Dispatch Week 2

FUNDAMENTAL
GENERAL STUDIES
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Dispatch 2
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Parliament (Continued)
Quorum:- Quorum is the minimum number of members required to be
present in a house or joint meeting of both houses to carry out its business. For
Lok Sabha, it is the 55 members (one-tenth of the total maximum membership i.e.
552), for Rajya Sabha it is 25 (one tenth of the total maximum membership i.e.
250) and for joint sitting of both houses, it is 80 (one tenth of the maximum
membership of both houses). Without quorum, it is the duty of the presiding
officer of the respective house or the presiding officer of Lok Sabha in case of
joint session, to either adjourn or to suspend the meeting until there is a quorum.
Provisions related to quorum mentioned in Article 100.
Presiding officer (Lok Sabha)
There is a provision for a speaker and a deputy speaker who can

preside over the Lok Sabha. Deputy speaker
carries out the duty of speaker in absence of
First LS Speaker was GV Mavlankar and
first Deputy LS speaker was MA
speaker. However, along with these two, there
Ayyangar.
is a panel of chairpersons of Lok Sabha
The present LS speaker is Sumitra
comprising not more than six persons, who
Mahajan and Deputy LS speaker is M
Thambidurai.
can preside over the Lok Sabha in absence of
First women LS speaker was Meira
both the speaker and deputy speaker.
Kumar and the longest serving Lok Sabha
Here, please do not be confused by
speaker was Balram Jakhar. There has
not been any women Deputy LS speaker
the word 'absence'. Absence is not equal to
but two women LS speaker till now.
vacancy. If the office of the speaker and
Since 11th Lok Sabha (1996), as a matter
deputy speaker is vacant, then a person from
of consensus (not regulation), speaker is
from ruling party and Deputy Speaker
the above mentioned panel cannot preside
from main opposition party.
over the Lok Sabha; rather at this juncture,
President shall appoint a person to carry out
the duties of the speaker. The election will be
held, as soon as possible, to fill up the vacant post. These six persons or less than
six are nominated by the speaker.
Lok Sabha speaker
As soon as it is possible after the first
meeting of Lok Sabha, speaker is elected
amongst the members of the Lok Sabha.
He/she holds office until he/she ceases to
be a member of the house or until he/she
him/herself gives resignation in writing to
deputy speaker or is removed by a resolution of
the house passed by an absolute majority of
the house, that too giving 14 days advance
notice and the motion for such resolution
initiated with support of at least 50 members.
(for understanding the types of majority, see
box)
Types of majority
(a) Simple majority more than
50% of the members present and
voting. For example, if 40 MPs
walk out from house, then Simple
Majority = (Strength of house 40)/2 + 1
(b) Absolute Majority more than
50% of the total membership
(present + absent) of the house
(c) Effective majority (All the
then members) More than 50% of
the all the then members
(deducting the absent MPs and
Vacant seats)
(d) Special majority two-third of
the members present and voting.
(Simple > 50% but special > 66% of
the members present and voting)
He/she is the symbol of impartiality.

However the notion "Once a speaker, always a speaker" is not followed in our
country. It is so because; they are also not above the party-politics. However,
he/she disassociates him/herself from the party's day-to-day activities. He/she
cannot vote in the first instance. However he/she votes when there is tie
situation. Please note that if there is a case of voting for the resolution of his/her
own removal, then he/she can vote at the first instance also.
He/she derives his/her presiding power from constitution of India,
parliamentary conventions, rules of procedure and conduct of business of Lok
Sabha. He/she is the final interpreter of the rules of procedure and conduct in
Lok Sabha. He/she maintains order in the house in order to ensure smooth
conduct of house transactions. He/she also presides over the joint sitting of the
parliament. His/her decides whether a bill is money or ordinary bill. Please note
that his/her decision is final in this regard. He/she also appoints the chairman of
all parliamentary committees.
His/her decision, regarding the charges of disqualification of a MP of Lok
Sabha on the basis of defection (10th schedule), is final. However, please note
that his/her decision can be questioned through judicial review.
He/she is also the ex-officio chairman of
the conference of presiding officers of all state
& UTs legislative bodies.
Secretary General
appointed by him/her.
of
Lok
Sabha
is
Speaker Pro Tem

It should be noted that during the
first meeting of Lok Sabha, Speaker
Pro Tem, is appointed by the
President, who is just like temporary
Speaker, usually the senior most
parliamentarian. President himself
gives oath to the speaker Pro Tem,
who in turn administer oath to the
new members and of course convene
the house for election of new
Speaker.
His/her impartiality and independence is

maintained by his/her ranking in order of
precedence (6th along with Chief Justice of
India), fixed salary charged from the
consolidated fund of India and security of
tenure. He/she continues even after the
dissolution of the Lok Sabha, till the first meeting of new Lok Sabha. (Then who
presides the first meeting? see box)
Deputy Lok Sabha speaker
Please do not think that since he/she is deputy, it means subordinate to
speaker of Lok Sabha. No, He/she is directly responsible to the house. He/she is at
the 10th position in order of precedence.
Whenever, there is absence of Speaker, he/she carries out the duties of

Speaker with the same authority. During the presence of Speaker, he/she is like
other parliamentarian; even voting like others and taking part in proceedings.
He/she becomes the chairman automatically, if nominated as a member of
any parliamentary committee.
His/her salary, removal procedure and power & functions are same like
Speaker. He/she can give resignation to Speaker in writing.
Presiding Officer (Rajya Sabha)
The presiding officer of RS is called as Chairman. The Vice-President of India
is its ex-officio (By virtue of an office) chairman. Please note that whenever he
carries out the duties of President, he does not perform the duty of presiding
officer of Rajya Sabha and of course during this time, he is entitled for the salary
and allowances of President, not for the salary and allowances of Chairman. Like
Speaker and Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha, Salary and allowances of Chairman are
fixed by parliament and charged on the consolidated fund of India.
As you know that the Speaker of Lok Sabha is also a MP of house but
Chairman of Rajya Sabha is not the Member of Parliament. But like the Speaker,
the Chairman can also vote in case of tie only and cannot vote in the first
instance. Here you should recall that Speaker can be present, speak in the house
and also vote in the first instance in case of resolution of his/her own removal,
but, in case of Chairman, he can be present and speak but cannot vote.
There is also provision for the post of deputy Chairman of Rajya Sabha, who
presides over the Upper House, when there is absence of Chairman or Chairman is
acting as President of India. Here you should note that Deputy Chairman is just
like deputy speaker of Lok Sabha. So, there is no need to go in details. He/she is
at the 10th position in order of precedence.
There is also provision of panel of Vice-chairpersons of Rajya Sabha just like
of Panel of Chairpersons of Lok Sabha.
Language in Parliament Both English and Hindi are the languages for
parliament business. You should note that originally, English was authorized only
for fifteen years (Till 1965), but Official language Act (1963) authorized it to
continue with Hindi even after 1965. Even, along with these two, Presiding Officer
can permit a member to speak in his/her mother-tongue. There is a provision of
simultaneous translation in English and Hindi both from any language.
Different terms related with parliament and its procedure: Whip A term used for the assistant floor leader appointed by every political
parties, whose main functions are to ensure attendance of MPs, securing
consensus in favour of or against any issue/motion in house, regulating and
monitoring of discipline part of MPs. The office of Whip, sometimes, seems to be
undemocratic, because in the name of discipline (internal political party policy),
the freedom of expression, voting behaviour etc of MPs, tends to be regulated.
You should also note that this office is not mandated by any constitutional
provision or by any parliamentary statue; rather it is only based on the
conventions of the parliamentary government.
However, in multi-party democracy, to avoid
Shadow Cabinet
ruckus, this office seems to be a necessity.
Leader of Opposition Though not
mentioned in the constitution of India, Leader
of Opposition is mentioned in parliamentary
Statute and having many important functions
As the name suggests, Shadow Cabinet is

an invention of British political system,
formed by opposition party just like a
shadow of ruling cabinet. Through this,
the opposition is nurtured like alternative
government even having all ministers and
of course alternative Prime Minister.
like providing constructive criticism to the government policies, providing an

alternate government etc. Both houses recognize a leader of opposition from the
largest opposition party having not less than one-tenth seats of the total strength
of the house. You should note that for this purpose, coalition of parties is not
taken into account; rather it is only exclusive political party. Leader of Opposition
is also given the privileges like salary, allowances and other facilities etc. of a
cabinet minister.
Leader of the house If the Prime Minister is the member of Lok Sabha then
he/she is automatically the leader of the house and if he/she is not the member of
Lok Sabha, then a member nominated by him/her, will be the leader of the house.
The same convention applies for Rajya Sabha. For example, Manmohan Singh was
a member of Rajya Sabha, so he was the leader of Rajya Sabha, but at present
Narendra Modi is the leader of Lok Sabha because he is a member of Lok Sabha
and Arun Jaitley is leader of Rajya Sabha (nominated by PM).
Adjournment, Adjournment Sine Die,
Prorogation, and Dissolution Please note that
these all four terms refer to finish or ending,
but having a bit of differences. An adjournment
means the suspension of a sitting of a house
for a specific time, which may be hours, days or
weeks, whereas in case of Adjournment Sine
Die means suspension of a sitting of a house
for an indefinite period. For both of these
adjournments, reassembly after this, authority
lies with the Presiding officer of the house. You
should note that Presiding officer can call for
reassembly even before the time mentioned
during adjournment. Prorogation is suspension
of session of the house. (Please remember that
Cases for lapsing of bill

(a) A bill passed by LS but pending in RS.
(b) A bill pending in LS (It may be its own
bill or sent by RS)
Cases for non-lapse of bill
(a) Bill passed by both houses but
pending for President assent
(b) Bill passed by both houses but
President returns for reconsideration
(c) Bill pending in RS but not passed by LS
(d) Bill not passed by both houses due to
disagreement but president has called for
Joint sitting
adjournment is for suspension of sitting and Prorogation for suspension of

session). It is called by President. Like adjournment, prorogation also does not
affect any bill. Unlike the above-mentioned tools, Dissolution is only applicable to
Lok Sabha. It means the end of life of the Lok Sabha. It may take place on the
expiry of tenure i.e. 05 years or expiry of extended tenure due to emergency or
due to President's decision. Kindly note that Adjournment, Adjournment Sine Die
and Prorogation do not hamper the bills in the houses but the dissolution of Lok
Sabha causes a lot. Let us see this in the above box.
Summoning and recess - The President of India is authorized to summon
each houses of Parliament. However, it should be noted that there cannot be
more than six months gap between two sessions. A session is the period spanning
between the first meeting of a house till its prorogation or dissolution in case of
Lok Sabha. The period spanning between the prorogation of a house and its
reassembly is called 'recess'.
Question Hour and Zero Hour Question Hour, which is mentioned in the
rules of procedure, basically the first hour of every parliamentary sitting. During
this time, the members can ask questions of three types i.e. Starred, Unstarred
and Short notice questions. The departments/Ministries are divided into 05
groups namely Group A, B, C, D and E. Each day (05 days in a week) is allotted for
one group to answer the questions. Please note that if there is a holiday or lack of
quorum on a particular day then that particular ministry will answer the question
in the next week only, not on the next day.
A starred question is marked by an asterisk (*). It requires an oral answer

and can have supplementary questions.
An unstarred question is answered in written and cannot have

supplementary questions.
A short notice question is asked by giving a notice of less than ten days. It is
also answered orally and can have supplementary questions. These questions have
matters of public importance or of urgent character.
Zero Hour, which is not mentioned in the rules of procedure and so an informal
device (Indian innovation started in 1962), follows the Question Hour. It can
continue till the start of discussion on the agenda point of the particular day. The
questions asked are without prior notice.
Government business and Private business As you know that a private
member means MP other than a minister let it be a MP from ruling party.
Government business i.e. Business of ministries for a week is announced in
advance by the ministry of parliamentary affairs. The speaker or chairman of the
particular house arranges it in an order with the consultation of the Leader of the
house. On the other hand, private business is allotted by Business Advisory
Committee. Private businesses generally take place during the last two and half-an
hour of Friday or on other day as decided.
Closure It means putting an end to a debate with permission of majority of
the house, even if members allotted time for speaking have not finished. Various
types of closure motions are Simple closure, closure by compartments, Kangaroo
closure and Guillotine closure.
Motion:- No discussion on a matter of public importance can take place in
the parliament except on a motion made with the consent of the presiding officer.
The motions moved by the members fall into the following three principal
categories:
Substantive Motion: It deals with very important matter like impeachment

of the president, or removal of the chief election commissioner.
Substitute Motion: It is a motion that is moved in substitution of an original

motion and proposes an alternative to it. It adopted by the house, it supersedes
the original motion.

Subsidiary Motion: It has no meaning and cannot state the decision of the
house without reference to the original motion. It is divided into three subcategories i.e. Ancillary motion, Superseding motion and amendment motion.
Different types of motion

Privilege Motion: It is concerned with breach of parliamentary privileges by a
minister. It is moved by a member who feels that a minster has committed a
breach of privilege of the House or one or more members by withholding facts of a
case or by giving wrong or distorted facts. Its purpose is to censure the concerned
minister.
Calling Attention Motion: It is introduced to call the attention of a minister
to a matter of urgent public importance and to seek an authoritative statement on
that matter. Like Zero Hour, it is an Indian innovation in the parliamentary
procedure. However, unlike the Zero Hour, it is mentioned in the Rule of
Procedure. It is in existence since 1954.
Adjournment Motion: It is introduced in the parliament to draw the
attention of the house to a definite matter of urgent public importance. To admit
this motion, there should be the support of 50 members. As it interrupts the
normal business of the house, it is regarded as an extra-ordinary device. It
involves an element of censure against the government and hence the Rajya Sabha
is not permitted to make use of this device. The discussion on an adjournment
motion should last for at least 02 hours and 30 minutes. However, there are
certain restrictions on the types of issues raised: It should not include more than one matter
It should not raise a question that is under adjudication in any court.
It should not raise a question that can be raised through a distinct motion.
It should not be used to revive a discussion on the matter that has been
already discussed in the same session.
No confidence Motion: The Lok Sabha can remove the ministry from office
by passing no confidence motion. It needs the support of 50 members to be
admitted. If passed, it leads to the resigning of the council of ministers.
10
Censure Motion: It is moved against an individual minister or a group of

ministers or the entire council of ministers for censuring the council of ministers
for specific policies and actions. It should state the reasons of its adoption in the
Lok Sabha. However, the passing of censure motion does not mean that the
council of ministers should resign.
Differences between Censure motion and No confidence motion

Censure Motion
The council of Ministers needs not to
resign in case of passing of this motion;
however government has to seek the
confidence of the house, as early as
possible.
It can be moved against any individual
minister or against entire council of
ministers.
It should specify the reasons for its
adoption in Lok Sabha.
No confidence motion
The council of Ministers has to resign
from office, if passed.
It is moved against the entire council of

Ministers only, not against any
individual minister.
There is no need to specify reasons.
It is to censure specific policies and It is just like an invitation for floor test.
actions of the council of ministers or
any particular ministry.
Motion of Thanks: The first session after each general election and the first
session of every fiscal year are addressed by the president. This address by the
President is discussed in both the houses on a motion called Motion of Thanks. At
the end of the discussion, the motion is put to vote. This motion must be passed.
Otherwise, it amounts to the defeat of the government.
No day yet Named Motion: It is a motion that has been admitted by the Speaker
but no date has been fixed for its discussion.
Point of Order: A member can raise a point of order when proceedings of the
house do not follow the normal rules of the procedure.
11
Let us see some more terms related with Parliament: Crossing the floor - Passing between the member addressing the House and
the Chair which is considered breach of Parliamentary etiquette.
Division -The mode of arriving at a decision on a proposed measure or
question before the House by recording votes for or against it.
Raw of lot- A method applied to determine the relative precedence of
private members' Bills and Resolutions, notices of questions, half-an-hour
discussions or any other notice given by more than one member simultaneously
for being taken up on the same day.
Expunction - Deletion of words, phrases or expressions from the proceedings
or records of Lok/Rajya Sabha by an order of the Chairman for being defamatory
or indecent or unparliamentary or undignified.
Half-an-Hour Discussion - A Member with the permission of the Chairman
may raise a discussion on a matter of sufficient public importance which has been
the subject of a recent oral or written question and the answer to which needs
elucidation on a matter of fact.
Leave of absence - A member wishing to obtain permission of the House for
remaining absent from its sittings is required to make an application stating the
reasons and the period for which he may be permitted to be absent from the
sittings of the House.
Lobby - The covered corridor immediately adjoining the Chamber and coterminus with it.
Maiden Speech - The first speech of a member after his election/nomination
to the Lok/Rajya Sabha in the House.
Matters raised with permission - Immediately after the Question Hour and
laying of papers, a Member may raise an issue of urgent public importance with
the prior permission of the Chairman.
Message - A communication from the President to a House or Houses of
Parliament under articles 86(2) and 111 of the Constitution and a communication
sent from one House of Parliament to the other House.
Naming a Member - The drawing of attention of the House by the
Chairman/speaker to the conduct of a member who disregards the authority of
the Chair or abuses the Rules of the House by persistently and willfully obstructing
the business thereof, with a view to action being taken to suspend him from the
service of the House for a period not exceeding the remainder of the session.
12
Papers laid on the Table - The papers or documents laid on the Table of the
House for purpose of bringing them on the record of the House by a Minister or by
a private member or by the Secretary-General with the permission of the
Chairman in pursuance of the provisions of the Constitution or the Rules of
Procedure of Rajya Sabha or an Act of Parliament and the Rules and Regulations
made there under.
Personal explanation - A Member or a Minister against whom comments or
criticism of a personal nature are made on the floor of the House is entitled to
make, with the consent of the Chairman/speaker, personal explanation in his
defense.
Putting the Question - When debate on a question is closed, the Chairman,
rising from the Chair, states or reads the question to the House, beginning with
"The question is, that".
Question Chart - A chart circulated to members, along with the Summons for
a Session, which indicates the dates for answering questions and the last date for
receiving notices of questions pertaining to various Ministries/ Departments.
Roll of Members - A register in which newly elected members sign, after
making and subscribing the oath or affirmation and before taking their seats for
the first time in the House.
Special Mention - A procedure available to a Member who wishes to
mention a matter of public importance in the House by reading out from the text
not exceeding 250 words.
Table of the House - The Table just in front of the desk of the SecretaryGeneral below the Chairman's Chair, on which papers which are required to be laid
on the Table of the House, are deemed to be placed.
Valedictory remarks - It is customary in every Session for the Chair to make
the Valedictory remarks at the end of Session thanking Members and leaders of
parties and groups for their cooperation in the conduct of business of the House.
So, I think we have seen a lot many terms related with Parliament. Yes, so what's
next? Time to have a cup of tea and of course change over to next subject! (Please
note that this chapter (Parliament) has not been finished yet! We will continue in
next week)
13
The revolt of 1857 First major challenge

Please do not be surprised that after IVC, I jumped to the revolt of 1857. We will
study History divided into 05 parts:(a) Ancient History
(b) Medieval History
(c) Modern history till Independence
(d) Modern History after Independence
(e) World History
So, we are about to start the fascinating and most important part from
examination point of view:- Modern History till Independence.
Socio-economic, cultural and political conditions prevalent in country before
revolt of 1857
Socio-economic and cultural conditions
Indian society of that time, at all levels and in every strata of society, was
characterised by the mix of traditional culture, a system of segregation based
on caste system, rituals based on religious
ethos and ethnic lines, non-utilitarian
outlook, low status of women, traditional
This cruel Sati system was severely
condemned by Raja Rammohan Roy since
means of livelihood etc.
1818. It was his efforts due to which Sati
At the same time, attempts like socioreligious reforms such as abolition of Sati
system, efforts to uplift the status of women
such as support to Widow re-marriage,
women education etc., utilitarian view point
system was declared illegal and

punishable by Lord William Bentinck
through 'Abolition of sati and other cruel
rites Act' in 1829.
Widow Remarriage Act was introduced
during Lord Dalhousie tenure in 1856 but
it was enacted during Lord Canning
tenure in the same year, 1856.
14
of the British, fearful and suspicious character

of administration, rampant corruption among
Police, Company officials, court officials etc.
made a large section of natives suspicious and
unrest. Every sections of society were affected.
The scholarly and Priestly classes such as
pandits, religious gurus and maulvis etc. were
earlier financially supported by their patron
kings, but now this support has been cut off
with the ruin of traditional landed and
bureaucratic classes. These classes were now
out in open against British rule.
The artisans and handicraftsmen have lost
their traditional business patronized by many
kings and kingdoms, due to British goods being
cheap and discriminatory tariff policy against
Indian Goods. So, they were forced to look for
alternate sources of employment. This made
them flocking towards villages and this brought
much pressure on the limited agricultural lands.
Karl Marx had rightly remarked, "It was the
British intruder who broke up the Indian
handloom and destroyed the spinning-wheel."
Here, at villages, wrath of Ryotwari and
Mahalwari system of heavy taxation, frequent
famines, exorbitant rates of interest imposed by
moneylenders and intermediaries, nexus
between traditional landed aristocracy and
Company officers etc., nothing was right. The
Three Land Tenure Systems
Permanent settlement system was

introduced by Charles Cornwallis in
1793 as a part of Cornwallis code and
introduced in Bengal. As per this
system, rajas and taluqdars were
recognized as zamindars.
The
zamindars were supposed to collect
the land revenue from the peasants.
The company officials believed that
this would give some motivations to
zamindars to invest in the land,
however proved wrong. Zamindars
would be assured of long-term returns
of continuous flow of revenue.
However, this system utterly failed
but succeeded to create a new social
class of land-lords who were loyal to
the British.
Ryotwari system was started by
Thomas Munro, Governor of Madras
in 1820 during Lord Hastings tenure,
in Madras and Bombay. Through this
system, a direct settlement was made
between the government and the
cultivators known as Ryot. The
revenue was fixed for a maximum
period of 30 years, on the basis of the
quality of soil and nature of crop
cultivated. Due to rigidity of revenue
collection even during the bad harvest
system compelled the Ryot to land in
the clutches of moneylenders.
Mahalwari system, a modified version
of Zamindari system, was introduced
in Ganges Valley regions, Parts of
Central India, Punjab and North West
Frontier Province. It was introduced
by MacKenzie and Robert Marttins
Bird during Lord William Bentinck
tenure. An agreement was made
between
landlords,
having
responsibility of a group of villages
known as Mahal and the Government.
To extract revenue, Zamindars used to
use force and were able to evict the
farmers. Revenue was periodically
revised.
15
only interest of Company, 'Maximum revenue with minimum efforts', made

agriculture, a non-remunerative profession. There was no attention on land
reforms, irrigation betterment, enabling environment for better yields.
The company' service especially in Army was no longer remunerative and
prestigious. Differential treatment and racial discrimination given to Sepoys,
fear of official-missionary nexus and so fear of damage of religion, Sepoys
connection with their failed agriculture at home etc. brought discontent among
Sepoys. These Sepoys were just like 'peasants in uniforms'.
We should take a note about this revolt that most of Sepoys, who rebelled,
were from higher castes and Bengal Army consisted mainly higher caste
sepoys, whereas Bombay and Madras
regiments consisted localized and caste
Subsidiary Alliance system was actually
neutral armies. So, a major reason of this
invented by French Governor Dupleix,
but used intensively by Lord Wellesley.
revolt had been the maintenance of purity of
Under this system, through an agreement
between Company and Native rulers,
higher caste among Bengal regimental army.
The activities of Christian missionaries
escorted by British Flag, heavy interference in
religious and cultural domains of natives etc.
alarmed the orthodox Hindu and Muslims alike.
Company used to provide troops in the

native rulers territory to fight any enemy
in lieu of money (or a subsidy). So, it was
security for money by Company.
Political conditions
The annexation of Jhansi, Satara, Udaipur, Sambhalpur etc. using provision of
Doctrine of Lapse, suspicious use of Subsidiary Alliance, annexation of Oudh on
the basis of administration failure, denial of succession to Hindu Princes like of
Nana Sahib, the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II, ill-treatment given to
Mughal etc. coupled with broken pledges, mistrust and suspicious environment
caused unrest in the realm of Prince & Princess, ruling class and erstwhile
aristocracy. So, political situation was full of mistrust, suspicion and turmoil.
16
The hinterlands were no longer peaceful. Let it be North India having

witnessed rebellions like those of Bilaspur, 1805; Bundelas of Jabalpur; the
taluqdars of Aligarh, 1814-17; Santhal rebellion 1855-57 etc., South India
witnessed revolt of Velu Thampi of Travancore in 1805; rebel in Ganjam, 1835;
rebel in Kurnool in 1846-47, Western India witnessed Kittur uprising, Satara
uprising etc.
Immediate cause for revolt of 1857

As we know that Sepoys were already unhappy with their conditions in the
service, let it be their salary and emolument structure, racial discrimination,
subordination at all levels etc and conditions prevalent at home. Now, a
problem has been added: Crossing the seas. It was very much popular notion
back at home that crossing seas means losing caste status. Through General
Service Enlistment Act of 1856, all recruits were required to give undertaking
that they will serve anywhere as required by Government.
Restriction on wearing religious symbols and at the same time
encouragement of missionaries coupled with secret rumuors of religious
conversions created an environment of resentment.
The final spark came with the issue of cartridges of Enfield P-53 rifle. There
were rumuors that the grease used outside of the cartridges has been made of
beef and pig fat and to use these bullets, Sepoys had to bite off the end of these
lubricated cartridges before loading. So, there was a suspicious environment of
danger of loss of religion and caste as well.
Spread and Zenith of revolt

Before the D-day, there have been many small examples of resentment. The
19 Infantry at Berhampur refused to use new cartridges and broke out in
th
17
mutiny and finally disbanded. The 7th Oudh regiment was also disbanded.
Mangal Pandey from 34th infantry stationed at Barrackpur went one step
further and fired at two British Officers namely Huwson and Baugh, first dead
and later one wounded. However, later on, he was overpowered with the help
of Shaikh Paltu, one of his regiment comrades and later on tried and hanged.
So, having so expolsive environment in the Army establishments itself, the
explosion took place at Meerut.
3rd Native Infantry of Meerut (Bengal Light Cavalry) refused to use grease
laden cartridges on 24th April, 1857 even after getting orders from their
Commanding Officer Lt. Colonel George Smyth. Many were dismissed,
imprisoned for 10 years and fettered. On 10th May, after Sepoys revolted and
thus unfurled the banner of Great revolt of 1857. Officers were shot down,
imprisoned sepoys were released and marching towards Delhi started.
Local infantry of Delhi joined them after killing their own Europeans officers.
They entered the Red Fort through the Raj Ghat gate and with an exciting crowd
made an appeal to the aged and powerless Bahadur Shah Zafar a pensioner of
Company having nothing but the name of mighty Mughals. He was proclaimed
as the 'Shahenshah-e-Hindustan'. The courts were held, commanded by Mirza
Zahiruddin, the inexperienced son of Shahenshah initially and later on by
General Bakht Khan, who had led the revolt of Barailly troops. Coins minted in
the name of Shahenshah, letters were written to all the chiefs and native rulers
of India urging them to organize a confederacy and replace the British regime.
Civilians joined the revolt started by the Sepoys. Widespread participation of
peasantry, artisans, shopkeepers, zamindars, petty Zamindars, Pandits &
Maulvis etc. gave this revolt a true character of first struggle for Indian
independence. Law courts, police stations, revenue offices etc. were attacked,
torched and looted. The rebellion of the civil population was particularly
evident in NWFP and Oudh region due to a bigger chunk of Sepoys were
18
recruited from these areas. Due to civilian' participation, this revolt cannot be
called just 'a mutiny'; rather it was a popular uprising. So, this Sepoys' revolt
followed by civilian rebellion had a broad social base and it gave vent to
accumulated grievances of all sections of society.
Now let us see the famous personalities related with this revolt: Kanpur Nana Sahib, the adopted son of Peshwa, Baji Rao II, was refused
the family title and pension by the Company. So, he banished from Poona and
took shelter near Kanpur. During revolt, with the help of his great commander
Tantya Tope, he took control of Kanpur after defeating Sir Hugh Wheeler. Later
on, he was defeated by Sir Colin Campbell.
Lucknow Begum Hazrat Mahal took over and proclaimed her son, Birjis
Qadir, the nawab. Here, Sir Henry Lawrence was killed but finally Sir Colin
Campbell brought under British control with the help of Gorkha regiment.
Jhansi Using provisions of Doctrine of Lapse, Lord Dalhousie had refused to
allow Rani Lakshmibai's adopted son Anand Rao to succeed to the throne after
her husband's death. After much effort to gain concession from Company
fruitlessly, the most outstanding leader of this revolt, Rani Lakshmibai gave an
outstanding challenge. But again, some natives like Tantya Tope sided with her
but some like Scindhia sided with British. General Hugh Rose, who defeated
Jhansi ki Rani, said, "Here lay the women who was the only man among the
rebels."
Bareilly Khan Bahadur, who was a descendent of the former ruler of
Rohilkhand, was initially not in favour of rebellion but later joined the wave of
revolt.
19
Jagdishpur (Arra), Bihar Like Khan Bahadur, Kunwar Singh also joined the
sepoys unhesitatingly but proved a hard stuff to chew for British. Taylor and
Eyre finally suppressed this 70-year-old man, Babu Kunwar singh.
Panipat Imam of Bauli Kalandar revolted in Panipat.
Gwalior Tantya Tope revolted here and also supported Rani Lakshmibai of
Jhansi.
Allahabad Liyaqat Ali revolted in Allahabad but later on suppressed by
Colonel Neil.
Faizabad Maulavi Ahmadullah revolted here.
Fatehpur Azimullah Khan revolted here.
Sambhalpur Surender Sai revolted here because through doctrine of lapse,
Sambhalpur was also snatched.
Hyderabad Sonaji Pant revolted.
Lahore Mufti Nizamuddin and Rao Tula Ram revolted.
Why this revolt failed?

This revolt could not spread to the Eastern, Southern and Western parts of
India. It had limited territorial spread in only Bengal, Bihar, Oudh (modern UP)
and certain other Northern India areas.
Rebels did receive the active support of mainly Zamindars and Kings, who
have either lost their area or were on the verge of losing. Even some of them, at
the first instance tried to persuade British officer and when not fruitful, then
joined. For instance, Rani Lakshmibai first tried to persuade British authority
through English-lover agents. At the same time, most of them failed to visualize
the strength of Sepoys and significance of revolt and simply did not do enough.
Zinat Mahal (wife of Bahadur Shah Zafar), Scindhia, Nizam, Holkars, Wodeyars,
Varma of Travancore, Sikh Princes etc. either negotiated with British to secure
their safety or actively supported British troops. Some of them like Man Singh
changed their sides as per situation. You should take a note that Sikhs of Punjab
20
and Pathans of NWFP have not supported the rebel, even assisted British to
overpower them due to one clear reason: They did not like Purbiyas (Sepoys
from East India such as Bihar and Bengal) in their region and return of Mughals'
power.
Apart from some able leadership like Kunwar Singh, Rani Lakshmibai, Bakht
Khan, Maulvi Ahmadullah and few others, the revolt was leaderless. John
Lawrance had rightly remarked, "Had a single leader of ability arisen among
rebels, we must have been lost beyond redemption."
Indian sides were without good network of communication and were also
poorly equipped materially. Swords and spears could not withstand Enfield
rifles. The use of Chapattis (Roti) for communication cannot be faster than
telegraph.
Nationalism was still unknown to Indians. So, unity among Indians was still
at nascent stage or absent. When Bahadur Shah Zafar was being declared the
emperor of India, many had wish for Maratha rulers at throne.
East India Company was also having men of exceptional abilities like Henry
Havelock, John Lawrance, Colonel Neil etc. With these able leaders, British
counterpart was also equipped materially well.
Positive outcomes of revolt

To some historians (British as well as Indian), revolt was just a Sepoy mutiny,
but after seeing the level of participation from various sections of civilian
populations, it can be called a 'Popular Uprising'. VD Savarkar had rightly
referred this revolt as "The first war of Indian Independence."
Hindu-Muslim unity was quite evident in this revolt. When Sepoys (most of
them were Hindus) arrived at Delhi and declared Bahadur Shah Zafar as
21
Shahenshah-e-Hindustan; Jhansi ki Rani had good support of Afghan soldiers;

Nana Sahib had expertise of Azimullah etc., there seemed to be a complete
cooperation between Hindus and Muslims. So, there was nothing like
communalism, as became evident in later period, before 1858. However, Sunni
Muslims community did not support rebels due to their perception of this revolt
as an opportunity of return of Shiite rule.
Concluding aspects of revolt

If we leave the perspective of immediate gains of this revolt and look at the
long term gains, then this revolt was not a historical tragedy. Even in its failure,
it offered a grand outcome: a source of inspiration for India's long struggle for
Independence till 1947.
Company rule, which was by and large corrupt and maladministered, came to an end. British crown took the
direct responsibility through Government of India Act,
1858. Now, India was to be governed by Crown through a
secretary of state and a council of 15, having advisory
powers only. Lord Canning, who was Governor-general
since 1856 and during the revolt, was made Viceroy. His
tenure ended in 1862. This change over from Governorgeneral to Viceroy, could not diminish the status of this post; rather increased
but at the same time, authority was reduced. Now, there was much more
influence of British affluent class (even most of them never visited India),
which in turn made Indian administration even more reactionary than it had
been before 1858.
British crown promised to recognize the prestige and rights of native rulers.
Now, the policy of annexation was abandoned and policy of 'punish or depose'
was put in place.
22
The death of Bahadur Shah Zafar in Rangoon in 1862, where he was exiled,
brought an end to Mighty Mughal dynasty.
Army in India was reorganized. Higher caste recruits were now being
discouraged. Gurkhas and Sikhs were now more in numbers at the nominal roll
of battalions.
Now, the hatred between Indians and British increased.
Despite, the weaknesses and limitations of Sepoys and Zamindars, this
revolt was a patriotic act and a progressive step.
So, here we are finishing this chapter and moving to the first chapter of General
Science.
23
Cell, its structure and functions

The cell is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all
known living organisms.
A cell is the smallest unit of life that can reproduce independently and so,
often called the "building blocks of life".
Cytology is the study of cells, which deals with the study of cells in terms of
structure, function and chemistry.
The size and shape of the cells in any organism depend on the metabolic
activities while their numbers of cell depend on the size of the body of the
organism. At maturity, Human body has got 37.2 trillion cells approximately.
Obviously, an elephant has got more numbers of cells than a lion.
Largest known cell is Unfertilized Ostrich egg cell, weighing 1.5 Kg. and
largest cell in Human body is neurons.
The cell was invented by Robert Hook in 1665. He discovered cells from cork
(Cork (phellem) is a non-living, water-resistant, protective tissue that displaces
the stem epidermis as the plant undergoes an increase in diameter during the
secondary growth phase). He mentioned the word cell in his book
'Micrographia'.
Cell Theory
The cell theory was propounded by Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann in
1838-39. However this theory has been many a times modernized with the
progress of Science. Let us see major tenants of modern cell theory: All known living things are made up of one or more cells. (However,
this is controversial because non-cellular life such as viruses are also
disputed as a life form)
All living cells arise from pre-existing cells by division.
24
The cell is the basic and fundamental unit of structure and function in
all living organisms.
The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of
independent cells. You should note that the cell is a self independent unit.
Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells.
Cells contain DNA, which is found specifically in the chromosome
and RNA, found in the cell nucleus and cytoplasm. Heredity information
(DNA) is passed on from cell to cell.
All cells are basically the same in chemical composition in organisms of
similar species.
Types of Cell
Cells can be subdivided into the following subcategories:
Prokaryotes
These are single celled organism. For example - Bacteria, cynobacteria, Blue
Green Algae etc. These cells are under developed having sizes ranging 1-10
microns. (however many cells are bigger in
sizes also)
Prokaryotes have a larger surface-areato-volume
ratio,
giving
them
a
higher metabolic rate, a higher growth rate,
and as a consequence, a shorter generation
time than eukaryotes.
Ribosomes in Prokaryotes are of 70S
type. There is only one Chromosome in
Prokaryotes.
All the intracellular water soluble
components like Proteins, DNA are located
in the Cytoplasm, enclosed by the cell
membrane, rather than in separate compartments.
Cytoplasm has no cytoskeleton.
DNA in Prokaryotes is circular and not associated with Histones.
25
Prokaryotes LACK membrane bound Nucleus, Mitochondria, Chloroplasts,

Golgi Bodies or any other membrane bound organelle.
There is no true sexual reproduction in Prokaryotes; rather there is only
genetic recombination.
Eukaryotes
Organism whose cells contain
a nucleus and
other organelles enclosed
within membranes. These cells are more developed and have sizes ranging from
5 - 100 microns.
These cells also contain other membrane-bound organelles such
as mitochondria, Chloroplasts and the Golgi apparatus.
Eukaryotic organisms may be unicellular, or multi-cellular. Only eukaryotes
have many kinds of tissue made up of different cell types.
Ribosomes in Eukaryote are of 80S type. There is more than one
Chromosome in Eukaryotes.
Eukaryotes can reproduce both by asexual reproduction through mitosis and
sexual reproduction through meiosis.
Eukaryotes represent a tiny minority of all living things . However, due to
Eukaryotes much larger size, eukaryotes' collective worldwide biomass is
estimated at about equal to that of prokaryotes.
Eukaryotes appeared after Prokaryotes. It means Prokaryotes are primitive
than Eukaryotes.
26
Difference between Animal and Plant cell
27
Composition of a typical Cell and their functions

Nucleus
It contains most of the cell's genetic material, organized as multiple long
linear DNA molecules in complex with a large variety of proteins, such as histones,
to form chromosomes. It is like a large Oval body near the centre of the cell.
The function of the nucleus is to maintain the integrity genes and to control
the activities of the cell by regulating gene expression and mediate the replication
of DNA during the cell cycle, thus the nucleus is the control center of the cell.
The main structures making up the nucleus are the nuclear envelope, a
double membrane that encloses the entire organelle and isolates its contents from
the cellular cytoplasm and the nucleoskeleton (which includes nuclear lamina), a
network within the nucleus that adds mechanical support, much like
the cytoskeleton, which supports the cell as a whole.
Nucleolus
28
The nucleolus is a discrete densely stained structure found in the nucleus. It

is not surrounded by a membrane.
The main roles of the nucleolus are to synthesize rRNA and assemble
ribosomes.
Cell Membrane
Cell membrane (also known as the plasma membrane or cytoplasmic
membrane) is a biological membrane that separates the interior of all cells from
the outside environment. The cell membrane is selectively permeable
to ions and organic molecules and controls the movement of substances in and
out of cells.
The basic function of the cell membrane is to protect the cell from its
surroundings.
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm comprises cytosol (the gel-like substance enclosed within the cell
membrane) and the organelles the cell's internal sub-structures. All of the
contents of the cells of prokaryote organisms (such as bacteria, which lack a cell
nucleus) are contained within the cytoplasm.
The cytoplasm is about 80% water and usually colorless.
Vacuoles
A vacuole is
a membrane bound organelle which
is present
all plant and fungal cells and in some protist, animal and bacterial cells.
in
The function and significance of vacuoles varies greatly according to the type
of cell in which they are present. However they have greater role to play in the
cells of plants, fungi and certain protists than those of animals and bacteria. In
general, the functions of the vacuole include:
Isolating materials that might be harmful or a threat to the cell

Containing waste products
Containing water in plant cells
Maintaining internal hydrostatic pressure within the cell
Maintaining an acidic internal pH
29
Containing small molecules

Exporting unwanted substances from the cell
Allows plants to support structures such as leaves and flowers due to the
pressure of the central vacuole
In seeds, stored proteins needed for germination are kept in 'protein bodies',
which are modified vacuoles
Mitochondria
Mitochondria have been described as "the powerhouse of the cell" because
they generate most of the cell's supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), used as a
source of chemical energy. This is done by oxidizing the major products
of glucose: Pyruvate, and NADH, which are produced in the cytosol.
This type of cellular respiration known as aerobic respiration, is dependent
on the presence of oxygen. However you should also note that when oxygen is
limited, the glycolytic products will be metabolized by anaerobic fermentation, a
process that is independent of the mitochondria
In addition, mitochondria are involved in other tasks, such
as signaling, cellular differentiation, and cell death, as well as maintaining
control of the cell cycle and cell growth. Mitochondria have been implicated in
several
human
diseases,
including
mitochondrial
disorders, cardiac dysfunction and heart failure.
The number of mitochondria in a cell can vary widely by organism, tissue,
and cell type. For instance, red blood cells have no mitochondria, whereas liver
cells can have more than 2000
Chloroplasts (Plant cells only)
A chloroplast is one of three types of plastids, characterized by its high
concentration of chlorophyll. (The other two types, the leucoplast and
the chromoplast, contain little chlorophyll and do not carry out photosynthesis)
Chloroplasts are organelles, specialized subunits, in plant and algal cells.
Chloroplasts' main role is to conduct photosynthesis, where the

photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll captures
the energy from
sunlight and
converts it and stores it in the energy-storage molecules ATP and NADPH while
30
freeing oxygen from water. They then use the ATP and NADPH to make organic
molecules from carbon dioxide in a process known as the Calvin cycle.
Ribosome
Ribosome is a complex molecular machine found within all living cells that
serves as the site of biological protein synthesis (translation).
Ribosomes are the workplaces of protein biosynthesis, the process of
translating mRNA into protein. The mRNA comprises a series of Codons that
dictate to the ribosome the sequence of the amino acids needed to make the
protein.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a type of organelle in the cells, occuring in
most types of eukaryotic cells but is absent from red blood cells.
There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum, rough and smooth. The outer
face of the rough endoplasmic reticulum is studded with ribosomes that are the
sites of protein synthesis.
The endoplasmic reticulum serves many general functions, including the
folding of protein molecules in sacs called cisternae and the transport of
synthesized proteins in vesicles to the Golgi apparatus.
Golgi Bodies
The Golgi apparatus also known as the Golgi complex, Golgi body, or simply
the Golgi, is an organelle found in most eukaryotic cells.
The Golgi apparatus is a major collection and dispatch station of protein
products received from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Proteins synthesized in
the ER are packaged into vesicles, which then fuse with the Golgi apparatus.
These cargo proteins are modified and destined for secretion
via exocytosis or for use in the cell. In this respect, the Golgi can be thought of as
similar to a post office: it packages and labels items which it then sends to
different parts of the cell or to the extracellular space.
The Golgi apparatus is involved in lipid transport and lysosome formation
Lysosomes
31
Lysosomes are cellular organelles that contain acid hydrolase enzymes that
break down waste materials and cellular debris. They can be described as the
stomach of the cell.
Lysosomes digest excess or worn-out organelles, food particles, and
engulfed viruses or bacteria.
Lysosomes act as the waste disposal system of the cell by digesting
unwanted materials in the cytoplasm, both from outside of the cell and obsolete
components inside the cell. For this function they are popularly referred to as
"suicide bags" or "suicide sacs" of the cell.
Lysosomes are responsible for a group of genetically inherited disorders
called lysosomal storage diseases (LSD). They are a type of inborn errors of
metabolism. The most common LSD is Gaucher's disease.
Vesicle
A vesicle is a small structure within a cell, consisting of fluid enclosed by
a lipid bilayer.
Vesicles are a basic tool used by the cell for organizing cellular substances.
Vesicles
are
involved
in metabolism,
transport,
buoyancy
control and enzyme storage. They can also act as chemical reaction chambers.
Plastid
The plastid is
a
double
membrane organelle found
in
the cells of plants and algae.
Plastids are the site of manufacture and storage of important chemical
compounds used by the cell. They often contain pigments used in photosynthesis,
and the types of pigments present can change or determine the cell's color.
Cell division
Cell division is process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter
cells. Cell division usually occurs as part of a larger cell cycle.
Usually Cell division is of three types:E-Mail to gkmadeeasy@gmail.com to join this weekly program. |www.gkmadeeasyblog.wordpress.com
32
(a) Mitosis
(b) Meiosis
(c) Binary Fission
Mitosis
Mitosis is a part of the cell cycle in which chromosomes in a cell nucleus are
separated into two identical sets of chromosomes, and each set ends up in its
own nucleus. In general, mitosis (division of the nucleus) is often accompanied or
followed by cytokinesis, which divides the cytoplasm, organelles and cell
membrane into two new cells containing roughly equal shares of these cellular
components.
Mitosis and cytokinesis together define the mitotic (M)phase of an animal
cell cyclethe division of the mother cell into two daughter cells, genetically
identical to each other and to their parent cell.
This type of cell division is also called somatic cell division and number of
chromosomes remains the same. It is a continuous process.
The process of mitosis is divided into stages corresponding to the completion
of one set of activities and the start of the next. These stages are prophase,
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
Mitosis occurs exclusively in Eukaryotic cells. So, the purpose of Mitosis is
growth by increasing the number of cells.
It maintains the continuity by transmitting to the daughter cells and thus
plays a significant role in wound healing, renegeration of damaged parts,
replacement of damaged parts and it may give rise to tumors or cancerous growth
if uncontrolled process continues.
Meiosis
Meiosis is
a
specialized
type
the chromosome number by half. This
of cell
process
division that
reduces
occurs in all sexually
33
reproducing single-celled
and multi
cellular eukaryotes,
including
animals, plants, and fungi.
Errors in meiosis are the leading known cause of miscarriage and the most
frequent genetic cause of developmental disabilities.
Because the number of chromosomes is halved during meiosis, gametes can
fuse (i.e. fertilization) to form a diploid zygote that contains two copies of each
chromosome, one from each parent. Thus, alternating cycles of meiosis and
fertilization enable sexual reproduction, with successive generations maintaining
the same number of chromosomes. For example, diploid human cells contain 23
pairs of chromosomes (46 total), half of maternal origin and half of paternal
origin. Meiosis produces haploid gametes (ova or sperm) that contain one set of
23 chromosomes.
When two gametes (an egg and a sperm) fuse, the resulting zygote is once
again diploid, with the mother and father each contributing 23 chromosomes. This
same pattern, but not the same number of chromosomes, occurs in all organisms
that utilize meiosis.
34
The table below shows the differences between meiosis and mitosis.
Meiosis
Mitosis
End result
Normally four cells, each with half the

number of chromosomes as the
parent
Two cells, having the same

number of chromosomes as
the parent
Function
Sexual reproduction, production of

gametes (sex cells)
Cellular reproduction,
growth, repair, asexual
reproduction
Where does it
happen?
Reproductive cells of almost all

eukaryotes (animals, plants, fungi,
and protists)
All proliferating cells in all

eukaryotes
Steps
Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I,

Prophase, Prometaphase,
Telophase I, Prophase II, Metaphase II, Metaphase, Anaphase,
Anaphase II, Telophase II
Telophase
Genetically same as
parent?
No
Yes
Crossing over
happens?
Yes, normally occurs between each

pair of homologous chromosomes
Very rarely
Pairing of
homologous
chromosomes?
Yes
No
Cytokinesis
Occurs in Telophase I and Telophase II
Occurs in Telophase
35
Binary Fission
Prokaryotic fission, which is binary fission, is a form of asexual
reproduction and cell division used by all prokaryotes (bacteria and
archaebacteria)
and
some
organelles
within eukaryotic organisms
(e.g., mitochondria).
This process results in the reproduction of a living prokaryotic cell (or
organelle) by dividing into two parts that each have the potential to grow to the
size of the original cell (or organelle).
This type of division takes place without the formation of spindles in the cell.
The single DNA molecule first replicates, then attaches each copy to a different
part of the cell membrane. When the cell begins to pull apart, the replicated and
original chromosomes are separated. The consequence of this asexual method of
reproduction is that all the cells are genetically identical, meaning that they have
the same genetic material (barring random mutations).
Stem Cell
Stem cells are undifferentiated biological cells that can differentiate into
specialized cells and can divide (through mitosis) to produce more stem cells.
They are found in multicellular organisms.
In mammals, there are two broad types of stem cells: embryonic stem cells, which
are isolated from the inner cell mass of blastocysts, and adult stem cells, which are
found in various tissues.
In adult organisms, stem cells and progenitor cells act as a repair system for the
body, replenishing adult tissues. In a developing embryo, stem cells can
differentiate into all the specialized cellsectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm
but also maintain the normal turnover of regenerative organs, such as blood, skin,
or intestinal tissues.
There are three known accessible sources of autologous adult stem cells in
humans:
36
1. Bone marrow, which requires extraction by harvesting, that is, drilling into
bone
2. Adipose tissue (lipid cells), which requires extraction by liposuction.
3. Blood, which requires extraction through apheresis, wherein blood is drawn
from the donor (similar to a blood donation), and passed through a machine
that extracts the stem cells and returns other portions of the blood to the
donor.
Stem cells can also be taken from umbilical cord blood just after birth. Of all stem
cell types, autologous harvesting involves the least risk. By definition, autologous
cells are obtained from one's own body, just as one may bank his or her own blood
for elective surgical procedures.
Adult stem cells are frequently used in medical therapies, for example in bone
marrow transplantation. Stem cells can now be artificially grown and
transformed (differentiated) into specialized cell types with characteristics
consistent with cells of various tissues such as muscles or nerves. Embryonic cell
lines and autologous embryonic stem cells generated through somatic cell nuclear
transfer or dedifferentiation have also been proposed as promising candidates for
future therapies.
Potency
Potency specifies the differentiation potential (the potential to differentiate into
different cell types) of the stem cell.
Totipotent (a.k.a. omnipotent) stem
cells can differentiate into embryonic
and extra embryonic cell types. Such
cells can construct a complete, viable
organism.
Pluripotent stem cells are the
descendants of totipotent cells and
can differentiate into nearly all
cells, i.e. cells derived from any of the
three germ layers.
Multipotent stem
cells
can
differentiate into a number of cell
37
types, but only those of a closely related family of cells.

Oligopotent stem cells can differentiate into only a few cell types, such as
lymphoid or myeloid stem cells.
Unipotent cells can produce only one cell type, their own, but have the property
of self-renewal, which distinguishes them from non-stem cells (e.g. progenitor
cells, muscle stem cells).
Embryonic and Adult stem cells

Embryonic stem cells
Embryonic stem (ES) cells are stem cells derived from the inner cell mass of a
blastocyst, an early-stage embryo. Human embryos reach the blastocyst stage 45
days post fertilization, at which time they consist of 50150 cells. ES cells
are pluripotent and give rise during development to all derivatives of the three
primary germ layers: ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm. In other words, they
can develop into each of the more than 200 cell types of the adult body when
given sufficient and necessary stimulation for a specific cell type. They do not
contribute to the extra-embryonic membranes or the placenta.
Many nations currently have moratorium on either ES cell research or the
production of new ES cell lines.
However, because of their combined abilities of unlimited expansion and
pluripotency, embryonic stem cells remain a theoretically potential source
for regenerative medicine and tissue replacement after injury or disease.
Adult stem cells
Adult stem cells, also called somatic stem cells, are stem cells which maintain and
repair the tissue in which they are found. They can be found in children, as well as
adults.
Pluripotent adult stem cells are rare and generally small in number, but they can
be found in umbilical cord blood and other tissues. Bone marrow is a rich source
38
of adult stem cells, which have been used in treating several conditions including
spinal cord injury, liver cirrhosis, and chronic limb ischemia and end stage heart
failure.
The quantity of bone marrow stem cells declines with age and is greater in males
than females during reproductive years.
Much adult stem cell research to date has aimed to characterize their potency and
self-renewal capabilities. DNA damage accumulates with age in both stem cells
and the cells that comprise the stem cell environment. This accumulation is
considered to be responsible, at least in part, for increasing stem cell dysfunction
with aging.
Most adult stem cells are lineage-restricted.
Adult stem cell treatments have been successfully used for many years to treat
leukemia and related bone/blood cancers through bone marrow transplants. Adult
stem cells are also used in veterinary medicine to treat tendon and ligament
injuries in horses.
The use of adult stem cells in research and therapy is not as controversial as the
use of embryonic stem cells, because the production of adult stem cells does not
require the destruction of an embryo.
Disadvantages of Stem Cell treatment
Stem cell treatments may require immune suppression because of a

requirement for radiation before the transplant to remove the patient's previous
cells, or because the patient's immune system may target the stem cells. One
approach to avoid the second possibility is to use stem cells from the same patient
who is being treated.
Pluripotency in certain stem cells could also make it difficult to obtain a
specific cell type. It is also difficult to obtain the exact cell type needed, because
not all cells in a population differentiate uniformly. Undifferentiated cells can
create tissues other than desired types.
Some stem cells form tumors after transplantation.
39
Cancer Cells
Cancer cells are cells that grow and
divide at a rapid and unregulated pace.
What is Apoptosis?
Although cancer cells are regularly created
Apoptosis is a process of programmed
in the body, the disease known as cancer
cell death that occurs in multicellular
only occurs when immune cells
organisms. Biochemical events lead to
characteristic cell changes and death.
(particularly natural killer cells) fail to
These changes include cell shrinkage,
recognize and/or destroy them.
nuclear
fragmentation,
chromatin
condensation,
chromosomal
DNA
In the past a common belief was that
fragmentation, and global mRNA decay.
cancer cells failed to be recognized and
Between 50 and 70 billion cells die each
destroyed because of a weakness in
day due to apoptosis in the average
human adult. For an average child
the immune system. However more recent
between the ages of 8 and 14,
research has shown that the failure to
approximately 20 billion to 30 billion
recognize cancer cells is caused by the lack
cells die a day.
of particular co-stimulated molecules that
Please note that when we meet with an
aid
in
the
way antigens react
accident and get hurt then the damage
of cells is not Apoptosis. In this case, it is
with lymphocytes.
called Necrosis, which is a type of
Stem cell research suggests that too
traumatic cell death.
much SP2 protein may turn stem cells into
cancer cells. Other issues thought to play a
role in the spread of cancer include viruses, immune system issues, genetics,
environment and age. However, a lack of particular co-stimulated molecules that
aid in the way antigens react with lymphocytes can impair the natural killer cells'
function, ultimately leading to cancer.
Cancer cells are created when the genes responsible for regulating cell
division are damaged. Damage to DNA (mutations) can be caused by exposure
to radiation, chemicals, and other environmental sources (Smoking Causes
Cancer), but mutations also accumulate naturally over time through uncorrected
40
errors in DNA transcription, making age another risk factor. This may eventually
result in the rapid, uncontrolled growth characteristic of cancer cells.
41

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Presiding officer (Lok Sabha)

There is a provision for a speaker and a deputy speaker who can

He/she is the symbol of impartiality.

Speaker Pro Tem

His/her impartiality and independence is

Whenever, there is absence of Speaker, he/she carries out the duties of

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As the name suggests, Shadow Cabinet is

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like providing constructive criticism to the government policies, providing an

Cases for lapsing of bill

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adjournment is for suspension of sitting and Prorogation for suspension of

A starred question is marked by an asterisk (*). It requires an oral answer

An unstarred question is answered in written and cannot have

Substantive Motion: It deals with very important matter like impeachment

Substitute Motion: It is a motion that is moved in substitution of an original

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Different types of motion

Censure Motion: It is moved against an individual minister or a group of

Differences between Censure motion and No confidence motion

It is moved against the entire council of

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The revolt of 1857 First major challenge

system was declared illegal and

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of the British, fearful and suspicious character

Three Land Tenure Systems

Permanent settlement system was

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only interest of Company, 'Maximum revenue with minimum efforts', made

Company used to provide troops in the

The hinterlands were no longer peaceful. Let it be North India having

Immediate cause for revolt of 1857

Spread and Zenith of revolt

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Why this revolt failed?

Positive outcomes of revolt

Shahenshah-e-Hindustan; Jhansi ki Rani had good support of Afghan soldiers;

Concluding aspects of revolt

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Cell, its structure and functions

Prokaryotes LACK membrane bound Nucleus, Mitochondria, Chloroplasts,

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Difference between Animal and Plant cell

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Composition of a typical Cell and their functions

The nucleolus is a discrete densely stained structure found in the nucleus. It

Isolating materials that might be harmful or a threat to the cell

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Containing small molecules

Chloroplasts are organelles, specialized subunits, in plant and algal cells.

Chloroplasts' main role is to conduct photosynthesis, where the

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Normally four cells, each with half the

Two cells, having the same

Sexual reproduction, production of

Reproductive cells of almost all

All proliferating cells in all

Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I,

Yes, normally occurs between each