive Reinforcement, Negative Reinforcement,

Punishment, and Extinction. Both Positive and Negative Reinforcement strengthen behavior
while both Punishment and Extinction weaken behavior.
Positive reinforcement. Strengthening a behavior. This is the process of getting goodies as a
consequence of a behavior. You make a sale, you get a commission. You do a good job, you
get a bonus & a promotion.
Negative reinforcement. Strengthening a behavior. This is the process of having a stressor
taken away as a

consequence of a behavior. Long-term sanctions are removed from

countries when their human rights records improve. (you see how successful that is!). Low
status as geek at Salomon Brothers is removed when you make first big sale.
Extinction. Weakening a behavior. This is the process of getting no goodies when do a
behavior. So if person does extra effort, but gets no thanks for it, they stop doing it.
Punishment. Weakening a behavior. This is the process of getting a punishment as a
consequence of a behavior. Example: having your pay docked for lateness.
Apply Withhold
Reward

positive reinforcement (raise above baseline)

negative

reinforcement

(raise up to baseline)
Stressor

punishment (bring down below baseline)

extinction (stay at baseline)

Reinforcement schedules.
The traditional reinforcement schedule is called a continuous reinforcement schedule. Each
time the correct behavior is performed it gets reinforced.
Then there is what we call an intermittent reinforcement schedule. There are fixed and
variable categories.
The Fixed Interval Schedule is where reinforcement is only given after a certain amount of
time has elapsed. So, if you decided on a 5 second interval then each reinforcement would
occur at the fixed time of every 5 seconds.
The Fixed Ratio Schedule is where the reinforcement is given only after a predetermined
number of responses. This is often seen in behavior chains where a number of behaviors
have to occur for reinforcement to occur.
The Variable Interval Schedule is where the reinforcement is given after varying amounts of
time between each reinforcement. The Variable Ratio Schedule is where the reinforcement is
given after a varying number of correct responses. Fluctuating combinations of primary and
secondary reinforcers fall under other terms in the variable ratio schedule; For example,

Reinforces delivered Intermittently in a Randomized Order (RIR) or Variable Ratio with

Reinforcement Variety (VRRV).
Fixed

Variable

Interval

gives reward after first proper response following a specified time period

(Yearly raise) [short term] give reward after a certain amt of time w/ the amt changing
before the next reward (unexpected bonus based on merit) [medium term] Ratio
punishment (subtract from baseline)
(commissions or piecework pay) [medium term] give reward after a number of responses, w/
that no. changing before the next reward (team-based bonus) [long term]
Expectancy Theory (Vroom)
This theory is meant to bring together many of the elements of previous theories. It
combines the perceptual aspects of equity theory with the behavioral aspects of the other
theories. Basically, it comes down to this "equation":
M = E*I*V or motivation = expectancy * instrumentality * valence
M (motivation) is the amount a person will be motivated by the situation they find
themselves in. It is a function of the following.
E (expectancy) = The person's perception that effort will result in performance. In other
words, the person's assessment of the degree to which effort actually correlates with
performance.
I (instrumentality) = The person's perception that performance will be rewarded/punished.
I.e., the person's assessment of how well the amount of reward correlates with the quality of
performance. (Note here that the model is phrased in terms of extrinsic motivation, in that it
asks 'what are the chances I'm going to get rewarded if I do good job?'. But for intrinsic
situations, we can think of this as asking 'how good will I feel if I can pull this off?').
V(valence) = The perceived strength of the reward or punishment that will result from the
performance. If the reward is small, the motivation will be small, even if expectancy and
instrumentality are both perfect (high).

Conflicts

can be classified into the following categories:

(i) Individual level conflicts

(ii) Interpersonal conflict
(iii) Group level conflict
(iv.) Organizational conflict

As managers spend a consideration amount of time in dealing with conflict situations, it is important
for them to understand the types of conflict so that they can find the appropriate techniques to deal
with these conflicts. The different categories of conflict are discussed in details below:

(1) Individual level conflict :

A conflict arises within and individual when his motives or drives are block or he is unable to take
decision due to being confronted with competing role and goals. There are some basic causes of
conflict among individuals:
(a) Incomparability: an individual may not be able to take decisions though he is aware of the
probability distribution of the alternatives because the outcomes are incomparable. An individual can
not take a decision when the results can not be compared. In same way an individual could also be
unable to make a comparison between the different alternatives available. For making a comparison a
technique of comparison is required which includes assigning weight to different components,
rationality in behavior and attitude and the competence to perform the task. The process of
comparison also depends on the clarity and the decisiveness of the individual regarding the minimum
standard of achievement. An individual can not make a comparison if he lacks the clarity regarding the
acceptance.
(b) Unacceptability: Individuals have some acceptable alternatives in terms of their goals and
perceptions and when the alternatives selected by the organizations are not satisfactory for him they
become acceptable to that individual. This unacceptability is subjective as some alternatives
unacceptable to one may be acceptable to others. When an individual finds the alternatives
unacceptable, he searches for the alternatives that are acceptable to him. This search continues but
some times repeated failure to find acceptable alternatives may lead to a redefinition of acceptable
alternatives.
(c) Uncertainty: There is some uncertainty among the individuals regarding the external and internal
environment of the organization. The behavior of the people regarding the acceptability of the
alternative and effectiveness of the alternative could be determined with a certain level of certainty if
the environment of the organization could be depicted properly. In case of uncertainty, an individual
may feel frustrated which could ultimately be reflected in a conflict. There are a number of competing
roles and goals within an individual and usually there are three types of conflicts in an individual:
Frustration, goal conflict and role conflict.
(i) Frustration is the high level of dissatisfaction which generates conflicts in an individual whenever an
individual is unable to do what he wants to do he becomes frustrated. In this way the motivated drives
of individuals are blocked before he reaches his goal. These blocks could be physical, psychological or
social. Frustration leads to a defense mechanism and this defense mechanism or outcome of
frustration is broadly classify under four heads: Aggression, withdrawal, fixation and compromise

(ii) Goal Conflict: The existence of two or more competing goals could be a cause of conflict in and
individual. The conflict caused by competing goals could have both positive and negative features. It
occurs when two or more motives block each other. This restricts an individual from taking a decision
about the goal to be achieved either due to the positive or the negative features present in the goals.
Three types of goal conflicts have been identified. These are: Approach-approach conflict, Approach
avoidance conflict, Avoidance-avoidance approach.

(iii) Role conflict: An individual plays a number of roles in social and organizational situation but for
the study of organizational behavior, the roles which he brings to organization are the most important.
Every individual in the organization is expected to behave in a particular manner while performing a
specific role. When the expected role is different or opposite from the behavior anticipated by the
individual in that role; conflict arises because there is no way to meet one expectation without
rejecting the other. In organizational setting everyone plays the role of a superior and subordinate.
Whenever there is a difference expectations in relation to him and others, conflict ought to arise.
Similarly, conflict may also arise whenever there is overlapping of the two roles played simultaneously
by the same person. For example a superior is reprimanding his subordinate for the lapses and during
this course his boss communicates with him. As he was so surcharged with anger on his subordinate
that he failed to leave his role as superior and adopt the role of subordinate with the result that he lost
temper with his boss also. This overlapping more often causes conflict to the individual owing to role
performance. The role conflict has been classified into four types. These are:

(i) Intra-sender role conflict: The intra-sender role conflict arises when a person is asked to do a job
within specified limits, which he is not capable of doing or time and resources are not sufficient to do
the job. In this case, the expectations from a single member of a role are incompatible.

(ii) Inter-sender role conflict: In inter-sender role conflict, the expectations sent from one sender may
be in conflict with those from one or more other senders.

(iii) Self-role conflict: Self role conflict occurs when a person is asked to do a job which is incompatible
with his own value system. For example a manager may be asked to get a job done by bribing some
public officials but his value system and conscience may not permit him to do so.

(iv) Inter role conflict: Inter role conflict when an individual occupies multiple and divergent roles
simultaneously and the expectations associated with these different roles are incompatible.

Every person holding a particular position in the organization is expected to behave in a particular
manner. This is known as the role expectation from that person. When the role expectations are not
properly communicated to the individuals, it may result in-Role ambiguity, role conflict and role
overload.

(2). Interpersonal conflict: The conflict at inter-personal level involves two or more individuals and
is the most common and most recognized type of conflict. In a way all conflicts are interpersonal
conflicts because most of them involve a conflict between a person in one organization or a group and
another person in some other organization or a group. Every individual has a separate alternative
course of action that is acceptable to him and different individuals prefer different alternatives.
Sometimes the organizations also create such circumstances that two individuals find themselves in a
situation of conflict. For example two mangers could be competing for the limited capital or man
power resources. The other type of conflict is the disagreement over the goals and objectives of the
organization. Four primary sources of interpersonal conflict are:
(i) Personal differences: This can be a major source of conflicts between individuals. Due to the
difference in the up bringing, culture, education, experience, values and traditions and the family
background of the individuals, an interpersonal conflict could arise.
(ii) Lack of Information: Another cause of inter-personal conflict could be the lack of information. This
information deficiency is often a result of the communication break down in an organization.
Role in compatibility: Role in compatibility could also be a source of conflict as in the present day
inter-functional organizations many managers are assigned task which are inter dependent and the
individuals roles of these managers may be incompatible.
Stress: Environmental stress in an organization can also cause inter-personal conflict. Such a stress is
caused by a lack of resources, down sizing, competitive pressures and the high level of uncertainty
among the employees of organization.
The inter-personal conflicts usually get resolved by themselves because the parties at conflict are not
in a position to remain in a conflict for a long time. Time itself becomes a healing factor for the interpersonal conflicts. In case of the persisting inter-personal conflicts, these can be resolved with the
help of counseling, effective communication and win-win negotiation. The management should look for
the basic reason behind conflict and try to resolve them quickly so that an atmosphere of mutual trust
and openness could be created and maintained in the organization.

(3) Group level conflict: There are two or more members in a group which has a well defined
structure of role and status relations and also have a system of values and norms of behavior. The
groups not only affect their members but have an impact on other groups and on the organization

also. The members of a group regularly interact with each other and during this process of interaction;
two types of conflict can arise. Intra-group conflict or inter-group conflict.
Intra-group conflict arises when there are differences between the members of group themselves. The
members of a group may want to remain in the group but at the same time they may disagree with
the methods adopted by the group.

An intra-group conflict usually arises in the following three ways.

(i) when the group faces a new problem,
(ii) when new values are imported into the group from the social environment or
(iii) when the extra group role of a person comes into a conflict with his intra-group role.
The intra-group conflict is somewhat similar to the inter-person conflict and the only difference is that
the persons involved in the conflict are from a common group.

Inter-group conflict: The conflicts that take place between different groups in an organization are
called inter-group conflicts. These conflicts may be caused by
(i) Absence of join decision making: Organization comprises of different groups. Each group puts its
urgency for having maximum share in the limited resources and press for the acceptance of its own
time schedule for the performance of a task. If the wishes of a group in respect of resources and time
schedule are accepted, justice cannot be done to other groups, which will ultimately lead to
organizational ineffectiveness. Joint decision making is the only solution to resolve the conflict. The
conflicting parties may sit together and discuss their own needs in the overall organizational
perspective.
(ii) Difference in goals: Conflicts can also arise among different groups in an organization because of
the difference in their goals. The difference in the goals of the group is caused by (i) factors which
affect the commonality within the organization such as heterogeneity in groups, (ii) factors that the
clarity and consistency of reward structure and the comparability of reward structure.
(iii) Difference in perception: The difference in perception that can cause inter-group conflicts arises
due to the difference sources of information of different members, different techniques adopted for
processing the information and the difference in goals.
(4) Organization conflict
All the conflicts that have been discussed above relate to the conflicts within the organizational
setting. Inter-organizational conflicts take place between the organizations that are dependent on
each other in some way. The conflicts that take place at the individual level or the group level are all
inherent in the organization level conflict. Such a conflict could be between the buyer and the seller
organization, between the government agencies that regulate certain organizations and the
organization that the affected by them or between the unions of workers and their organization. The

organization level conflict should be properly handled so that it can play a constructive role in
achieving the goals of the organization. It can act as a stimulus and provide a challenge and
motivational force to keep the organization moving.

What is A Group?
Every organization is a group unto itself. A group refers to two or more people who share a common
meaning and evaluation of themselves and come together to achieve common goals. In other words, a
group is a collection of people who interact with one another; accept rights and obligations as members
and who share a common identity.
Characteristics of a Group:
Regardless of the size or the purpose, every group has similar characteristics:
(a) 2 or more persons (if it is one person, it is not a group)
(b) Formal social structure (the rules of the game are defined)
(c) Common fate (they will swim together)
(d) Common goals (the destiny is the same and emotionally connected)
(e) Face-to-face interaction (they will talk with each other)
(f) Interdependence (each one is complimentary to the other)
(g) Self-definition as group members (what one is who belongs to the group)
(h) Recognition by others (yes, you belong to the group).
Process/Stages of Group Development/Evolution:
Group Development is a dynamic process. How do groups evolve? There is a process of five stages
through which groups pass through. The process includes the five stages: forming, storming, forming,
performing, and adjourning.
Forming:
The first stage in the life of a group is concerned with forming a group. This stage is characterized by
members seeking either a work assignment (in a formal group) or other benefit, like status, affiliation,
power, etc. (in an informal group). Members at this stage either engage in busy type of activity or show
apathy.

Storming:
The next stage in this group is marked by the formation of dyads and triads. Members seek out familiar or
similar individuals and begin a deeper sharing of self. Continued attention to the subgroup creates a
differentiation in the group and tensions across the dyads / triads may appear. Pairing is a common
phenomenon. There will be conflict about controlling the group.
Norming:
The third stage of group development is marked by a more serious concern about task performance. The
dyads/triads begin to open up and seek out other members in the group. Efforts are made to establish
various norms for task performance.
Members begin to take greater responsibility for their own group and relationship while the authority figure
becomes relaxed. Once this stage is complete, a clear picture will emerge about hierarchy of leadership.
The norming stage is over with the solidification of the group structure and a sense of group identity and
camaraderie.
Performing:
This is a stage of a fully functional group where members see themselves as a group and get involved in
the task. Each person makes a contribution and the authority figure is also seen as a part of the group.
Group norms are followed and collective pressure is exerted to ensure the Process of Group
effectiveness of the group. The group may redefine its goals Development in the light of information from
the outside environment and show an autonomous will to pursue those goals.

The long-term viability of the group is established and nurtured.

Adjourning:
In the case of temporary groups, like project team, task force, or any other such group, which have a
limited task at hand, also have a fifth stage, This is known as adjourning.
The group decides to disband. Some members may feel happy over the performance, and some may be
unhappy over the stoppage of meeting with group members. Adjourning may also be referred to as
mourning, i.e. mourning the adjournment of the group.
The readers must note that the four stages of group development mentioned above for permanent groups
are merely suggestive. In reality, several stages may go on simultaneously.

Types of Groups:
One way to classify the groups is by way of formality formal and informal. While formal groups are
established by an organization to achieve its goals, informal groups merge spontaneously. Formal groups
may take the form of command groups, task groups, and functional groups.
1. Command Groups:
Command groups are specified by the organizational chart and often consist of a supervisor and the
subordinates that report to that supervisor. An example of a command group is a market research firm
CEO and the research associates under him.
2. Task Groups:
Task groups consist of people who work together to achieve a common task. Members are brought
together to accomplish a narrow range of goals within a specified time period. Task groups are also
commonly referred to as task forces. The organization appoints members and assigns the goals and
tasks to be accomplished.
Examples of assigned tasks are the development of a new product, the improvement of a production
process, or designing the syllabus under semester system.
Other common task groups are ad hoc committees, project groups, and standing committees. Ad hoc
committees are temporary groups created to resolve a specific complaint or develop a process are
normally disbanded after the group completes the assigned task.
3. Functional Groups:
A functional group is created by the organization to accomplish specific goals within an unspecified time
frame. Functional groups remain in existence after achievement of current goals and objectives.
Examples of functional groups would be a marketing department, a customer service department, or an
accounting department.
In contrast to formal groups, informal groups are formed naturally and in response to the common
interests and shared values of individuals. They are created for purposes other than the accomplishment
of organizational goals and do not have a specified time frame. Informal groups are not appointed by the
organization and members can invite others to join from time to time.
Informal groups can have a strong influence in organizations that can either be positive or negative. For
example, employees who form an informal group can either discuss how to improve a production process
or how to create shortcuts that jeopardize quality. Informal groups can take the form of interest groups,
friendship groups, or reference groups.
INTEREST GROUPS.
Interest groups usually continue over time and may last longer than general informal groups. Members of
interest groups may not be part of the same organizational department but they are bound together by
some other common interest. The goals and objectives of group interests are specific to each group and
may not be related to organizational goals and objectives. An example of an interest group would be
students who come together to form a study group for a specific class.

FRIENDSHIP GROUPS.
Friendship groups are formed by members who enjoy similar social activities, political beliefs, religious
values, or other common bonds. Members enjoy each other's company and often meet after work to
participate in these activities. For example, a group of employees who form a friendship group may have
an exercise group, asoftball team, or a potluck lunch once a month.
REFERENCE GROUPS.
A reference group is a type of group that people use to evaluate themselves. According to Cherrington,
the main purposes of reference groups are social validation and social comparison. Social validation
allows individuals to justify their attitudes and values while social comparison helps individuals evaluate
their own actions by comparing themselves to others. Reference groups have a strong influence on
members' behavior. By comparing themselves with other members, individuals are able to assess
whether their behavior is acceptable and whether their attitudes and values are right or wrong. Reference
groups are different from the previously discussed groups because they may not actually meet or form
voluntarily. For example, the reference group for a new employee of an organization may be a group of
employees that work in a different department or even a different organization. Family, friends, and
religious affiliations are strong reference groups for most individuals.

Gordon Allport: Trait Theory

According to Gordon Allport, one English dictionary could provide you more than 4000 words
describing or synonymous to a single personality trait. Because of this finding, he was able to
categorize traits into three general levels. They include:

1. Cardinal Traits
For sure you have heard the words "Christ-like", "Freudian" and "Narcissist". The origins and
meanings of these traits are very easy to determine. A person may be called "Christ-like" if he
sacrifices his own good for the benefit of others. Cardinal traits, therefore, are the ones that
dominate the entirety of a person's life such that a person carrying such trait may even become
famous and have their name become synonymous with these traits.

2. Central Traits
These are general characteristics that you use to describe another person are called central traits.
Examples include kind, sincere, cool and jolly.

3. Secondary Traits
These traits are those that only come out under certain situations. For example, you become uneasy
when a pop quiz is announced.

Raymond Cattell: Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire

From Allport's list of about 4,000 traits, Raymond Cattell decreased the number into 1713 because
he believed that uncommon traits should be eliminated. In his research, Cattell eventually narrowed
down the list into 16 personality traits. He then developed the Sixteen Personality
Factor Questionnaire(16PF), an assessment tool commonly utilized today. The 16 personality traits
include:
1. Warmth (A)
2. Reasoning (B)
3. Emotional Stability (C)
4. Dominance (E)
5. Liveliness (F)
6. Rule-consciousness (G)
7. Social Boldness (H)
8. Sensitivity (I)
9. Vigilance (L)
10. Abstractedness (M)
11. Privateness (N)
12. Apprehension/Apprehensiveness (O)
13. Openness to change (Q1)
14. Self-reliance (Q2)
15. Perfectionism (Q3)
16. Tension (Q4)

Hans Eysenck: Three Dimensions of Personality

British psychologist Hans Eysenck developed a model of personality based upon just three universal
trails:
Unlike Allport and Cattell, theorist Hans Eysenck only included three general traits in his list. They
are:

1. Introversion- Extraversion
As in Carl Jung's personality type theory, Eysenck classified people as either introvert, those who
directs focus on inner world, or extravert, those who gives more attention to other people and his
environment.

2. Neuroticism-Emotional Stability
This category is synonymous to "moodiness versus even-temperedness", where in a neurotic person
is inclined to having changing emotions from time to time, while an emotionally stable person tends
to maintain a constant mood or emotion.

3. Pyschoticism
This dimension refers to the finding it hard to deal with reality. A psychotic person may be considered
hostile, manipulative, anti-social and non-emphathetic.

The Big Five: Five-Factor Model

As a result of a thorough research on Cattell's and Eysenck's personality trait theories, the Big Five
theory was formulated. This model states that there are 5 core traits which collaborate in order to
form a single personality. These include:
1.

Extraversion - tendency to be active, sociable, person-oriented, talkative, optimistic,

empathetic

2.

Openness to Experience - tendency to be imaginative, curious, creative and may have

unconventional beliefs and values.

3.

Agreeableness - tendency to be good-natured, kind-hearted, helpful, altruistic and trusting.

4.

Conscientiousness - tendency to be hardworking, reliable, ambitious, punctual and selfdirected.

5.

Neuroticism - tendency to become emotionally unstable and may even develop

psychological distress.

Hawthorne Studies Experiments - 4 Parts, Conclusions, Criticism

Part I - Illumination Experiments (1924-27)
These experiments were performed to find out the effect of different levels of illumination (lighting) on
productivity of labour. The brightness of the light was increased and decreased to find out the effect
on the productivity of the test group. Surprisingly, the productivity increased even when the level of
illumination was decreased. It was concluded that factors other than light were also important.
Part II - Relay Assembly Test Room Study (1927-1929)

Under these test two small groups of six female telephone relay assemblers were selected. Each
group was kept in separate rooms. From time to time, changes were made in working hours, rest
periods, lunch breaks, etc. They were allowed to choose their own rest periods and to give
suggestions. Output increased in both the control rooms. It was concluded that social relationship
among workers, participation in decision-making, etc. had a greater effect on productivity than
working conditions.
Part III - Mass Interviewing Programme (1928-1930)
21,000 employees were interviewed over a period of three years to find out reasons for increased
productivity. It was concluded that productivity can be increased if workers are allowed to talk freely
about matters that are important to them.
Part IV - Bank Wiring Observation Room Experiment (1932)
A group of 14 male workers in the bank wiring room were placed under observation for six months. A
worker's pay depended on the performance of the group as a whole. The researchers thought that
the efficient workers would put pressure on the less efficient workers to complete the work. However,
it was found that the group established its own standards of output, and social pressure was used to
achieve the standards of output.
squareConclusions of Hawthorne Studies / Experiments
The conclusions derived from the Hawthorne Studies were as follows :The social and psychological factors are responsible for workers' productivity and job satisfaction.
Only good physical working conditions are not enough to increase productivity.
The informal relations among workers influence the workers' behaviour and performance more than
the formal relations in the organisation.
Employees will perform better if they are allowed to participate in decision-making affecting their
interests.
Employees will also work more efficiently, when they believe that the management is interested in
their welfare.
When employees are treated with respect and dignity, their performance will improve.
Financial incentives alone cannot increase the performance. Social and Psychological needs must
also be satisfied in order to increase productivity.
Good communication between the superiors and subordinates can improve the relations and the
productivity of the subordinates.
Special attention and freedom to express their views will improve the performance of the workers.
squareCriticism of Hawthorne Studies / Experiments
The Hawthorne Experiments are mainly criticised on the following grounds :Lacks Validity : The Hawthorne experiments were conducted under controlled situations. These
findings will not work in real setting. The workers under observation knew about the experiments.
Therefore, they may have improved their performance only for the experiments.
More Importance to Human Aspects : The Hawthorne experiments gives too much importance to
human aspects. Human aspects alone cannot improve production. Production also depends on
technological and other factors.
More Emphasis on Group Decision-making : The Hawthorne experiments placed too much
emphasis on group decision-making. In real situation, individual decision-making cannot be totally
neglected especially when quick decisions are required and there is no time to consult others.
Over Importance to Freedom of Workers : The Hawthorne experiments gives a lot of importance
to freedom of the workers. It does not give importance to the constructive role of the supervisors. In
reality too much of freedom to the workers can lower down their performance or productivity.

All leaders do not possess same attitude or same perspective. As discussed earlier, few leaders adopt the
carrot approach and a few adopt the stick approach. Thus, all of the leaders do not get the things done in
the same manner. Their style varies. The leadership style varies with the kind of people the leader
interacts and deals with. A perfect/standard leadership style is one which assists a leader in getting the
best out of the people who follow him.

Some of the important leadership styles are as follows:

Autocratic leadership style: In this style of leadership, a leader has complete command and hold
over their employees/team. The team cannot put forward their views even if they are best for the
teams or organizational interests. They cannot criticize or question the leaders way of getting
things done. The leader himself gets the things done. The advantage of this style is that it leads to
speedy decision-making and greater productivity under leaders supervision. Drawbacks of this
leadership style are that it leads to greater employee absenteeism and turnover. This leadership
style works only when the leader is the best in performing or when the job is monotonous, unskilled
and routine in nature or where the project is short-term and risky.
The Laissez Faire Leadership Style: Here, the leader totally trusts their employees/team to
perform the job themselves. He just concentrates on the intellectual/rational aspect of his work and
does not focus on the management aspect of his work. The team/employees are welcomed to share
their views and provide suggestions which are best for organizational interests. This leadership style
works only when the employees are skilled, loyal, experienced and intellectual.
Democrative/Participative leadership style: The leaders invite and encourage the team members
to play an important role in decision-making process, though the ultimate decision-making power
rests with the leader. The leader guides the employees on what to perform and how to perform, while
the employees communicate to the leader their experience and the suggestions if any. The
advantages of this leadership style are that it leads to satisfied, motivated and more skilled
employees. It leads to an optimistic work environment and also encourages creativity. This leadership
style has the only drawback that it is time-consuming.
Bureaucratic leadership: Here the leaders strictly adhere to the organizational rules and policies.
Also, they make sure that the employees/team also strictly follows the rules and procedures.
Promotions take place on the basis of employees ability to adhere to organizational rules. This
leadership style gradually develops over time. This leadership style is more suitable when safe work
conditions and quality are required. But this leadership style discourages creativity and does not
make employees self-contented.

McGregorfs Y theory

Theory x ('authoritarian management' style)

The average person dislikes work and will avoid it he/she can.

Therefore most people must be forced with the threat of punishment to work towards
organisational objectives.

The average person prefers to be directed; to avoid responsibility; is relatively unambitious,

and wants security above all else.

Theory y ('participative management' style)

Effort in work is as natural as work and play.

People will apply self-control and self-direction in the pursuit of organisational objectives,
without external control or the threat of punishment.

Commitment to objectives is a function of rewards associated with their achievement.

People usually accept and often seek responsibility.

The capacity to use a high degree of imagination, ingenuity and creativity in solving
organisational problems is widely, not narrowly, distributed in the population.

In industry the intellectual potential of the average person is only partly utilised.

Organizational Development Theory

Organizational Development (OD) is a field of research, theory, and practice dedicated to expanding the
knowledge and effectiveness of people to accomplish more successful organizational change and
performance.
OD is a process of continuous diagnosis, action planning, implementation and evaluation, with the goal of
transferring knowledge and skills to organizations to improve their capacity for solving problems and
managing future change.
History and Application of Organizational Development Theory
OD emerged out of human relations studies from the 1930s where psychologists realized that
organizational structures and processes influence worker behavior and motivation.
Lewin's work in the 1940s and 1950s also helped show that feedback was a valuable tool in addressing
social processes.
More recently, work on OD has expanded to focus on aligning organizations with their rapidly changing
and complex environments through organizational learning, knowledge management and transformation
of organizational norms and values.
Key Concepts of Organizational Development Theory

Organizational Climate

Defined as the mood or unique "personality" of an organization.

Attitudes and beliefs about organizational practices create organizational climate and influence
members' collective behavior.

Climate features and characteristics may be associated with employee satisfaction, stress,
service quality and outcomes and successful implementation of new programs. Climate features
and characteristics include:
o

Leadership, openness of communication, participative management, role clarity, and

conflict resolution, leader support and leader control.

Organizational Culture
Deeply seated norms, values and behaviors that members share.
The five basic elements of culture in organizations include:
1. Assumptions
2. Values
3. Behavioral norms
4. Behavioral patterns
5. Artifacts
The subjective features (assumptions, values and norms) reflect members' unconscious thoughts and
interpretations of their organizations.
The subjective features shape the behaviors and artifacts take on within organizations
Organizational Strategies
A common OD approach used to help organizations negotiate change, i.e. action research, consists of
four steps.
1. Diagnosis

Helps organization identify problems that may interfere with its effectiveness and assess
the underlying causes

Usually done by OD enlisting the help of an outside specialist to help identify problems by
examining its mission, goals, policies, structures and technologies; climate and culture;
environmental factors; desired outcomes and readiness to take action.

Usually done through key informant interviews or formal surveys of all members.

2. Action planning

Strategic interventions for addressing diagnosed problems are developed.

The organization is engaged in an action planning process to assess the feasibility of

implementing different change strategies that lead to action.

3. Intervention

Change steps are specified and sequenced, progress monitored, and stakeholder
commitment is cultivated.

4. Evaluation

Assess the planned change efforts by tracking the organization's progress in

implementing the change and by documenting its impact on the organization.

Blake and Moutons Managerial Grid

Robert Blake and Jane Mouton (1960s) proposed a graphic portrayal of leadership styles through
a managerial grid(sometimes called leadership grid). The grid depicted two dimensions of leader
behavior, concern for people(accommodating peoples needs and giving them priority) on y-axis
and concern for production (keeping tight schedules) on x-axis, with each dimension ranging from low
(1) to high (9), thus creating 81 different positions in which the leaders style may fall. (See figure 1).

The five resulting leadership styles are as follows:

1. Impoverished Management (1, 1): Managers with this approach are low on both the dimensions
and exercise minimum effort to get the work done from subordinates. The leader has low concern
for employee satisfaction and work deadlines and as a result disharmony and disorganization
prevail within the organization. The leaders are termed ineffective wherein their action is merely
aimed at preserving job and seniority.
2. Task management (9, 1): Also called dictatorial or perish style. Here leaders are more
concerned about production and have less concern for people. The style is based on theory X of
McGregor. The employees needs are not taken care of and they are simply a means to an end.
The leader believes that efficiency can result only through proper organization of work systems
and through elimination of people wherever possible. Such a style can definitely increase the
output of organization in short run but due to the strict policies and procedures, high labour
turnover is inevitable.
3. Middle-of-the-Road (5, 5): This is basically a compromising style wherein the leader tries to
maintain a balance between goals of company and the needs of people. The leader does not
push the boundaries of achievement resulting in average performance for organization. Here
neither employee nor production needs are fully met.

4. Country Club (1, 9): This is a collegial style characterized by low task and high people
orientation where the leader gives thoughtful attention to the needs of people thus providing them
with a friendly and comfortable environment. The leader feels that such a treatment with
employees will lead to self-motivation and will find people working hard on their own. However, a
low focus on tasks can hamper production and lead to questionable results.
5. Team Management (9, 9): Characterized by high people and task focus, the style is based on
the theory Y of McGregor and has been termed as most effective style according to Blake and
Mouton. The leader feels that empowerment, commitment, trust, and respect are the key
elements in creating a team atmosphere which will automatically result in high employee
satisfaction and production.
Advantages of Blake and Moutons Managerial Grid
The Managerial or Leadership Grid is used to help managers analyze their own leadership styles through
a technique known as grid training. This is done by administering a questionnaire that helps managers
identify how they stand with respect to their concern for production and people. The training is aimed at
basically helping leaders reach to the ideal state of 9, 9.
Limitations of Blake and Moutons Managerial Grid
The model ignores the importance of internal and external limits, matter and scenario. Also, there are
some more aspects of leadership that can be covered but are not.

Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory of

Motivation
In 1959, Frederick Herzberg, a behavioural scientist proposed a two-factor theory or the motivatorhygiene theory. According to Herzberg, there are some job factors that result in satisfaction while there
are other job factors that prevent dissatisfaction. According to Herzberg, the opposite of Satisfaction is
No satisfaction and the opposite of Dissatisfaction is No Dissatisfaction.

FIGURE: Herzbergs view of satisfaction and dissatisfaction

Herzberg classified these job factors into two categoriesa. Hygiene factors- Hygiene factors are those job factors which are essential for existence of
motivation at workplace. These do not lead to positive satisfaction for long-term. But if these
factors are absent / if these factors are non-existant at workplace, then they lead to
dissatisfaction. In other words, hygiene factors are those factors which when
adequate/reasonable in a job, pacify the employees and do not make them dissatisfied. These
factors are extrinsic to work. Hygiene factors are also called as dissatisfiers or maintenance
factors as they are required to avoid dissatisfaction. These factors describe the job
environment/scenario. The hygiene factors symbolized the physiological needs which the
individuals wanted and expected to be fulfilled. Hygiene factors include:

Pay - The pay or salary structure should be appropriate and

reasonable. It must be equal and competitive to those in the same industry in
the same domain.

Company Policies and administrative policies - The company policies

should not be too rigid. They should be fair and clear. It should include
flexible working hours, dress code, breaks, vacation, etc.

Fringe benefits - The employees should be offered health care plans

(mediclaim), benefits for the family members, employee help programmes,
etc.

Physical Working conditions - The working conditions should be safe,

clean and hygienic. The work equipments should be updated and wellmaintained.

Status - The employees status within the organization should be

familiar and retained.

Interpersonal relations - The relationship of the employees with his

peers, superiors and subordinates should be appropriate and acceptable.
There should be no conflict or humiliation element present.

Job Security - The organization must provide job security to the

employees.

a. Motivational factors- According to Herzberg, the hygiene factors cannot be regarded as

motivators. The motivational factors yield positive satisfaction. These factors are inherent to work.
These factors motivate the employees for a superior performance. These factors are called
satisfiers. These are factors involved in performing the job. Employees find these factors

intrinsically rewarding. The motivators symbolized the psychological needs that were perceived
as an additional benefit. Motivational factors include:

Recognition - The employees should be praised and recognized for their

accomplishments by the managers.

Sense of achievement - The employees must have a sense of achievement. This

depends on the job. There must be a fruit of some sort in the job.

Growth and promotional opportunities - There must be growth and advancement

opportunities in an organization to motivate the employees to perform well.

Responsibility - The employees must hold themselves responsible for the work. The
managers should give them ownership of the work. They should minimize control but
retain accountability.

Meaningfulness of the work - The work itself should be meaningful, interesting and
challenging for the employee to perform and to get motivated.

Limitations of Two-Factor Theory

The two factor theory is not free from limitations:
1. The two-factor theory overlooks situational variables.
2. Herzberg assumed a correlation between satisfaction and productivity. But the research
conducted by Herzberg stressed upon satisfaction and ignored productivity.
3. The theorys reliability is uncertain. Analysis has to be made by the raters. The raters may spoil
the findings by analyzing same response in different manner.
4. No comprehensive measure of satisfaction was used. An employee may find his job acceptable
despite the fact that he may hate/object part of his job.
5. The two factor theory is not free from bias as it is based on the natural reaction of employees
when they are enquired the sources of satisfaction and dissatisfaction at work. They will blame
dissatisfaction on the external factors such as salary structure, company policies and peer
relationship. Also, the employees will give credit to themselves for the satisfaction factor at work.
6. The theory ignores blue-collar workers. Despite these limitations, Herzbergs Two-Factor theory is
acceptable broadly.

Implications of Two-Factor Theory

The Two-Factor theory implies that the managers must stress upon guaranteeing the adequacy of
the hygiene factors to avoid employee dissatisfaction. Also, the managers must make sure that the

work is stimulating and rewarding so that the employees are motivated to work and perform harder
and better. This theory emphasize upon job-enrichment so as to motivate the employees. The job
must utilize the employees skills and competencies to the maximum. Focusing on the motivational
factors can improve work-quality.

Perception distortion is an abnormality in sensory or psychological perception. This can be the

result of psychological disorders, damage to the brain or nervous system, medications, or other
potential interruptions to the cognitive processes involved in perception. Research on this subject is
a complex topic aimed at understanding what happens when perception goes wrong and how it can
be addressed. Sensory perception research involves neurologists, cognitive psychologists, and
people in related fields, while self-perception is a subject of interest for psychologists and mental
health professionals.
A number of factors are involved in perception, making it very different between individuals. Two
people may experience the same event or witness the same scene and provide very different
descriptions. Understanding how perception works on an individual level is important for research
into larger distortions. For example, if two people witness a crime and one person says the
perpetrator had a red shirt while the other claims to have seen a blue shirt, this isnt distortion. Its a
trick of memory that changes recollections of the scene.
Sensory perception may distort in a number of ways. People can see, hear, smell, taste, and feel
phenomena that are not there. A common cause of perception distortion in these cases is a reaction
to medication. Some psychoactive medications, for example, can cause hallucinations. Patients can
also experience problems because of neurological disorders that lead to mixed or false signals
reaching the brain.

Type A and Type B

A simple division of preference or personality type is into Type A and Type B, which is based
broadly on anxiety and stress levels.

Type A
The Type A personality generally lives at a higher stress level. This is driven by

They enjoy achievement of goals, with greater enjoyment in achieving of

more difficult goals. They are thus constantly working hard to achieve these.

They find it difficult to stop, even when they have achieved goals.

They feel the pressure of time, constantly working flat out.

They are highly competitive and will, if necessary create competition.

They hate failure and will work hard to avoid it.

They are generally pretty fit and often well-educated (a result of their
anxiety).

Type B
The Type B personality generally lives at a lower stress level and are typically:

They work steadily, enjoying achievements but not becoming stressed when
they are not achieved.

When faced with competition, they do not mind losing and either enjoy the
game or back down.

They may be creative and enjoy exploring ideas and concepts.

They are often reflective, thinking about the outer and inner worlds.

FACTORS INFLUENCING GROUP COHESIVENESS

Group size, degree of dependency, physical distances, time spent together, severity of
initiation, cooperation, threat history of past successes are the major factors. These
factors are influencing the group cohesiveness in an organization. We shall discuss about
the above factors below:
Group size
Small group size is a greater probability of being cohesive than large groups in an
organization When team size increases, in this circumstance, possibility of agreement
towards the common goal and mutual interaction decreases. When team increases it
restricts inter group and intra group communication and encourages for the formation of
sub groups.
Degree of Dependency
It is a positive between the degree of cohesiveness and dependency in an organization. It
requires greater attractiveness towards goals in an organization. The greater the degree of
dependency which will be greater attraction and consequently the higher group
cohesiveness in an organization.
Physical Distance
It is very important when people working together at a very close distance are likely to
have greater opportunity for interaction in an organization.
It enhances the free exchange of ideas, sharing the problems and prospects in an
organization. Therefore, it develops a closeness among the team members who leading to
greater cohesiveness.
Time spent Together

Time spent together and cohesiveness is positively related people who met frequently and
spend time together for developing mutual attraction and interpersonal interaction.
Team members are developing friendship and communication among members in an
organization.
Severity of Initiation
It is positively correlated towards with cohesiveness When strict admission procedures
are prescribed for entry into group that is create severity of initiation.
In this case, the group becomes unique and elite in the eyes of other teams in an
organization.
It arises out of the natural human tendency which share among the team members and get
benefits for their efforts in an organization.
Cooperation
It is the team spirit that is developed by all team members in the team. It helps to share
their personal opinion, suggestion, and recommendation relating to group tasks, reward
system in a team and teamwork. Well designed organization structure promotes greater
cooperation in this way cohesiveness is enhanced.
Status
Status and cohesiveness are positively related in an organization
Status is identity of team and team members and their tasks in an organization Status will
come to heard dedication, achievement, growth and development of the organization.
Threat
It is also considered determining factors of cohesiveness External threat is unpredictable
and uncontrollable Internal threat can be predictable and controllable, Its impact on the
group, its identity, and process in an organization. Strong and united team can easily face
threat in an organization.

History of Past Successes

It is very important factors influencing the group cohesiveness in an organization Past
result, performance, growth and development is the step stone towards the future goals
and mission and vision of an organization Team will be evaluated the past results and
analysis and interpret future result for survival and growth and development of an
organization.
..

The five needs

Physiological needs are to do with the maintenance of the human body. If we are unwell,
then little else matters until we recover.

Safety needs are about putting a roof over our heads and keeping us from harm. If we
are rich, strong and powerful, or have good friends, we can make ourselves safe.

Belonging needs introduce our tribal nature. If we are helpful and kind to others they
will want us as friends.

Esteem needs are for a higher position within a group. If people respect us, we have
greater power.

Self-actualization needs are to 'become what we are capable of becoming', which would
our greatest achievement.