TURKEY

AN

RELATIONS

SKETCH

HISTORICAL

BETWEEN

THE

REPRINTED,

CHRISTENDOM

AND

WITH

THE

OF

STATES

OF

ADDITIONS,
"EDINBURGH

THE

OTTOMAN

THE

EMPIRE

EUROPE.

FROM

No.

CLXXXIII.

REVIEW."

LONDON:

LONGMAN,

BROWN,

GREEN,
1854.

AND

LONGMANS.

OF

oiittt

TURKEY.

centuries

Three

the

was

expulsion
and

Constantine,
scourge

and

the

misbelievers

Cross.

which

the

The

and

causes

possible,by

opinion,such
been

will

gathering

we

what

the

be

without

This

long heen

was

chronic.

to

postpone,
the

menace,

of this curious
trace

and
and

the

tion
revolu-

ascertain,

to

changes

public policy have

presumed,

Eastern

in the

nor

for

warrant

autumn

that

of

the

have

heavens*

its moral

reasonable

-written

maintain

at

of

length

us.

among

disquisitionand

our

of

the

is to

and

of events,

sequence

naturally be
on

to

purpose

from

present age,

and

city of

again give place to

must

progress

conditions

accredited

It

the

cabinets

same

men
states-

the

Europe

In

settlements

Crescent

of sentiment
if

of

infidel.

of the

from

expedients of diplomacy

all known
at

deliverance

in their

of Christian

Turks

of the

of the

desire

absorbing

hour

the

terror

the

by

the first vow

ago^

clouds

suggested

should
such

1849, hut the

we,

an

Turkish

now

both

indeed,
introduc-

crisis has

TURKEY.

subject. But

tion of the
to

dissolution of

prophesythe

been,for
believe

in
generations,

five

might

we

feelit would

we

sinkingfortunes

in the

the

recounted
thankfully

fifty
years
and

Growth
Poland

century

wore

more

Turkey was

its natural term

Even

signsof

such

broughtno
on

and
frequent;

seemed
the end

Empire,
Knollea
two

dred
hun-

discoursed of "the

Empire,"while
As the

as

the

eighteenth
both

more

ence
existartificial

lation.
within the limits of easy calcuwhich

of the last war,

left

so

and strengthened,
repaired

of Othman.

similar reliefto the House

cluded,
Ex-

the contrary,from the arrangements of the

had yet beset her.

peace

for

at

that

none

the

worse

Congressof Vienna,
than
perils

In the great peace

of

any which

Europe there

Constantinople.
Thirtyyears since,

the historian of the Middle

assurance

seek,

the close of
hardlyyet anticipated,

Turkey remained exposedto

no

the

reflections became

great European settlement

was

did not

tale.

Ottoman

of the

We

Christian

no

its decline

Cantemir

ago.

crumblingmonarchies

many

his

kingdom.
powerful

on,

and
justifiable

of

the

Decay

stilla

was

of

now

agony.

impendingfall of

or

commendation

point and

and

its nominal

who
history,

writer has treated of Ottoman

has

State which

assert,that

to

venture

perilous

be

can

deem

subversion of the Ottoman

Ages expected,"with

an

the approaching
extravagant,
"

power;

and the progres-

OF

DAWNINGS

of

current

Bive

has

events

since this conviction

avowed.

was

has

Yet, though

memberme
though territorial dis-

the
stillglitters
on

Crescent

still u the

internal

supervened upon
partially

the imperialfabric
disorganisation,

Turkish

arch
tottering

the

dissolution that then seemed

appeared,and

now

TOWER.

in no degreechanged
certainly

of imminent

only symptom

wantinghas

TURKISH

still stands

the

"

and

Bosphorus
"

of conquest spans

the

ample

regionsfrom Bagdad to Belgrade."

Without

therefore,the
repeating,

prophecy,we

shall direct

elucidation of the

involved
questions

is to illustratethe

Empire,as
to

one

exhibit the

mark

which

the

State upon

were

"

and

by
to

dreaded

the

at

which

its growth.

its

political
malous
ano-

so

to

its external

the stages
distinguish

it

sively
succes-

Empire of the Ottomans

dominions

of
position

not

rially
mate-

Protected State,

the interested patronage of

subsisting,
apparently,
by

those very Powers

which

through which

virtually,
though with

into
diminished,

to

of Europe;

affairs of Christendom;

influence

until the
passed,
dwindled

Our purpose

subsequentaction of

the

determined

of estimation and

in it.

conduced

the fluctuations of fortune

relations

the historical

to

of the substantive Powers

trace

of

note

establishment of the Ottoman

originand

causes

recognition
; to

remarks

our

ominous

had

been

so

scared and

dalised
scan-

TURKEY.

be thought remarkable,that
reasonably

It may

establishment of

onset,

for the

however,
explanation,

there

the gates of

provoked,at

of
expulsion

of this

several considerations

are

Europe

effective combination

prompt and

Christian world

whole

In

at

have
not, in those ages of faith,

should
very

infidelPower

an

the

the

of the

the intruder.

apathyor impotence,
In

be mentioned.

to

the
the firstplace,

in
phenomenon coincided singularly,

pointof time,with

the definite abandonment

of Eastern

crusades.

to

growing reluctance

contribute

the

Land

in

them.

conduced

The

State

was
principle

almost

was

neither promoted

the credit of those

total loss of the

Holy

the

then

the

Avith

of its

scene

be inferred from

complete,
may

harl been

years

of
later,

mainlyinstrumental
The

dynastyis placedin

in the year 1309, the

the origin of the

from

arms

of the misbelievers.

the Ottoman

that

extinction,
too, of the crusading

suppression,
onlyten

order which

so

exactly
contemporaneous

of Christian

That

growth.

the march

people

ment
1291,precededbut by eightyears the enthrone-

the withdrawal

violent

of States and

to

final and

of the first Othman

Turkish

defeat;and had

which
expeditions

towards

objectsnor

engagedin

last of these

and

seventh

resulted in scandal and

had
enterprises

disclosed the

The

of the system

that

in

military

checking
of

commencement

the year

the

1299

KnightsTemplars,except as

and,
cap-

DAWNINGS

tives

or

ceased

had
pensioners,

rise of the Turkish

power

to

create

announcement,
As

of
exception

the

of kindred
possession

of Ottomans

its sovereignty
over
It is

true
certainly

the

and

suggestthat

horde had

that

justestablished

duchies of Russia.

of nations which

concert

the

the first faint

aid
new

of

of
metropolis

was
European princes

and

when

at

wards
aftera

man
dread of Otto-

foreshadowings

characterise

it was

been made

not
a

the Eastern

enclave in Turkish

mere

invaders

which

But

beginning. Adrianoplehad

become

became

of
standingrequirements

of Europe.
history

the

vasions
in-

zeal,did origincrusading
ally

of

remnants

the

of Mogul
exigencies

the

State-combinations

and
capital,

the actual

unparalleled
nomenon
phe-

the dismembered

induced
aggression

modern

tion
substitu-

mere

Even

the
political
equilibrium
; and, perhaps,

those

in

the firstcritical point

was

Tartar

by
systematised

of

with
peninsula,

kingdom stillflourished on

for a Moorish
a

the

Europe.

presentedno

progress,

Guadalquivir
; and

entire

could hardlybe thought

Seljukians

which
passage of the Straits,

of Turkish

at its first
calculated,

tribes ; and

the interests of

menace

the

was

had longbeen
seaboard,

its western

for

Nor

exist.

tion.
consternaextraordinary

any

regardsAsia Minor, the

the

to

to

event

an

POWER.

TURKISn

OF

so

at

the
the

Mahometan
Cassars had

before
territory,

the

forthcomingagainstthe
length the Christian allies

TURKEY.

and the infidelforces joined battle in the field of Nicothe

polis,

by

Ottoman
the

impunityand

desirable
which

century.

be

us, it may

the
particularly

to

events

these allusions refer.

When

the dominion

into two, the

East,or,

as

ImperialRome

of

divided

was

of the

the Empire
moiety constituting

it

was

tine
commonly termed,the Byzan-

more

Empire,included

the Thracian and Grecian

provinces,

and Egypt.
Asia Minor, Syria,
Archipelago,

of
capital

this

Empire was

and itclaimed
as

of

subjectbefore

explainmore

to

impregnably
strengthened

successes

elucidation of the

In

the

had been

power

the elder and

at

branch
superior

however,were

very

under
issuing,

the

soon

nople,
Constanti-

Byzantium or

of
precedence

the Western

of the two.

dismembered.

The

Empire,
Its territories,
The

cens
Sara-

impulseof Mahometanism, from

the Byzantinemonarchy
the deserts of Arabia,stripped
of its Egyptian and
power

by

invaders

the Norman

and

dangerousas

conquest of England,a

Turkmans, from the

an

as

eastern

into the
irruption

established
ultimately

under the

shores of the

themselves

of the house
chieftainship

of

the time of
of Turks

swarm

territoriesof

In

themselves.

of the eleventh century,about

the middle

made

declined,
theywere

Caliphssoon
original

of the

succeeded

Syrianprovinces
; and thoughthe

or

CaspianSea,

ByzantineAsia,
in Asia

Minor,

Seljuk.From

that

DAWNING

OF

tlie Eastern
time forward,although
effected
was

at Nice, within
capital

fixed their

itself.
Constantinople

dynastythat
result was,

that the infidels

driven back

made

nearlytwo

centuries

the Asiatic

of
provinces

more

invaders.

to

providedsufficient scope
the

doubt,because

no

science insured them

Towards
"

the

of

Swiss

foundations
of

of the

for their conquests, and

of the
superiority

Asia

throne

was

the election

the
laying

of Austria

in naval

thirteenth century

preparingthe
of

partly,

sea.

when

moment

progeny

from
continent,

Greeks

of the

the Germanic

were
equal singularity

Asiatic

long

lodgment

because
probability,

House
imperial

rival Caesars for the

The

all

the very

knightto

had

occupationof

the

effected

never

the command

al

seen, that

be

Empire

close,
however, of the

that is to say,

for

ventured
invaders,
however, rarely

and
straits,

Europe ; partly,in

in

the Eastern

completelyin

These

the

cross

their dominions

It will thus

more.

less

or

Iconium,which

far as

of
metropolis

the

the
their

dislodgedfrom
as

of

of this

Turks

and
directed,

were

were

even

short distance

againstthe

was

the first crusades

at Nice,and
position

citythey

It

Selju-

kingdom,and

substantial

largeand

Minor

The

of these invaders.

cleared
entirely

kians formed

Turkish

frequently

emperors

Asia
partial
reconquests of their territories,

never

been

TOWER.

TURKISH

Turkish

its central

seat

"

events

of the

freebooter.

to
highlands

the

10

TURKEY.

shores of the

by

had been utterly

convulsed
Mediterranean,

the tremendous

Zingis Khan,

destroyed
by
which

and

the

In the

the banks

the hills of

families. A
a

princeof

respectable
territory,
by the

and the estate

in 1289, upon

his

Osman

son

of
later,

years

Iconium,no longerhesitated

sovereignty.Such
The

was

been

recognised
by

ally
origin-

Ortogruldevolved,

Othman, who

at

the
of

his independent
proclaim
the House

is a vernacular

of Othman.

of
epithet

tl
a
bone-breaker,"has
signifies

the Turks

as

do theyidentify
their
completely

for the

had

Sultan
impoverished

of the national character

its founder,
that

expandedinto

talents which

of
origin

which
itself,

name

royalvulture,and

the

the

to

dered
renaccidentally

soon

was

or

the

himself

acknowledged
by

The inheritance of

it.
acquired

chief,named

the head of four

service which he
the country, was

was

tions
commo-

Oxus, found

Anatolia,at

grant of land

conquero^

of the

course

of the

death,ten

Mogul

ensued,a certain Turcoman

wanderingin

to

the

Seljukianmonarchy

the shock.

from
Ortogrul,

hundred

of
Irruptions

not

and

disagreeably
bolical
symmission

and

so

State with the

race

of

all other
theyhave foregone

tions
denomina-

title of the Ottoman

and
dignity,
style,

Porte.*

The

word

"Porte"

to an
interpreters

is derived

Oriental

from

phrase. It

was

version

a
an

ancient

given by
custom

Italian

of Eas-

THE

HOUSE

assumed
of course, the independence
first,

At

Ottoman

chiefs

accompaniedby

not

was

authority.They

favourable
peculiarly

were

withdrew

from

the

emirs
provincial

many

contest

Into

had
or

Othman

as
exactly

had

it

done ; and

which
not
we

for its observance

;

its chiefs

it is known

and

of their

Office,"and
"

or

whence
the

term

"

the

The

was
speaking,

of the laws

event

who

Grand

"

became

Sultan's Court

were

the title of
"

Gate

Lofty Gate."

Dragomans,

was

It

enter.
particularly

spicuous
con-

ritual of

and

that
greater certainty,

that the

was,

the Scripturalexpression
to sit,
as
office,

palaces.

them.

contest

Turks

in administering justice,
other
or exercising
sovereigns,

of their

"

evident

was

for military
and
eminentlydistinguished

were

abilities.
political

tern

this

are

with

dence
indepen-

arrive between

would

by

the

In fact,
disorganised.
their

is said that the clan of which

Mahomet

Mahometan

asserted
princes

need

decided,we
eventually

head; for the Moguls

been

for supremacy

circumstances

the

period

of their conquests, and

scene

Seljukian
government

conside
in-

an

of the

extraction,and

left without

been

of

dynasticambition.

to

of Turkish
largepopulation,
had
religion,

extensive

any

the circumstances

these

by

stillonly the leaders

were

clan ; but

that

11

OTIIMAN.

OF

The

This

with

thus synonymous
was

called

phrase,in
Porte.

as
Seignior,"
appliedto

at
"

functions
the Gate"

Court," or

by excellence, the

the literal translations

mostly Italians,became
Sublime

runs,

"

To
the

the

"

La
same

Emperor

Porta
source

of

"

alted,"
Ex-

of the

Sublime,"
we

owe

of the Ottomans.

12

TURKEY.

Asia Minor

of the
acknowledgedthe sovereignty

of Othman

instead of that of the House

the

Prusa

cityof

Brusa became

or

of

House

and
Seljuk,

the seat of the

new

dynasty.
It

was

be

to

now

or
aggressive

more

the

whether

seen

formidable

to
on

side of them

one

the dimensions
the

of

in
opportunities,

than

turned

those of Oth-

them

to

account.

its environs

and
Constantinople

and, before
rightand left,

"

at

distracted

of the Ottoman
Asiatic

this

by

narchy
periodthe Byzantinemo-

civil war,
had

and

the

competitors

the
experienced

power

own

contests.

sometimes

of

the aid of

secure

This

In the service sometimes

Europe.

the straits; and at

had become

Minor

solicitous to

such useful alliesin their

and

of its

sixtyyears

in the vain attempt to defend their

arms

were
possessions,

into

the

the lords of Prusa.

to

Imperialthrone,who

for the

of Othman

House

Asia
terminated,

happened that
was

Turks

hands

predecessors.The

obedient
generally
It

The

was

laythe Byzantineempire,shrunk

had
firstreigns

two

: nor
Seljukians

be

effete principalities
of
or
other,the fragmentary

their Turkish
struck

have

might

successors

would

were
presenting
themselves,

far weaker

that
peculiar,

man's

On

than

left longundecided.
question

now
fact,of aggrandisement
so

Ottomans

took the

of one

tender,
pre-

crossed
another,
theyrepeatedly

was
lengththe opportunity

found

of

THE

HOUSE

13

OTHMAK.

OF

a permanent
establishing
lodgmenton European ground.

So

the

rapidwas

the fourteenth

century,the northern

with Turkish

studded

was

of events, that

course

third Ottoman

and

more,

years

at
generation

and

the very

the very

on

find these

we

far

the

as

Balkan,

more

had

the banks

Europe,as

well

of the

hands

empireof

the

be concluded

Moslem

these
against

as

much

it

can

before five years

Christian hosts

and

Thus

ByzantineAsia,was

were

Byzantine

passinginto

Turks,and nothingremained

the

of the old

East,except its capital.It

will

that considerations,
either of

sight
forepolitical

fierce and

combined

that

time,was

onlybe explainedby

naturally

the forces of Europe

enemies.
unbelieving

however,at
opinion,

and

and

of the Danube.

zeal,had
religious

or

By

have said,the first of their countless

as
we
delivering,

battles on

empire,

of their present fortunes.

scene

the
elapsed,

few

of the third

Ottomans

limits of their present

they had occupiedWiddin

very

reference

The

state

remarkable,
to

events

of

earlierdate.

There
even

little difficulty
in conquering

territoriesas

1390

of

shore of the straits

at Adrianople. A
a second
erecting
metropolis

and

of

and Amurath, the

garrisons;

found
sovereign,

the Thracian

middle

by the

had

existed

and
always national distinctions,

between
antipathies,

and these

were

the Greeks

confirmed and

and the

by the
developed

Romans;
transferof

14

TURKEY.

the seat of government from

which

Rome

of one
appearedto put the capital
of
capital

the

to

occasioned

the other.

accession of strength
from

Roman

world

the dominion
decreed

and

of the

Emperor

Western

tible
inexhaus-

At

Empire,the

East, Leo

of the

III.

mandate

The

the Italian clergyand the

of

was

bishopsof Rome,
was,

by

empireof

an

Charlemagne.The

time later

some

the

that the

threw offtheir temporal

to the Eastern
allegiance

the person

difference

schism

the West

was

in

aggravated
article of

concerningan

until
certain pointsof ritual,
on
creed,and disputes

lengthmatters
the

and

peoplewere
and

fresh and

images.

revived
throne,and ultimately

at

between
rivalry

the result of the conflictthus created

Romans

the

thus
jealousies

under
againthrown nominally

was

the destruction of

opposedby

tion
opposi-

schism.
religious

periodwhen, by the abeyanceof the

whole

nation in

The

the

quickenedby

were

Empires; but they derived

two

Constantinople,

to

Latin

Christian
heretics

the

open

Greek

and

ture,
rup-

Latin

exasperated
by the animosities of the Greek
churches.

The

of the
therefore,
subjects,

Empires regardedeach
or

lengthof

of the
political
jealousies

other

between

consequences

manifest in the events

two

as
reciprocally

and littleconnection
schismatics,

pathy survived
The

proceededto

or

syru-

them.
of

this schism

of the Crusades.

were

The

soon

made

nations of

ANTAGONISM

the West
Turks

been

had

in the

so

the deliverance of

Greeks

treated each other with

theysoon

than the

common

of their

to

the

thus introduced

the

conqueredby

been

Latin

to the
peculiarly
pertain

It resulted from

and
new

arms,

Latin

all these

of Turks
positions

portendmore
of Tartar

on

dynasty

reverted

and
Archipelago,

this

Holy Places,having
held
naturally

were

to

Church.

events, that

and Christians

the borders

Christianity

of

thoughthe

were

lative
re-

wholly

now

attitude of the

Germany

did

really

serious results than the transient irruptions

savages, yet the

States underwent
the

no

deportmentof the European

alteration.
corresponding

sympathyfeltfor the

Greeks

indeed

was

and

confirmed the antagonism between

so

Latins

Empire

changed,and though the

alarmingly
invaders

the

was
Especially

the

in Palestine,where

case

seated

certain element of Latin

into the territoriesof the Greeks.

the

end

theylongretained possessions

the Greeks; but

Holy Land, the Morea, and

in the

Latins,

and

UltiConstantinople.

and
expelled,

timatelythey wrere
anew

of

the throne

on

owm

and
capital,

the Greek

was

greater hostility

in the

and

enemy,

sacked
actually

to

arms

but such

ByzantineEmpire ;

between
the ill feeling
prevailing
that

in

they marched

that

of the

excesses

of course
Jerusalem,and incidentally

the relief of the

to

scandalised at the

Holy Land,

15

LATINS.

AND

G KEEKS

OF

So small

themselves,

them

and

the

16

TURKEY.

the

endangeredby

Byzantineterritories h"d
it is possible
the
dynasty,

new

been left to work

have

might

but

if none

that
Latins,

Empire,had

attackingthe kingdom
within the

states

of

paleof the

of Western

Hungary, had

alarmed

Latin Church.

The

the

quence
conse-

chivalry

overthrown
completely

Europe was

Still,
however, the
exercised

of the

progress

influence
proportionate

no

Europe,nor

did the

by

Ottoman

Christian

cityprovokeany

the

Thracian

and

the

on

impendingfate

and

the

of

arms

councils

imperial

an

After

serviceable aid.

which

Bulgarianconquests, to

we

for the firsttime in its

alluded,Constantinople,

have

environed by enemies
completely

existence,was
became

clear to the Greek

with whom
mould

theyhad
from the

now

emperors,
to

king

Greek

of them

Caesar entertained
on

Blackheath

and

very
had

so

Yet, though four

often
rors
empe-

search of

Europe in

Kentish

yeomen

in St. Austin's

by a

it

ent
differ-

even
broughthis petition

of this island,and

received

of

swarminghordes,which

in succession visited Western

aid,and thoughone

that the invaders

deal,were

swept past them and retired.

and

Danube, and by

levies.

Turkish

the

old frontier

in which the
the battle of Nicopolis,

was

of

crossed the

Turks

discretion.

at

had overstepped
the
princes

But the Ottoman

of the Eastern

their way

been

Lancastrian

saw

to
a

monastery,

sovereign.

18

TURKEY.

of Norman
dispositions
that

the

these

on

of

exponent
Roman

The
to

the

to

of

other

than

it
co-operation

Europe,took

the Romish

See

Emperor Manuel,

Neither

effectual

the Eastern

confined

to

the

ciliatory
con-

in
and, excepting

of the
negotiations

the limits of the

the Greek

could

the form of

State be

European sympathiesas

to

and

no

whose

bered,
remem-

moderator

therefore,of
application,

the Powers

of the

be

to organise
an
scarcely
possible

visiterswere
imperial
Court.

occasions

"

overtures
case

but it must

Pontiff, without

crusade.

the

European opinionwas

would have been

emperors

barons

Papal

represented
exactly

Christian

city

to bay,and desperately
broughtfinally
against
battling

the

overwhelmingforces

which

Turks

precluded
any
been

such

had for

of their mutual
description

was

worse,

by

amityand good-will.Ottoman

in

John

ship.
relation-

the two

States

the camp

were
princes

of the Ottomans

butes,
tri-

of

ordinary
passages

the Christian court, and Christian

lodgedin

educated

honourably
princes
;

mosque

was

lerated
to-

of the Emperor
and a daughter
Constantinople;

Cantacuzene

the Turkish
not

the

on

living,

by
openlycompromisedby concessions,

and,what

at

terms

time been

some

presumptiveantagonismof

The
had

Greeks

and

of the infidel. The

was

givenin marriageto

sovereigns.That

on
whollyvoluntary

the second of

these arrangements were

the side of the weaker

partywe

BE1

RELATIONS

such

operatedto

appealto

Meantime
a

the

the

Oriental

emperors,

Christian

Europe.

the Turkish

steadiness

people. Two

conduced
principally

here be

power

had

been

unexampledin
three of the

or

this remarkable

to

rightto specify.The

into Europe mighthave been

have

in their

growingwith
the

of
history
which

causes

it
result,

may

of the Ottomans

passage

longretarded by the simple

While

expedientof guardingthe Straits.

of

the power

in the
Empire consisted almost solely

the Greek

terially
ma-

must

of the
disadvantage

sympathy of

and
certainty

an

of circumstances

combination

19

GREEKS.

AM)

but it will stillbe evident how

believe;
safely

may

TURKS

Wl.l

relics

and furnished with

stillrespectably
of its fleet,
appointed,
of
appliances

formidable

the most
to

the age, the Turks

of

shipsand

few

of the

science which

onlywere

forces of Orchan

the

with such
the

even

them.

concerned

Ottomans
means

Amurath;

permittedto

The

next

of the Turks

European troops.

on

the

and

yet

mainlyeffected by
Ottomans

ment,
lodg-

European side,

careless scoffs in the

The

channel

turbed,
pass undis-

notice is,that
pointinviting
were

but
they could extemporise,

fortified themselves

producednothingbut
court.

as

and

of their having secured

intelligence

and

of

destitute both
comparatively

were

the
protected
might have effectually
galleys

againstall the
not

naval warfare known

Imperial
the

quests
con-

the agency

will be found to

20

TURKEY.

have

as
conqueredthe Byzantineprovinces

and
India, by enlisting

country. Only 400 families had

of his

obeyed the
originally

it isclear,therefore,
jects
that the sub-

and
ofOrtogrul;

voice

have been swelled in numbers

must

successors

accessions from other tribes : in fact,the progress

by

the Ottomans

merelythe

was

of Asia Minor.

onward

this,however,would have

Even

impulsiveforce,but

institutionwhich

we

Janizaries

The

from
at

were

that

the

of Christian

sons

from the rest

distinct
totally

singular

recruited

afterwards
captives;

of
subjects

the

Porte,

of the soldiers themselves;

military
caste,with

pure

and

formed
originally

those of any Christian

lengthfrom

for the

to mention.

now

impressedchildren

from the

and

are

habits

of the

and

interests

people,was

dually
gra-

established in the very heart of the nation.

number

century
was

only one

was

thousand; but this muster-roll

the Great

and
thousand,

in the German

to double that
so

wars, under

is not

constituted shoidd

main instrument
have been

Solyman,it reached

strength.It

so

of Turkish

tillat

successive emperors,

repeatedly
multiplied
by

body

The

of the Janizaries in the middle of the fourteenth

under
length,

of

flow of the population

been deficient in

so

natives 6f the

the
disciplining

"

conquered

we

not

to

twenty

IV.,

Mahomed

that
littlesingular

only have

been the

but
aggrandisement,

identified with
inveterately

should

Ottoman

tra-

BAJAZET

as at
ditions,

to any

AXD

MAHOMET

all times to have funned

social

the chiefobstacle

constitutionalreforms.

or

21

I.

Xor

should

be overlooked,that the creation and maintenance

Standing
army,
descent and

isolated from

of
authority

furnish the Turkish

the tumultuous

levies of

of Othman

its
Originally

those permanent

they escaped

dynasties
; and

Hungary

and

Emir

been

BajazetI.,by

but

the

more

of
pretensions

with the titleof

content

to

means

which

shall immediate

we

denomination
dignified

of his
Already,in justification
had

by

which

the very

threatened with
in
specify

change. We

few words

subverted, the whole

which
which

scattered

the

In the

can

do

no

more

which

occurrences

to
acquisitions

render its restoration

incidents of

occurred

events

one

of the

than

abruptly

superstructureof Turkish

all its

of Sultan.

itself appearedto be

of Fate

course

end

assumptions,

new

when
Constantinople,

he invested

nary
ordi-

with all

refer,procuredfor himself,towards the

of the century, the

sources,
re-

encountered

Germany
The

to

with its achievements.

kept pace

chief had

dynasty,and

new

advantagesof despotic
power.

the House

to
powerfully

most

with
sovereigns

vicissitudesof Oriental

the

the

virtue of which

of this

popularsympathiesby

contributed
character,

consolidate the

in

all

it

power;

the winds, and

most

nary
extraordi-

history.

heightof

his power

and

Bajazet
presumption,

22

was

By

TURKEY.

carried into

conqueredand

captivity
by

Timour

this defeat the inheritance of his house became

Its Asiatic

dissolved.
entirely

appearance

to

all

possessions,

by the conqueror,
though contemptuouslyabandoned
of the old Selseized upon by the representatives
were
from
regainedthe positions

jukianhouse,

who

they had

dislodged
; while

been

turned

was

the Greeks.

between

the

House, instead

among
existed

and

concord

by

its existence,
by
may

so

be described

yet within
the
his time

ten

mosc

and

to

length,by

and

anew;
crown

the

his

extinction of other

family,and
Prusa.

enabled

when

in

met,
Maho-

Bajazet,waited

of

sons

both
recovering

Adrianopleand

the

"

the

in

stage of

a shock,
shattering

sagaciousof

feignof eightyears
dominicvi

in history and
parallel

without

European conquests of
thrones of

such

effected.
completely

claims,succeeded

the

their
repairing

years it was

at

and

heritagewhich hardly

destructive and
as

desperately
fighting

dismantled,at

and

reviving

perfectrestoi'ation of

The

name.

State,dismembered

of

were
patience,

themselves,for
in

save

the

ensued
Bajazetpresently

heirs of the Ottoman

fortunes

by

complete the ruin,civil war

To

of

sons-

Europe the opportunity

similar account

to

of
spirit

in

which

A
him

the

Asiatic and

in

the
reuniting

and
peaceful
to

dent
pru-

consolidate his

1421, Amurath

of his father,the Ottoman

II.

ceeded
suc-

Power

OF

CAPTURE

as
sound,and
vigorous,

as

was

Angora had

battle of
We

are

the Ottoman

House

at

this time the progress

to

had

arms

European

statesmen

Turkish

new

which
history

and
we

as

event

disposi
stillfurther in-

alarm.

or

lengthlaid siegeto

subverted

East, and

as

by

this act

substituted
to

of those which

one

to
serving

now

can

temporary

its place. It has been usual

Empire in

epoch;

nor

exertion

II. at

of the

Empire

this memorable
a

the recent

to

Constantinople
; capturedit ;
ancient

few insincere

annihilation of the Ottoman

But in the year 1453,Mahomet

the

Up

of the Turkish

renown

in
operatedmaterially

have

must

and

presumingthat

and apparent
suspension

Power

determined.
finally

crusade
singleprecipitate

in

be wrong

we

the destinies of

Europe to nothingbut

stimulated

leaguesand

be

if the

fought.

periodwhen

to

were

as
aggressive

as

been

never

arrived

now

23

CONSTANTINOPLE.

introduce that

scribe
de-

mark

periodof

Modern.

term
emphatically

doubtedl
Un-

the definite and final extinction of the Roman

the diffusion of Greek

Empire,and
the agency
no

of the

note
ordinary

were
Byzantinerefugees,

but

of Mahomet's
the Ottomans

by far the
success

themselves.

were

As

be said that the destruction

left any

literature,
through

void
perceptible

in the

most

incidents of

consequences
important

those which

affected

not
regardsEurope,it can-

of the

Greek

Empire

community of States.

24

TURKEY.

As

lished
had yet been estabsystem of mutual relationship

no

Christian Powers,

among

such
of

could

member,
particular

ensue

in the

and,even

of concert

which had

consideration.
had

been

the capture of

expectedto

transient

examples

occurred,the Byzantine
occasionally
influence
appreciable

without

tions
European func-

no
Since,therefore,

dischargedby

loss could
positive

be

then

and
partial

monarchy had long been

or

the extinction

in the presentday follow on

would

as

disturbance,
special

no

the Greek

Empire, no

be felt from its destruction ;

of
Constantinople

much

nor

was

cance,
greater signifi-

in this respect,than the capture of Delhi.

of

was

vacancy

seat

material

most

over

as
importance.It created,

in the listof
to

of central power,

years

It gave

between

status

secure.

It

and
Adrianople

of the Turkish

conveyed to

the House

littlebut

of

famous

Othman,

which it needed
and

vered
deli-

and

forayswould

precludedall .futureantagonism

permanent cohesion between

dominions

to

of successful invasions

have failed to

it were,

of the oldest and most

one

the
single
day,exactly

which

event

and
monarchies,
recognised

wanted
State,which already

of Europe.
capitals
in

of the Ottomans, the

the rising
affecting
power

as

But

Prusa
the

and

their

of which
traditionalpretensions,

established

Europeanand
More

crown.

the Sultans and

they soon

Asiatio

than this

successors

"

it

certain
discovered

26

TURKEY.

had

sacked

been

by

for

generations
past

Tet

as
abruptly

had

been

the blow

at

was

the horror

of

last felt to

descend,it

Europe.

long been visiblysuspended: and, although no

human

Caesars in their

established in
Danube

while
capital,

the
Euphrates,

responsibility
upon

cityhad
Imperial

shock of the Ottoman

been

from
supplied

that the

the

of
chivalry

succour

Avas

was

both

to

under

arms,

and twice

as

force of
many

the walls

only six

; so

at
represented,

auxiliaries.

in which

manner

had
of

Yet,

effectual

circumstances,was

investment
duringthe previous
with
by Bajazet,

inadequate

for
opportunity

the diversion which

from

and

was

thousand

such

Europe.

three-fourths of whom

men,

and

of

sustain the full

weak

evident, not onlyfrom the

the defence, even

but

allowed

Christendom

room

the

putation
heavy im-

cast

within
population

this criticalperiod,
by two
that there

to

the Powers

with
forces,

of eightthousand
garrison
were

were

actual circumstances of

as
such,nevertheless,

and

Turks

the

between
unquestionedsovereignty

the

and

siegewere

The

permanentlyprotectedthe

could have

power

Greek

the

had

deeds

whose

unbelieving
race,

an

been

tracted,
proplished,
accom-

Constantinople

hundred

men-at-

under Marshal Bouciarchers,

cault.
But

the truth
created

was,
a

that,althoughthe

momentary

actual catastrophe

and
consternation,

even

ESTABLISHMENT

ioned the

existed,as

with
fellow-feeling

suggest

fact for such

of
nor

might admit
of

actual

an

Greeks

seen

Turks

for

were

were

of combination
of
irruption

"

under

Europe in

period. The

fall of

but
sympathies,

some

more

quickenedby
the countries of the

but

far

more

on

the

So
peninsula.

this head made

of the capture of

to

the northern

event

wards
Charles V. after-

Solyman ;

regionsthey

writingsof
who

JEneas

surveyedthe

with each other

the condition of affairs

had
Constantinople

excited

selfishness. A certain
the
was

when
as
infidels,

distant

connexion

miseration,
com-

over
refugeesdispersed

feltfor the exiled Greeks

sentiment
lively
of

Italian

West,

on

the great

The

of
picture
givean intelligible
this

or

the Moguls,or
repulsed

of

enemies

new

of Christendom

of the earliest statesmen

one

several Powers

at

no

barbarians

longer available.

no

dition
conpolitical

or

exertion in the

and

in
aggressive
enterprise

Sylvius

"

social

to

facilitiesin

any

resources

scared the Ottomans

but

sufficiently
strong

for the firsttime

straits. The

Frederick II.

alreadysaid,no

expedition
; nor

The

theynow
of the

have

we

in the
enterprise

an

Europe.

were

shore

the

effective

an

27

EMriRE.

revival in certain quarters of crusading

there

vows,

OTTOMAN

OF

was

excited

triumphantOttoman
reasonable

were

the

by

the

monstra
de-

againstthe
apprehensions

appear, that within twelvemonths

war
Constantinople,

was

actuallyde-

28

TURKEY.

the
against

clared

Empire of

new

Diet ; and, five years

soldiers should be

Neither
the

of these

50,000 confederate

that

equippedfor

the conclusive

and

resolved
formally

it was
later,

Congress of Mantua,

the

at

the East in the Frankfort

the

fidel,
the in-

of
expulsion

deliverance

of Christendom.

however, proceededbeyond
designs,

menace
original

the Turks

and

puted
left in undis-

were

of their noble spoil.

possession
Between
the

of Turkish
this turning-point

which

epochto

new

there intervened
and of remarkable
"

but

not

illustrated

Danube

and

indeed

multitude
the

they were

by

But
been

the

Knights of Rhodes, this

and
to

in

few

substitute

years the
new

of
capital

dom,
Christen-

his attitude

on

shown

of

the idea of Ottoman

when

by

the victories

the successful defiance of

restlessness

objectsof

not

flocked to the standard

triumphantresistance

course

the

the

was

corrected

Belgrade,by

Scanderbeg,and by

The avowed

by

as
influence,

Hunniades.
intrepid
had
invincibility

the relations

lodgmentat Otranto,were

of volunteers who

of the Allies at

Europe.
the

their

Empire

changes in

II. upon

his actual

without

the Ottoman

material

writhWestern

as

tion,
atten-

our

periodof great generalinterest,

inducingany
Mahomet

direct

now

importanceto

of this Power

designsof

must

we

destinies and

subsided,
gradually

of events
concern

of the

in

became

such

European coun-

as

of Charles VIII.,in that

indefiniteprojects

Italywhich

giganticnational foray upon

the mediaeval constitution of
fair

had

as

a
against

respecting
prevailing

Spain,instead

and

for
deadlystruggles

been combined

be taken

after the fallof the

thirtyyears
Constantinople,
If the forces of France

disorganised

Europe,may

ideas

of the
representation

in

Perhaps

and progress of the Turks.

cilsfor the power

the wild and

29

SUPERIORITY.

TURKISH

the

city.

of then

tending
con-

of Italy,
possession

common

enemy

upon

the

that somethingmight
it is certainly
possible
Hellespont,
have been
once

appear

and
in

The great Gonzalvo did,indeed,

accomplished.
upon

had

as

scene

an

allyof

to his
with ah effect proportionate

computingthe

the

the

new

chances

Empire,it must

hitherto achieved

of any such

expedition
against
that the Turks

their conquests,not

of

and
tactics,equipments,
discipline,

respect,at least,theywere

science.

"

excellence.
military

For

many

years

those
and engineerssurpassed
artillery

European troops.

and

indicate the

departmentswhich

These

In

Their

barbarians.

no

the strongest in Europe

incomparably
in those

force

by mere

hordes,but by superiority

Tartar

numbers,like

was

But
reputation.

be remembered

of

the

the Venetians,

this
army
cially
espe-

highest

their
afterwards,
of the best appointed

advantageswould

have told with tenfold effect from such ramparts as those

of

while nothing,
on
Constantinople;

the other

hand,

30

TURKEY".

short of

and
recaptureof the city,

of the intruders,could have effected the

ment

Above

the Christian Powers.

what

was

of concert,

or

then be relied on

any

of
integrity

Turks
the

regardedas
or

former

them

Already had

degradingkind
the Ottoman

aided

had

by

in various

attracted recruits from

;

is there,we

nor

that many
standard
vizirs and
is

an

the

race

ordinary

become

familiar
a

more

and

have

peatedly
re-

It is*

succours.

liberal encouragement

all countries to the Turkish

believe,much

Prophet.

pashaswho

human

been
expeditions

European Dalgettywas

of the

politically

of
dealings

Christian

small

related,indeed,that high pay

ranks

of

compromisedthe Papal See, and

had

arms

contracts

the Venetians

and

in

bond
extraordinary

an

transactions of bargains and

between

longersurvived

foes,either of the

name.

that

and

ceased indeed to be

soon

common

Christian

the

be recollected,

ness
for any steadi-

purpose

days no

furnish

sufficient force to
The

should

not

zeal of
religious

union.

all,it

of
objects

that
deary proved in the sequel,

so

could

these Powers

the

completedlslodge-

The

doubt

under
serving

number

figuredin

to

reason

of

the

renegade

the Turkish

vice
ser-

somethingextraordinary.

To these considerations must

duringthe seventy years

capture of

thus

and
Constantinople

be added

the

that
fact,

between
interposed

the

the accession of the

CAMPAIGNS

from

diverted

been

South

Danube

to

Cairo.

true,

from

"

the

of the

the waters

It does

not

We

attended.

need

151(i)of

the

into

which

invasions
productive

two

objectstogethercombined

the

On

as

or

to

Europe,and

the

attention

for an
suspend,

to

(in

the
provinces,

divert the

to

terval,
in-

the

such

that

first rise of the

periodand

under

Europe,their appearance
of

on

the

Ottoman

power

such circumstances

of any

the passage

even

investment

events, it will be

these

deprivethe phenomenon

terror ;

throw
over-

the conquest

of the Persian

of
review,therefore,

at

while the

of Christendom.
apprehensions

that
observed,
occurred

were
expeditions

Egypt,compensatedfor

of

less

of the Sultans from

these

dynastyand

kingdom

and

present plan to

our

onlyremark, that

of the Mameluke

the chief

territories of Persia

enter

discuss the results with

naval

of Mahomet

successors

the

upon

it is

was,

of its recent

scene

Archipelago,
yet

immediate

concentrated

Egypt.

the

plainsof

the

by
unusuallysignalised

even

efforts of the two

were

and

of the Turks

the supremacy

steadilysupportedon

and
triumphs,

the East

to

the shores of the Adriatic and

defiles of Armenia

the

Though

on
victory

West

and

had

ambition

Ottoman

the North

31

KGYrT.

AND

Solyman,the designsof

Great

and

FEB8IA

IN

great singularity

of the Turks

Danube, and the

which
Constantinople

into
manent
per-

virtually

32

TURKEY.

ensued, exercised

opinionsof

influence
corresponding

no

Western

Europe,wearied

crusades,and detached
from

civil or

any

of the Lower

thus

it had

as

and

with

material

needed

and

of Europe.

recognised

Lastly,we

the

the

West,

the eventual admission of

community of
political
have

we

remark, that the

evacuation

of Otranto,

and

to

globe,to

Mahometan

to

Power
Some

this remarkable

alreadypointedout

but

reassure

the way

prepare

Christian States.

conducive

the

among

aggression
developedat

other quarters of the

kingdomsof

earliercauses

they

with the diversion of Turkish

in connexion
contributed,
to

name

may

in the
and exemplified
Belgrade,

conquests

what

"

of resistance to further

power

with

an

for the consolidation of their conquests

local habitation

Powers

invaders

into
opposition

supplyingthem
imperialinheritance,
most

the Greeks

that the Ottoman

steppedwithout
finally

with

was

been
longpractically

intercourse
religious

Empire ;

it

as

the

on

for

into the
of the

tion
consumma-

others,of

no

remain yet to be noticed.

inferiorinterest,
In

Europe

of

month

the

scandalised

were

expressionwith
"

and

of the
Seignior
At

the

had

concord

world !

February,1536,

an

Turks

"

we

may

that
intelligence

been

struck

the

nations

of

still employ the

a

treaty of amity

between

the

Grand

and the firstking of the Christian

Francis I. of France
earlier period,

had

34

TURKEY.

at the
rivalry,

in the

and

France

between

and consolidation which

in

an

each of these

the

"

aggrandisement

kingdoms,though

of Christendom.

crowns"

two

action.

This

had
rivalry

Italian

wars

Charles

VIIL,

which that

which

been

followed

and itwas

thus

nism
antago-

situated,

Europe into its sphereof

the other States of

drew

The

Powers

ensuingbetween
naturally

first exemplified
in the

the

upon

of
expedition

in the spirit
entirely

continued

had generated.The
extraordinary
enterprise

contested supremacy
be

The

Spain.

by
represented

was

the

for many

witnessed in the

years

and

alliances which

referred to,

wars

conceived tc

of Italy
possession
;

of
permutations

had

Whether

that,in these earlytransactions,

regardwas

had

to that

adjustmentof
equitable

be

doubted
reasonably

States

now

centres

of

the avowed

of such

hitherto

but,at

own.

resources

It

condition of

wa3

which

be

really
wards
after-

all events,European

themselves about two

cast
anxiously
parties

the
circumscribing

their

power

quisite
re-

objectof similar struggles,

first began to group

and both

been

it can

said

became

the innumerab

all the
suggested

ideas of State-combinations.

may

tury,
cen-

had recently
constituted
attained,
unequaldegree,

them

soon

of the 16th

commencement

no

about for means

of their adversary,
or
more

that
things,

than
the

causes

larging
en-

natural result

which had

operatedin promotinghostilitiesor friendship

35

POWEB.

OF

BALANCE

THE

States,should be superseded
by more

between

of present

considerations

absorbing

it will be seen,

policy
; and

differences were
that though religious
accordingly,
wars,
capableof originating

found in
and

material

no

of creeds
diversity

still

obstacle

the establishment of

to

In

permanent alliances.

was

dial
cor-

Thirty Years'

the

tween
beWar, for instance,thoughthe disputelayostensibly

Empire,yet the paramount objectof

of the

the

was
belligerents
aggressive

of Austria

and in this

of France,

the

at

fought shoulder
Protestants of
It

was

the Protestant constituencies

Catholic and

the Roman

good

cause,

of
instigation

shoulder

to

Germany

in such

of
depression

and

with

had

"

Avith

and

the Ottoman
a

Sultan

knightsfrom

then'

invaded
repeatedly
last annexed

Buda,
He

not
seat

the

Solyman

the Turkish

arms

to

throne,

quests
Europeancon-

boldest

This
predecessors.

in the

Isle of

of
portion

doubtable
re-

Christian

Rhodes, but

of Hungary, and
territory

to
capital,

succeeded also in

that
opinion,

only expelledthe

considerable
its

parti-coloured

surpassingthe

success

of his victorious

achievements

the

minister,

the Porte.

in 1520 had ascended

againdirected

cardinal

Sweden.

Francis I. turned his eyes towards

the Great, who

the House

Popishtroops

of affairs and

state

the

the

the

the Turkish

at

cluding
kingdom,in-

dominions.

the provinces
of Walsubjugating

30

TURKEY.

lachia and Moldavia,now

Danubian

the

"

termed

are

and in making
principalities,"

to
tributary
princes
a

what
constituting

his

their

But these events,which

crown.

century before might have struck all Christian capitals

with

and alarm,were
indignation

as

many

so

Solyman,not

in

saw

inducements

would-be
of

to

alliance.
political

the conqueror

and

of Christendom,but
subjugator

alreadyat

Ottoman

with

war

Sultan

his

Francis
and the

the monarch

should

have

invested

to
pretensions

fcyCharles,were

circumstances

of the
taken

of trade and

the Mameluke
as we
fell,

been

confirmed
judiciously
turned

were

them

between

France

true, did not

but the

of

and

this country
of the

Turks,

the

Christian traffickershad

and

augmented. These

by

Francis

who

generalcommercial

the Porte.

stipulate
any

assurances

were

and

and when

was

certain relations

merchants

the dominion

to account

proposalfor

claimed

resolution

French

Egypt;

privileges
enjoyedby

His

long been

had

under
have stated,

and

only additionally
gestive
sug-

amitybetween

Soldans of

the

Vienna,

the supremacy

projectedtreaty.

There
accordingly.

That

deadlyenemy.

openlyadvanced

upon

of Rhodes

upon

situated for active diversion,

mightyState,availably

the

onlylooked

now

The

cedents
ante-

based

treaty

instrument,it is

alliance for offence or defence;

amity now

changed,
interostentatiously

indicative
sufficiently

of the

pointto

CHRISTIAN

FIRST

which

matters

the corsair
the

upon

Such

within

tending;and

were

of the Porte
subjects

the Catholic

and treaties had, of

between

concluded
previously

been

and its enemies ; but this

king!

Ottoman

of the
recognition

the firstformal

Truces
dynastyof Constantinople.
course,

few months,

let loose
actually

were

of
Neapolitanpossessions

was

37

ALLIANCES.

the Porte

the earliest instance of

was

an

amicable and gratuitousalliance ; and it is worth observ-

ing,that
of

earlydid

so

it occur,

into the

Power

Mahometan

to make

as

the admission

community of

Christian

States contemporaneous with the very firstand rudimentary

combinations of these States among
it was

considered

scandal, we

than
perhaps,

of the

been occasioned

had

It is

times,that

Constantinople
by

Pope

to

the

Still there
and

the Protestants

to

the treaty was

knightof

St. John

and that it

"

the admission oi the

so

"

as
really,

in fact

strange

of

negotiated

league!
was

more,

by the previoustures
over-

for
special
provision

it needed

bring about

not

significant
indication,
too,

of

course

impartial
quarters,

monarch
unscrupulous

same

the temper of the

contained

common

easilyperceive
; but

can

of Smalcald.

at

in

that it created,even

and
politics,
some

of the

out

step

each other. That

we

have

said,some

of conditions

concurrence

an

naturalisation of the Turk

innovation
among

scandal;

as

the

to

political

the States of Chris-

38

TURKEY".

tendora.

Some

degreecurious
the

and

periodwhen

Egypt
Europe had

and

the

left the Ottomans

twofold

of the

his
proportion,

which all combinations

crusade

Pope ;

could be maintained

preferred.But

by

and

beyond the Alps,but by

"

the troops,on
the

of
auspices

the

were

now

his

city, not

own

"

threatened such

once

sworn

arms

on

had

of the Pope
deadlyantagonist

was

an

Italian territory
retreat

foes of these intruders

such
protection
against

powerlessRomans
time

services of this potentate

actuallypreparedto

whose

taught to rely. The

the

before,indeed,the Pontiff

of whose

had

Pope

direct

No
organisation.

claims
impressive

few years

at the echo

former

States from

many

without

the fierce Mahometans, who

Papal See.

it dislocated and

and imprisoned
in
besieged

attack,and

the

misbelievers had previously

and
good-will

urgent and

more

had been

the

the relationship

Court,from
particular

the
against

their warrant

and upon

mighty

Pope,and weakening,in

neutralised the influence of that

wards
to-

in
religion

This

out.

and

authoritative power,

received

of

influence upon

the Christian Powers

the supremacy

their way

on

carried
successfully
a

highest

the firstplace,
since

so
hand, by subtracting

one

in the

are

Persia,the Reformation

been

between

In
interesting.

we

exercised

event

On

of these conditions

had

been

past when

tingencies
con-

heretofore
the

most

the Turk,
necessarily

FIRST

and

with it had

material
other
from

all

gone

of
organisation

for
opportunity

or

the

On

actual crusade.

an

diminished in

popularopinionwas
the

objecthad

or

"heretic"

was

or

of
operation

been

fanaticism

the

In the

animositywhich

were

now

againstthe
with

furnished

in former

arms

few years later

the

SpanishArmada

at

"

Henry III.

of France

was

times,

days might
of the

have

Turk,

itself. In the year 1581

the

by

of the Maltese

againstQueen

and

of these

sufficient occupation
by the

from
championsof Christianity,

Ottomans

new

of
propensities

encroachments

actuallymade

divert the

Jesuits,to

and the enthusiasm

"infidel,"

fatal divisions of Christendom

was
proposition

corresponding

events.

same

wars
religious

substituted for

directed

for the combative

found

zeal.

been

sworn

the moral

hand, the support derivable for such purposes

degreeby

39

ALLIANCES.

CHRISTIAN

and

those
knights,

ble
the stillformida-

Elizabeth

of

the very moment,

directed

Pope

England;

when
indeed,

againstour

a confidential
despatched

Amurath
purpose of impressing

shores,
envoy

to

the

for the
Porte,

the

of declaring
II.of Spain.
expediency
waragainst
Philip

These

with
co-operating

causes,

distant

repugnance

to

from
arising

domestic

to

may

visible and

with
crusades,

and
vicissitudes,

alarmingphenomena

bringson,

be taken

which
as

III. with

settled

the distractions
with

the

ference
indif-

mately
ultifamiliarity

of
explanatory

that

40

TURKEY.

of

course

which

events

the house of Othman

but
Ccesars,
councils of
It
this

of placein
species

not, however,under

was

debut
diplomatic

any

its entry into the

it

of

Ottoman
with all

have

barbaric

carried himself

to

The

as

in his shadow

rebuked
sternly
own

Emperor of the

The

of the West

master,

mans
Otto-

above
especially

"

brought into

was

by Solyman of

been

ambassador

and

prison.Indeed,

for

fain to

seek

to
despatched

for
was

thodox
or-

which

immediate

tact.
con-

the overtures

of

haughtyboast,that

kingsof France, Poland, Venice,

had
Transylvania

Austrian

that

deportment the genuine

be collected from his

the

field.

exalted
immeasurably
sovereign

view taken

Francis I. may

its

pride.

he

with

of pretensions
to
heritage

above all the monarchs

those with whom

ImperialGermany, it

combined
strength,

alluded, gave

impressof

exceptingthe yet

could take the

which

the strongest Power

insolence and

his

The

European system

first-ratePower, but,

This consciousness of

was

ordinary
aspect that

solemnised.

was

scarcely
manageableresources

we

and

the courts

and triumph. Not

of glory,grandeur,
appliances

onlywas

was

of the Eastern

the throne

upon

Europe.

Porte made
the

it

gave

lengthnot onlyestablished

at

refuge. The
the Sublime

and
first

Porte

to
applyinga majesticepithet

thrown

into
contemptuously

long subsequentperiod,the

42

TURKEY.

which

in mercantile compacts had

field,
promptlyfollowed

departedfrom

the court

curiously
enough,was
our

few

and

with
negotiations

been

neither

of Elizabeth.

welcome

declared open

of Holland

the Porte had been transacted

Venice

States

dited
alreadyaccre-

France

nor

posed
dis-

was

and

the

Their

scene.

tions,
objec-

the Ottoman

Porte

all. In 1606

the United

States

to

also their envoy

despatched

to

Constantino-

of policy,
the
or
thus,either the suggestions

of Christendom

periodas

about

could be

collected the

the Turkish

representatives

Sultan,at

influence

from
anticipated
reasonably

there

two

are

alongthe
a

Europe was

pointsconnected

Danube

sense

incessant

The

be recorded.

such

exerted
directly

Western

upon

of

and

at

not

this

deserve to

attacks of the Ottomans

not

in

Germany

been felt since the

and it became

of the Empire,under
protection
not

key
Tur-

remarkable;but

very

with it which

had
as
insecurity

could
relations,

the

scene.

periodby

the Theiss, created

of the Moguls;
irruptions
that the

early

as

temper of the government,and the distance of the

The

to

and
overruled,

of trade,
had
temptations

tion,
recep-

unopposed. Previously,

not

competitoron

new

however,were

pie;

His

of mediation,or
foregothe prerogative

to

was

the

dor
England'sfirstambassa-

of the
throughthe representatives

there; and

alreadyin

be intrusted to

indeed evident
such

tier
fron-

new

distant

or

non-

CBARLE8

resident
shown

V.

sovereign.It
Charles

by

AND

V.

that the front

true

was

43

SOLY.MAN.

recently

Solyman proved that

to

armies of the East could be stillover-matched,on

the forces of the West

by

could be mustered
after such

very heart of

to, the Mahometans

before
Styria,

who
States,

schemes

and
possessions,

did

of

settlement

Ferdinand

vainlv tried to cancel.

Ottoman

thus

and

for the

"

and

Empire in
of

far to

layingthe

modify
of his
for his

Philip. His

son

which

he

ertions
ex-

afterwards

elected kino- of

was

degenerateGreek

German
broad

the

the substitution of the formidable

provedthe
Constantinople,
of the

from

bespeakthe Imperialcrown

to

their

danger to

so

less

the Imperial

the reversion
partition

to

as

promoted

Empire

Germany,

Hapeburgh than

brother Ferdinand,instead of his

the Romans

the

with
anticipated

induce Charles

on

in the

were

of
strength

apprehendedmore

Othman,

own

Even

deliverance of

been

libertiesfrom the House

of

tain
uncer-

considerations,
though they had

weight than might have

his

the

collected for the

obvious

House

an

the Sultan.

of
ferocity

or

the occasion alluded

These

and
desperateappeals,

againstthe perils
constantly
impending

from the ambition

be

gencies,
emer-

these forces

that they suppliedbut

difficulties,

resource

could

such

onlyby

but

the

means

of

the
settling

instead of
foundation

in the halls of

crown

SpanishHouse

of the great

mon-

44

TURKEY.
g

archyof
the

on

Austria.

The

fortunes

of

event, too, producedits reaction

in

succeeded
strengthened,
of

crown

Hungary

of his

we

are

the
incorporating

to
signal
importance

Xot
considering.

now

only was

created of sufficientmagnitudeto resist the

Turk, but

of the

this rival

empire became

with the Ottoman

and

Vienna

blow struck

at

dominions.

of
capitals

now

were

Zeuta

felt

was

at

the

erratic

force
the

was

State

aggressions

Prague,Buda,

kingdom;

same

Frankfort

and

by the

thus,
fitful

the Turk,and
and arrayedagainst
organised

majesty and

It is with

no

strengthof ImperialChristendom
his borders.

kingdom of

we

the
disparage

here

avow

itselfeither served

that "bulwark

denominated.

wish to

that

Hungary

of Christendom"
We

our

or

national character

doubts
could

which

whether

have

this

served

as

it has been often

think,indeed,that after an impartial

review of the annals of this

escape

a
impulsesof Hungarian cavaliers,
steady

broughtbodilyon

of

ject
the sub-

terminous
conactually

instead of the uncertain resistance dictated

and

elective

nion
this consolidation of domi-

From

results of

flowed two

Ferdinand, thus

tance
inherialreadyaggrandised

with the

family.

for

Turkey;

it Avillbe
period,

difficultto

"

the conclusion that,but for its practical

cation
identifiwith

the Germanic

have become, and

Empire, it

would

probably

perhapshave remained,a dependency

TIIE

BARBARY

of the misbelievers.
that Buda
as

we

of

Even

it must

for almost

bered
remem-

longa period

as

the

on

of religion,

score

find littleground for concluding that the inhabitants

Hungary

would

populationof

shown

have

Wallachia

Moldavia.

or

The

on

of Ottoman

first torrent

the Danube

those

ascendancyof

events

our

own

and
at

which

influence of

States
piratical

the

trace

the Turk

over

assurance

we

to

among

alluded

Turkey upon

the coast
which

extinct.

their national

and
alwaysexperienced

to

the

the Vistula and the Rhine.

generationbecome

developmentof

seas;

Christian

on
establishment,

of those anomalous

the

encountered

not
impossible

pointsto

the
exemplifying

the

thias
Mat-

conquest; but

which established a mutual

second of the

was

is

the

all the kingdoms between

The

and

suppliedfrom
usually

was

of Hungary,it
chivalry

ultimate

personal

of Hunniades

though the flower of the armies which

Moslem

the

no
doubt, in
mainlyinstrumental,

were
Corvinus,

stemming the

than
tenacity

more

and brilliant successes

prowess

be

English; while,as regardsany-

inveterate antagonism

or

45

S.

it was,

as

Turkish

was

Gibraltar has been

active

ST ATI

have

From

the
strength,

confessed their

of

moment

change,the improvementwas

endom
Christ-

Barbary,

the earliest
Turks

have

the
on
inferiority

appear to
not

tably
no-

in
onlywith-

over
thoughtheir unexpected
victory

Sapienzamightfor a

as

the Venetians
announce

maintained; and

46

TURKEY.

he

which

insults to

creatingby

Great

its kindred

Algiersand

coast.

To

that these

say

to

them

and

too

growth of

contested
successfully
waters

and

by

the very

were

fain

to

Powers

the proper

though they should

fact of their

attributing

Maritime,they often
of the

command

the

question.

before the rise

importance.But

great an

be

Europe,would

of the

seriously

predatory
governments ever

influenced the affairs of

African

some

of the times in
curious historicalepisodes

most

the

capacity
supplied,

remembered, the materials for

will be

to

became
strongholds

feudatories of the Porte ; and in this

as

the

alreadyacquiredon

had

possessionshe

the

invested the celebrated Bar-

title beyond that of conquest

of

nean,
in the Mediterra-

European Powers

Solyman the
barossa with

to
counterpoise

some

of
the

at

desirous

exposed,and

was

methods

any

of the

supremacy

Exasperated,however,

marine.

the Turkish

the fortunes

Lepanto decided

battle of

the famous

been

have

so
profession,

adjacent
outlawed

States

many

with them, that the Porte had little

treat

in maintaining
them
difficulty

b}rits

centuries in their anomalous

existence.

perhaps,they

of
jealousies
reciprocal

owed

Christian States
that

our

and
own

communities
piratical

to

the

favour for three

it deserves at least

Something,

to

be

with
good understanding

precededeven

our

tioned,
men-

these

definite alii-

OTTOMAN

with Holland, and

ance

47

POLICY.

disturbed

was

serious rupture througha century and

Our

review

has

action of the

Christendom
that of

Ottoman

can

Christians

Power.

half.

pointat

Empire

longerbe

no

Mahometan

Turkish

reached

now

by onlya single

described

nor
policy,

was

in the House

any

of

of this power

Ottomans

had

and
Austrians,

House

combination

TIL

become

the natural

by

the

Rodolf

the ambassadors

in truth,at the

And

Turkey, the

antagonists of the

the

Porte, or

with

it.

The

idea

disabilities
political

II.,his

States

had
of
on

and

was

England.

at

tury,
cen-

peace

positivealliances

of

this Power
had
religion,

become extinct,
thoughit stillsurvived
reality
and
conceptions,

campaign

either

were

attachingto
score

Mahomet

the seventeenth

contracted

the

his

Imperial

martial pomp

of France

openingof

Western
principal

with

When

on
Constantinople

againstthe Emperor
swelled

ment
establish-

all the enemies therefore of the

departedfrom

other

Hungarian

the

of

the borders

on

the

on

Hapsburg,and

be

likelyto

and

the friends of the Porte.

were

against

of
longersuppliedany guidingprinciple

no

Since the union of the Germanic

crowns

peculiarly

as

holy war

suggested by analogousconsiderations
side.

the

affairs of

the

upon

The

which

any
in

in popular

received occasional illustrationsin

examplesof individual chivalry.In fact,the

existence

48

TURKEY.

of the stillpowerfulorder of St.

and

the
on
privileges

with the infidel,

was
of
in the

same

of
spirit

were

of constant

are

speakingwas

we

the

at

famous

select band

de

the

of Christian

and the Porte remained

emplified
exconspicuously

knightsunder

the Due

No

enemies."

nor

the

reignof

Charles L,

the

have

Germany

their

interests of France

are

Holland, theywould
in the commercial

then

"

and

see

ours

onlybe

stantinop
Con-

the

policy
In

league.

power

upon

while,as

too

The

"

sting

the

England and

glad to supersede
you

privileges
you enjoy. Declare
how

to

Spain and

their hands
to

the

ventured

envoy

"

our

taken

was

minister, would

work

own

with

Europe.

Christian

has lost the

he

of

Venetian

Turkish

the

could,but

with

Porte

Pope," returned
if he

cabinets
principal

The

wanting at

of
appreciation

in
subsisting

threaten

there

was

accurate

an

our

usuallyfind them

we

"

this occasion,

serious notice, however,

of these incidents

France

undisturbed.
nominally

friends;but

our

in

reinforced

was
garrison

French," said the vizier Kiuperli,

on

war,

The

recurrence.

Beaufort,althoughthe alliance between

"are

war

siegeof Candia,when,

addition to other succours,

by

condition of

instances of volunteers

and

period;

cause

which

recorded

sufficientto perpetuate the traditions

earlier

an

John, holdingits possessions

your

you will fare for allies." This

50

of

TURKEY.

again turned

were
destinies,

German

force

Persia.

upon

It

with

until that

not

was

sistible
irre-

had been terminated,

that the Ottomans
terriblestruggle
of Tekeli,
allured,
by the seductive representations

were

to

the

their last

make

capitalof

this famous
had

rival

the

invasion

was

Empire.

but many

fact,that

the result of
what

the ramparts of Vienna

circumstances of the

preeminencein

the

Christian

to

to

passedat

Alreadyhad
than

more

defence of Troy,demonstrated

the whole
Europe against

Empire, directed by

and
now,

heightenedby

new

for the firsttime,the

tactics was

bad been

resources

lengthof
of even

the

ganised
unor-

forces of the Ottoman

the ablest minister it had

the recollections of

small

the defence of Can-

twice the
the

no

but, in pointof

of Christendom
the growing ascendancy
fact,
shown.
indisputably

stories

perilof

revive in

of the Turk

degreethe popularhorror

had

arms

the apparent

tended
capital,

to
dia, protracted

his

campaigndisclosed

the Christians. The

siege,and

of this celebrated

they

of Sobieski's cavathe first chai'ge

liers,

length from the Ottomans

known

against

and
Black Mustapha's
janizaries,
against

spahisscattered by

second

But

very different from

Not onlywere
anticipated.

maintained

the

demonstration
gratuitous

Lepanto

were

ever

reanimated

series of naval victories; and

excellence
superior

on
displayed

of European

the banks of the Danube.

PANARIOT

TFIE

Even

had Vienna

scarcely
any
must

yieldedto
fur

room

there is
the first assaults,

doubtingthat

have been both

soon

Still,
althoughthe

seventeenth

had

maintained

the States of

Europe
longer

no

mastery in the field ; but it still

in the cabinet.
preservedits traditional carriage
stillbeyond obvious
affected the

not

protection
; nor
before whose

been

to

yet

had

need

to

come

step, however, had

the

towards

be recorded.

The

Turks

and obstinate

no

about

diplomacy;and
their

end of the century,accidental

degreeto

who

events

the fierce

the
suggested

turned to such account

thus afforded them, that

serves
de-

the rude

Towards

in this peculiar
of the Greek
capacity,

of the Porte

this time

relations
foreign

believer.

true

at

were

no
disqualified

were

inconsiderable

bearingof

fortunes

by national pretensions

deportmentin

be ascribed in

or

yet developed

impendingchange,which

for the subtle functions of

violence of their

countenance

been

that Power

less by individual character than

may

was

and still
attack,

or

deadlyantagonismits

fail. A

taken

reach of insult

It

haughtylanguageof unapproachable
macy.
supre-

It had

lengthto

close

neither
discomfiture,

yet experienced
any material change. It

indeed

to

century was

its position
among

nor

the tide of conquest

stayedand turned.

upon the Porto with humiliation and

its attitude

51

GREEKS.

the
ployment,
em-

subjects

the opportunities

theypresently
monopo-

52

TURKEY.

lised the chief officesof external

intercourse.

sense, the Ottoman

of

Empire was

the substitution of these

intractable sons
to affect its

but the

in
position

to
incidentally

served

characteristic arrogance

With

the

Turkey

be

to

was

began to

to

be
perhaps,

be

playedby

Though
fortunes

by

have

we

to

yet had

as

nation

to

opened

scene

new

with the firstdim

were

its

recede.

finallyregulated.The

which
mightyfigures

which

periodat

have

we
period,

amused

nations,and

the part hitherto

that remarkable

name

they were

the

the

reversed.
strangely

modern
to

mark

of other

sketch of the Ottoman

broughtour

its own

changecontributed materially

the eyes

which

some

gainerby

for
suppleintriguers

eighteenthcentury

Europe, in

upon

course

In

paratively
com-

casion
oc-

no

whose

action

reader

may,

of
foreshadowing
In times

come.

long

succession of bold and sagacious

past,before the singular
monarchs

on

the throne

of

had
Constantinople

been

broken by the elevation of idiots or debauchees from the

of the

recesses

with

some
seraglio,

powerfulprinces,

for which theyhave hardlyreceived

enlightenment

an

sufficient credit,
cast
those
restoring
had lost

by

of these

commercial

by

about

for the

which
advantages

the discoveries of Vasco

the consequent diversion of Eastern

overland

route

to

an

new
entirely

of

means

their dominions

di Gam

a,

trade from

channel.

and

the

Among

OF

ORIGIN

for
projects

other

the most

convenient

Don

and

the

from

the Black

the
points,

Sea

between

Sclim

quickenedby

it

might have
may

not

takinginto

be

the destined

account

with uncouth

men,

of Ivan the

About

savages
"

the Gulf

of

our

Varangianrovers
of

his canal

king of Egypt.
for

to
opposition

his

a body
proceeding,

barous
bar-

neighbom-ing
town,

the Muscovite

such

as

soldiers and workmen

subjects

the firstencounter

was

the middle of the ninth

of the

Persia

the Russiatis.

before the accession

one

cut

were

Terrible, and

of the Turks and

was

from

the expedition,
and
surprised

pieces.These

the zeal of

and
figures,
strange features,

language,sallied out

to

Sultans did

the fulness of his power,

As the work, however,

schemes.

of

by

Western

invade

he commenced

commenced

been

pardoned,in

He

this occasion

his desire to

route, and

new

Ottoman

that the

seldom

was

Central Asia and

On
neirliojentlv.

throughthe

of the

great streams

an
Caspian,and establishing

the

to

their work
was

artificialcanal,at

an

two

or

Volga,thus openinga navigable

passage

easy communication
It

II. conceived

Sclim

by
connecting

1)3

EMPIRE.

\N"

this purpose,

revived the idea of

Europe.

BU88I

THE

Finland,and

century,a short time

Alfred
of the
with

the

the

Great,Kurik,

Baltic,sailed into
and
audacity

characteristic of his race, established

tune
for-

Xorman

a stepdynastyat Xovogorod. He presently

despatched

54

TURKEY.

to

son

the

secure

cityof Kiev, on

the

which
Dnieper,

formed the southern settlement of the old Slavish

Novogorodhad

as

the

thus became

lords of a countrywhich
recognised

then called Russia.

even

new

the wealthyand
settlers,
was

within
their

new

To

the instinctsof the

unwarlike

empire of

and
pointof irresistibleattraction,

century
rulers

the

were

to

the

Russians

"

"

these

of the
precluded
any repetition
the
princess,

this time the

which

they had

and
characters,

many

the

of

an

been

their

the

the

from

and
Christianity;
of the Russians

of the consequences

written

from
resulting

and disputed
succession
irregular

to

scene

was

that State from

their
religion,

year

1170, of the

Vladimir.

The

to Novogorod,on
earlypreferred

to
vicinity

when

Kiev

which

event

fortunat
of the usages of civilisation. Un-

about the
transfer,
from

an

of Rurik and its subjects

deep respect towards

obtained

one

disorders

House

marauding ambition

exchangedfor

in

mentality
trial. Through the instru-

the doctrines of

received

proofagainst

barbarians;and the last of

in 955, terminated
expeditions,

of

by

The
siegeof Constantinople.

spears of the

and

canoes

the

fivetimes

conducted

bulwarks,however,of the Imperial

citywere
the

tion,
popula-

formed the northern;and the invaders

was

East

had

of

relation between

the
Avas

of government

seat

former
account

cityhad
of its

anticipated
conquest ; and,
its rulers and

the Greek

ORIGIN

RUSSIAN

THE

intercourse which

an

beneficial
a highly
exercising

was

convenient

of the

"dukes"
or
grand '-'princes"
what

as
Kiev, to
capital

rising
kingdom. But

the

influence upon
thoughpartial
this removal

have

we

fur the sake

still desirable,

waa
referred,the proximity

of

55

EMPIRE.

the changeto which

experienced

had

emperors

OF

from

so

is nearly
the centre

cut off the Russians

of the presentmonarchy,completely

firstof those
the

which

occurrences

political
developmentof

second

When

in the middle

Tartars

of the Asiatic

prey in the
as

have

which

Rurik, owed

Moguls.

of the thirteenth century,the

remarked,
a

nominal

of

score

was

the

Tartar
over

or

an

of
capital

easy
dimir,
Vla-

establishment,
upon

grand

of the blood of

destructive

but, so
allegiance;

of unsettled successions and

settlement of the

was

nothingto

Mogul;

and

the banks of the

oppose

the result

Don,

of

khannat,or
monarchy,with undisputed
supremacy

the ancient

of the

the

all
princes,

that there
repeatedpartitions,

was

the third

Highlandsburst,for

had been the consequences

the inroad

The

of Russia.
principalities
disorganised

we

duchy,to

mighty State.

plainsof Europe,theyfound

the

time, upon

the

was

retarded
singularly

so

this

the invasion of the

was

and

Christendom;

and
Constantinople

from

of
princes

the land.

The

sovereignty

was
Horde, however,although
complete,

exerted;and,in the
actively

two

centuries of

not

very

dependence

56

TURKEY.

grand dukes

the
which followed,

out, in the interior of the country, the

work

libei-ation. Kiev

Russian

abandoned, the
at

left at

were

havingnow

of the three

seats

Vladimir, Twer, and Moscow;

enjoyedthe

of about

fiftyyears

this pointthe succession

of

Ivan

resources

the

of

were

enabled

soon

but
these nations,
onlyagainst

lords: and the frame

of

by

the

been

to

hold their

for
required

his

of
subjugation

assumingthe

of

the

conditions

Great

the

So

ancestors.

its

head,

the consolidation of

than the reduction

These

to

were

title of

that
a

enfeebled
soon

completely
royalstock

little more

was

powerfulmonarchy

horde

realised.

Czar, announced

to
independent
sovereign

the states

was

ceeded
suc-

and
republics,
municipal

some

now

not

own

their Tartar
against

even

the collateral lines of the

subordinated

of

His

Poles.

and

kingdom of "Muscovy"

of
heritage

this time had

son
per-

gradualconflux

alreadyformed,when, in 1462, Ivan

to

in the

Kalita; whose

of the Lithuanians

the encroachments
descendants

the

At

as
theyretired from
territory,

his

population
upon

ning
begin-

Moscow.

upon

surnamed

Moscow,

the

lines

Twer, and, in the

settled
finally

was

definitely

devolved,in

more,

strengthened
by

were

been

were
leadingprinces

of the fourteenth century,upon

course

problemof

the firstof which

until it

supremacy,

to
liberty

on

In

the

the Don.

1481, Ivan,

himself

as

an

of Christendom;
"

58

TURKEY.

to have acquired
some
pathies,

of the Greeks.

Empire, the
from

its

Russian

monarchy became

connection
original

Europeanrather than

with the East

giveitfrom

but the penance

when

after seven

from
generation

of usurpers,

At

Power, the

new

centuries and

the third

this time forward

this criticalconjuncture,

half of

old stock of

the great Ivan; and

during which

rising
monarchyinto

to

condition

in 1613, the election of Michael

providedRussia

But

anew

of the
antagonist

established in

cession
suc-

interregnumthe
Poland,threw
better
scarcely

At length,

than that from which ithad before emerged.

the fated

Rurik,

failed in
existence,

country narrowlyescapedannexation

throne

exchange

invaders,and pretendersthrougha

series of fifteen years,

back the

stance
circum-

thing appeared to promisethe

every

speedygrowthof the

"

political
advancement,

to

yet done.

not

was

tine
Byzan-

detached

Asiatic aspect.This

an

undoubtedlyconducive

was

of the emperrights
ors

this destruction of the old

By

which contributed to
a

of the

policyand

Romanoff
with

House

to

the vacant

royalstock; and

of Othman

finally

was

power.

for the retarding:

circumstances to which

we

have

it is probable
that the relationsbetween Turkey
referred,
and

Christendom

would

earlierperiodby the
court.

have been

changed at

menacingattitude of

much

the Russian

Alexis,the second of the Romanoffs,suggested,

mation
of the seventeenth century,the for-

in the middle

even

of

the
a

desired ;

playthe part

days of

infidels of Constantinople.

holyleagueagainstthe

His country, however,

to

59

BOMANOFF.

OF

HOUSE

THE

as

was

nor

was

yet in

it,indeed,until
after
vessels,

the G reat, that Russian

Peter

the

lapseof nearlyeightcenturies,againswam
the future
Still,

Azov.

was

preparing.The

by

which

It may

Porte.

the treaty were

the

had
to

was

by

even

the

been

now

to

be

added, that the

to

of

terms

Peter; but, although

over
Imperialist

this

with

hostile contact

the Ottoman

decided, some
conclusively

elapsebefore

Russia

The

be

honourable

ascendancyof

arms

conceived

was

broughtinto

the firsttime,had been

the

of

peace

included Russia,which, for

provisions

Its

threatened.

freedom

European

of

sea

the last of those Turkish

in 1699, terminated
Carlowitz,
wars

tion
condi-

no

could
superiority

time

be claimed

also.

Turkish

Empire

entered

upon

the

eighteenth

damaged by the last campaigns.

century, considerably
Its forces had

been

weakened
diminished.

tually
relatively,
though not perhapsac-

but its reputation

was

this
Nevertheless,

very

most

seriously

circumstance

contributed,by finally
removing all dread
to promote
aggressions,

cabinets of

Europe

fortunes. The

now

bably
pro-

of its

interest which the

that,peculiar

began to

take in its

political

however, which modified

consideration,

60

TURKEY.

the estimation of

the progress of Russia

was

the

the Western

Turkey among
alone

gradualrevolution

and

of

shall best

we

now
opinion

of
positions
by observingthe respective

its new

this century
It should

Turkey, at
was

the close of the several

at
rival,

derstand
un-

ensuing,

the Porte and

by

wars

which

distinguished.

was

that the direct influence of

be recollected,

this

of
inspiration

the

period,upon

confined
chiefly

decisions of

States,

France

the

Northern

to the

European system,
States.

The secret

in the
indeed, perceptible

was,

but

Divan;

it

only

was

the

on

banks of the Vistula and

the shores of the Baltic that

the vibrations of Ottoman

were
struggles

Acting

on

Russia

and

Poland

felt.
practically

through the medium

Cossack and Tartar hordes,which carried their

and

their disorder

Prussia and

to

throughRussia,
"

"

the Turkish

with the less

allegiance

all these countries in turn,

throughPoland,and

Sweden

of

Denmark

on

Empire found

itselfconnected

moietyof Christendom
important

its relations with the Great

Powers

on

of the West

"

bein"j

for annoyingAustria.
by its capacities
mainly suggested

In the wars,

of the Spanishsuccession,
in
as
therefore,

the other great European contests,the Ottoman

was

not

involved.
see, became

as
Though its councils,

more

and

of diplomatists;
yet

so

more

we

Empire
shall presently

exposed to

was
lordly

the intrigues

the indifference

THE

PETER

of the Porte

61

SUCCESSORS.

its

that
disposition,

he

safelybased

Northern

division of

was

could

combination

HIS

and
political
opportunities,

to

uncertain

and

AND

GREAT,

so

capricious
extensive

no

its

on

probable

demeanour.
the

When

of Charles
by the enterprises

convulsed
the

Porte

took

his

to

be

Divan

the peace

in behalf of

of

: but
quarrel

of Carlowitz

interest

some

by

any

riority
infeall the

It would

ascertain how

to

was

whose
sovereign

Russia.
against

war

actuallyinfluenced

was

.Sweden,

adversaryhad been exposed before

Turkey declared

work

been

Pultawa, the vanquishedhero

soughtrefugeat Bender,
summarilybroken

had

X.11. of

in the

oi'iginal
part

no

the defeat of

when, after

world.

Europe

far the

considerations

Russian aggrandisement,
and whether,upon
respecting
this

earlyoccasion,its deliberations were

maxims

of

to

infer from
from

the

its

any

policy. That

very

great extent,

it was
we

Peter

was

so

fluence
in-

perhaps

may

such confidence received

there

although the Swedish

appearedin

on

discomfited
completely

king gained nothing in the

end, the advantagesobtained by the Turks

Russians

not

promptitudein engagingthe Czar, and

which
justification

the Pruth.
and

modem

more

swayed by the

1711

to

be

comparative
strengthof

the two

1724, however, the Divan

had

quitedecisive as

parties.By

the

over

to

the

the year

evidently
begun

to

look

62

TURKEY.

if not apprehension,
jealousy,
upon

with

Russia

and

fresh

war

officesof the French

the

to
represented

the
to

Its

would

could be in no wise
but

interests ;

of Mahometan

injurious

to

be the

spiritinto

with the Ottomans.

burgh appears

of
imperious
carriage

for

almost

now

the Porte

one

of the most

described

renewinghostilities
of St. Peters-

succeeded

ancient

even

of
precedence

1739, which

now

the

Althoughsuch

even

twenty years

to

to

relapse

for any
ground disqualified

assumed
permanent alliances; yet it already

imperial
supremacy,

to

of French diplointelligent
matists

that

on

troduce
in-

councils, an

it as liable,
at any moment,

into barbarism,and

rate

Empress Anne

itself.

condition of the country,

that
later,

it is at any

and

Indeed, the cabinet

have

to

features
humiliating

Russian

the

promptlyfound

was
opportunity

the

the accession of the

fresh

ral
natu-

traditions for

cabinet

of the treaty of the Pruth

clear,that when

sion,
occa-

It is said that Peter

power.

he considered

what
effacing

good

the contrary,it

that,on

bequeathed certain

the Great

the

this

on
ambassador,

againstAustria,the
supplya counterpoise

enemy

was

the

Porte,remarkablyenough,that

of Russia
aggrandisement

the Ottoman

growth of

onlyaverted by

was

court.

the

the

France.

the airs of

the
lengthof contesting
The

war

from

1735

to

ensued, provedthe hingingpointin

fortunes
military

of

Turkey.

It cannot

be
certainly

PETER

THE

that it was

front

resolute

the Austrians

to

Munich

in the

thus far

precipitate
peace

honour

the results of the

Russia had

at

which

the

pointhad

Turkey ;

been

now

reached

after

which,

Eussia

Even

must

them

to

the

not

were

but the

acknowledgean

"

was
explicit
stipulation

the

ceding
re-

The

if Turkey

even

continue
must

peace

of

to

yearly

Belgrade,

them.

to
greatly

The

the disadvantage

haughty Ottoman

descended
con-

Empress"in the Czarina;

introduced for the annulment

of all previous
conventions,
agreements, and
and

of

particular
treatywhich

between
changeof relationship

of the Porte

an

of the

immediatelyupon

territorialarrangements

and

rising
power

for the future.

rest

retrograde,
yet
the terms

the

demonstrated,

could it be doubtful with

nor

increase.

shoAved the

arms

without

with
equality

an

and the distance between

followed

the walls of

of the Ottoman

advance,
"

under

campaign,that

would
superiority

did not

the

to

lengthdrove

at

nevertheless

lengthreached
of

power

showing a

gained againstthem

ever

it was
desperate
struggle,

by

in

unexpectedlymaintained, and thoughno

advantage was
a

Persia with the

Crimea, and

the Danube, and

on

Belgrade. But thoughthe

was

standing
Porte,notwith-

Shah, stillsucceeded

to

de Wallis

The

actively
engaged in

Nadir

formidable

63

SUCCESSORS.

HIS

discreditable to the Turks.

termed

Count

AND

GREAT,

cessions,
con-

this treatyas exclusively

the'recognitionof

64

TURKEY.

relations to subsist thereafter between

the
regulating

Powers.
contracting

the

After this,all,excepting
the actual conquest of the

Ottoman
In

Empire,might
the last war

fact,even

the avowed

be

said to be
had

been

over.
virtually

commenced

of despoiling
the
expectation.

Porte of some,

of its Europeanpossessions,
had
so precipitate
least,

at

"

been

its decline.

Turkey

was

on
fairly

now

limb of her orbit ; and it seemed

speed with

the

which

she
her

setting.True, however, to
a

with

term

be

can

to
applied

was

at
or

in the

which

wars

ancient

the

the contrary,it

mediation

sentiments of
too

the

no

tagonists
an-

The

afterwards

questionon

of itsunaltered

assurances

which

peace

wroughtin

blind

was

in this movement

it to the

was

at

To say that

expiringPoland.

would
sympathy or generosity,
so

sued.
en-

and voluntarily
belligerents,

mainlyinfluenced

much; but,

time had

to

that of

last broken, was

was

took

terested
its disinactually
proffered

the Court of Vienna

amity.

the Divan

Porte

rance,
igno-

its old Austrian

years'hostilitieswhich

to
despatched

of

demise,in 1740, of the imperial

crown;

seven

On

her

if such
policy,

strange combination

embroiled

scending
de-

late
easy to calcu-

hasteningto

and disdain,
the
high-mindedness,

part in the

the

be

by
saying

changeswhich

of the
the relativestrength

and of its own

that,in 1768, it deliberately

parties,

accord de-

66

TURKEY.

cerned

and France

Prussia

dangerand

new

while England
policy,

new

motives of interest; and

new
acquired

acknowledgedher

"What adds to the

concern.

of this agitation
is,that
significance
Catharine
own

her

Peter the Great

to

the banks of the Bug.

to

of the boundaries of

the first advancement

was

the south:

and

on

this occasion,
by

the Russian

smaller streams

fall in

of the Euxine

the Pruth.

In the time of

the

the line was

the

frontier had

in 1774, it was

1792,to

of the

waters

directions into
parallel
and
Bug, the Dniester,

as
carried,

have

we

said,to

to

include the mouths

and serious cost.

far ventured
the Crimea
an

on

the

to her

ukase.
imperial

these

the

In

of
rights

in

by

of the Danube.

respectively
grave

to
the strongest,
as

her

the

in

1829,

1784, Catharine had

dominion,by
But

Peter,

Bug;

Dniester;in 1812,to the Pruth; and

made

the

"

by the Dnieper;

been formed

These advances represent,of course,

contests

from those

channels

the

the present. Between

Dnieper and the Danube, three

gible
intelli-

an

convey

may

we

the stagesof its progress

merelyenumerating
to

her

carried the old frontier of

idea of the system commenced

days

avail.

no

terms, dictated the famous

own

which
treaty of Kainardji,

Russia

of

it was

all intervention ; and, at

proudlyrejected

timejand upon

This

even

so

annex

of
simpleauthority

menacing paradesin

and by her haughtyinscriptionThe

regions,
"

"

FEEXCIT

route

she

over

"

bounds

declared

the Porte.

by

and Suwarrow

of

we

results

with

.Russian

was,

we

of
development

in the alliance to

led.
removed

to

drew

be

here

Christian

and

timidity,
by
of

the Ottoman

however,the

French

the

Sultan.

had

of France

been

thus incidentally

far

was

enough

the traditional
risk of collision;

beyondthe

world,was

early

an

originally
sought,

court

the Porte

King

the
as
position,

Turkish

convenience
a singular
observe,

which

The

the

the Order

of
frequentopportunities

while his

is
noticing,

at
attention,

influence

at

with
its peculiar
authority

prideof

of

of his cabinet with the affairsof

connexion

him

named.
already

these facts contributed to

great submissiveness

may

storm

the political
as
strength,
sions
persua-

the emissaries of France

There

the

strugglebetween
protracted

remarks,to the

though

have

we

however, desirous

generate in Europe. We
our

and

"

the

the

stage of

Potemkin

campaigns of

The

again

was

now,

and
desperation
which

war

"

are

much

so

stillferocious Ottomans

patience,and

The

67

PORTE.

the captureof OczakofF

"

of Ismail,followed.
What

TIIE

of the gates of Kherson,

one

the
lengthexasperated

beyond the

not

AT

"

Byzantium

to
at

DIPLOMACY

Poland, and

of St.

John,

serviceable

mediation,

firsthereditary
monarch

such

as

Sultans.
monarchs

to

gave

the
gratify

of the

inordinate

In respectof arrogance,
were

their Oriental allies. They demanded

soon

match

for

from the Porte the

68

TURKEY.

titleof

Padischah,"or Emperor;* and, In the conduct

of such of their ambassadors

it is difficultto

of the Ottoman

assumed

length,in

was

established.
visibly

not

overlook
in

made

the

certain

Most

The

all the while

the century

or

in the

and

Ottoman

The

matter

It is not

to this

concession

little curious

that

any

Crown

extorted

when

moment

but his agents

in the
war

and

After this

Ottoman

the
period,

State in this

and
recognition;

to in p.

their actual

25, refused

but their
(see p.

he assumed

Emperor,

should

for the

Turkey was,

own.

63) by
Napoleon himself,when

the title of

King

interested action of

common

referred

be

position

ledge
to acknow-

Hence

Anne
at the

have

so

the

of Russia.

heightof

experienceda
oppositionfrom the same
objected
quarter. The Porte actually
the peculiar
rightsof the Sultan.
assumption as infringing

his power
serious

of

to

was

lengththe

Sovereigns,
relyingpartlyon

partlyon the inheritance

an
Imperial dignityin

of the
significance

at

affairs of

liabilitiesof the

respect,became

could

Christian

the

at

which

traceable.
firsttime,notoriously
necessities

Grand, it

and
busy at Constantinople;

the
terminated,

were

Power

Western

use

and

decency,to despatch

Emperor

with
delayof the pacification

much

so

le

monarch

menacingVienna;
actually

the infidel was

were

form
positive

So ambitious

ways.

to the

succours

civilised
un-

preponderance

of Louis

wars

been forced indeed,for very

had

the

as

more

of which

power

of
variety

But

the

this indefinite
decreased,
gradually

power

influence of France

Ferrlol,

over
superiority

of the Turk.

envoys

scope, and at

much

trace

Marcheville and

as

FRENCH

DIPLOMACY

duringthe
regularly
of

great Powers
ascendancies

in the

indicate

treaties of the

and
negotiations

of Catharine II.,in

dictated

by

communicatingthe impressof
of

Power,

after

emergencies,
very
commercial

ceased

Turkey

the

it still retained

the

were

disdainful

by creed, position,

to

be

aggressive

an

on
capacityof effecting,

It became

secluded from the

chivalryand
nor

was

appreciatethe

did

not

blv

confer.

At

the

in

rights

withdrawn
yet so practically

was

instrument

well known;

discerned

interests to

own

sphereof ordinarycombinations,as

like a readv-made
Its

its

value.
of no trifling
privileges

communitv.
political

from

at

and of granting
formidable diversions,

fact a State,
which, thoughnot
of

that time

of Christendom.
ordinarypolitics

and character from the

Even

at

State

dissociated

nation

tion.
presump-

originatedin the

each

prospect of advantage which

not

ceived
con-

alarm
especial

any

the aggrandisement of Russia; thev

the engagements

was

extraordinary
degreeof

an

determined

or

disallowing

her and her enemy,

These intercessions,
however,had

in

did all the

years

Europe,accordingto their successive

such intervention between

been

69

PORTE.

hundred

next

Porte, that the conduct

to

THE

claim a right
of interference
opportunities,

or

mediation

and

AT

to

appear

for all collateral purposes.

its
there

services

Pruth, the

passionatecaprices
any

cabinet which

they might possi-

mediatingPowers

70

TURKEY.

England and Poland;

were

introduced to the Divan

state of

transformed
of the

themselves
We

into

campaigns,

intercessor

an

behalf

on

the cabinets of London

and

for
zealously
co-operating

the

in 1792

and

Turks;

end.

Austria

even

Frederic.

Great

thingsdisclosed by Romanzoff's

Berlin found
same

man
of the Otto-

the admiration

by

mission devolved

characteristicall

was

of the
qualities
personal

for the
The

the
Belgrade,

Prussia

France.

upon

at

thus say, that for the greaterpart

may

of

of the 18th century the chief Powers

Europe had

been

intervention
a
systematic
exercising

in the

affairs of

clearer

motive

than

with
Turkey; originally

no

the

with
but latterly
of political
influence,
acquisition
general
a

of
apprehension

distinct

Power
its

so

as Russia
aggressive

In

the
pointof fact,

to which

to expand
permitted

were

at

to

had

her
disguise

princeof

lished
estabconclusively

the

ambition

her

the

the

her

benefit of her

did

hopes.

sors
succes-

of Constantine

name
auspicious

royalhouse.

had alarmed

or

uses

a Greek
projectof restoring

for the
Constantinople

and revived

of Poland

last wars

probablybe applied.Catharine

openlydiscussed

;
a

if a
feared,

of Russia,and
gigantic
strength

it would

condescend

Empire

in

be

Empire.

both the

She

dangerto

of the
by the spoils
alreadymenacingproportions

Ottoman

not

the

Nor, althoughthe fate

the statesmen

of

Europe,was

it

OF

POLICY

bv any

EUROPEAN

certain that any

means

eonld at this time have been

In

and her prey.

peremptory arbitration

between
interposed

1791, Pitt

his

unsupportedin

71

POWERS.

had

found

himself

Russia

totally

to equip a squadronof
proposition

observation for the Dardanelles; the functions of France,

the old and,

the
at least,
nominally

Porte, became
and

suspended;
entirely

of Polish
spoils

natural
and

the

allyof

the

complicity

furnished the Northern

dismemberment

Courts with irresistibletemptations.

Already,in

fact,had

the

as

of Turkey been deliberately

vassed,
canpartition
alternative to
preferable
showed

althoughsubsequentevents
by

were

to

no

means

be,it may

time have

so

be doubted

been thrown

fanatical courage.

always as
intimated

defenceless

to

probablybe

the

whether

Even

ten

at

hand.

Europe for

Other

Revolution

not

at

their

this
own

to

scenes,

burst upon

Turkey, had
it would

war

diversion

or

aid;

rather
participate

preventionof

in the

absorbingall thingsin
from the

future

the

the

in

deed, were

however,

In the midst of these ambitious

the French

presumed

ing
France,actyears earlier,

confidential friend of

vain to look to

known.
sufficiently

theywere

theywould

the Divan, that in any

plunderthan

that the Ottomans

whollyfor support on

and the inclinationsof Austria

the

as

its absorption
; and

were

now

conspiracies,

world,and by

its vortex, relieved the Porte

imminencyof peril.

72

TURKEY.

Under

of

Governments
careers

and the

Europe
Empire

of the century

which

after
length,

Porte

six

from

share in the great

any

of

the

it also in

ushered

in.

the passions
of
years'neutrality,

results of this famous

of view, remarkable
connected

Unable

to

in

with

none

the

more

at

more

as

and

natural
more

sequelof

to
closely

its counsellor
naturally

review.
its consequences,

or

rob it of its fairest

war

againstFrance;

drew
determination,

Turkey, had

we
followed,

need
this

rudely
snappedasunder

become

now

Into the

enough to observe,that by

French Government

points

which, always
Britain,

and friend.

of the engagements which

It will be

such

Great

favourably
disposedtowards

The

least discern that itsoldest

declared
province.It accordingly

and,

her

than those immediate

Revolution

proposingto
deliberately

allywas

in many

subjectunder

comprehendeither the
the Porte could

Egypt.

descent upon

expedition
were,
and

the

regions

symbolisedin
characteristically

counsels by
revolutionary

At

rectory
the ambition of the Di-

The ancient interestsof France in these

of the world,were

revolutionary
tempests

thingswas

roused by
violently

were

the

in their

pause

secured
justexpiring,

order

new

fain to

were

corresponding
immunityfrom
by

prodigious
events,

circumstances which had exempted

same

the Ottoman
wars

of such

the pressure

particulars
not

measure

an

enter.

the

allianceof

74

TURKEY.

received with

universal consent, and

more

on

legitimate
footingthan before,into

the

and
European States,

assignedto

their

On

the

the other hand,

in this way

were

of the

her in

regular

althoughcertain

its fated

gations
obli-

the Porte

was
antagonist

proportionately
strengthened
by the operation

same

So

causes.

services of Russia in the

and

Court

of

contracted towards

European States,yet

than

more

community of

generalfederative policy
partookmore

character.

by

that the part

more

of St.

been

the

of Europeagainst
poleon,
Nastruggle

was
entirely

so

conspicuoushad

the Continental

of
policy

identifiedwith

Petersburghnow

the

that of

the other great Powers, that the attitude of the Czar

became
which

far

need

we

formidable

more

than before

and

results

stantial
sub-

recapitulate,
provedwhat
scarcely

groundsexisted

for the

growingapprehensions

of the Divan.
What

is called indeed the Eastern

said to have become

last Avar.

The

territoriesand
did not

Great

include

Turkey in

on

such

the
a

Europe were

there

which
passions

it
point,

were

the end

be

of the

which

the

defined anew,

its provisions.
Considering

is not

agreement could have been arrived

and
parties;

at

Treatyof Vienna, by

relations of

the interests and

excited

fullyconstituted

question,
may

obvious

at

reasons

would

have

probablethat

been

any

by the contracting
thempresenting

THE

EASTERN

selves for the omission of

but conditional rank among

had

not

Turkish

of

The

On

events.

the

terribleordeal

of

Europe

stood

reignsin Europe :

now

have been somewhat

that

ing
for maintain-

of the
and

we

for
necessity

hope

may

the close of

almost

be rendered

sible
impos-

dangersof Turkey may

diminished,but the

still.It cannot,
perils

in short,be

case

retains its

that
disguised,

resources

or

the

is unnatural.
expression,

French

community of States,differing
merelyin the extent
territorial

the

of opinion.
operation

mere

use

said that

the peace than

towards
perpetrated

were

In this respect,therefore,
the

to

course

purified
by

better concert

Order
as

the

sincere respect for

more

conviction
perfect

the last century, would

the

been

had

highersince

if not
exists,

that such deeds

by

be
certainly

more

just
struggle

regulated
by the

whole,it may

international law,at least

doing.

in the

throughwhich theyhad passed; and

There

it,and

and which

destinies,therefore,of

leftto be

has
political
morality

before.

yet took

even

Europeanpowers,

future

Empire,were

the monarchies

so

State,-which

playedany principal
part

concluded.

75

QUESTION.

militarypower,

and

tuation
si-

In

of their

where

the

of
strength

each is nearly
to its magnitude,
proportioned

there is no

in assuring
dependen
the safetyand ingreat difficulty
of each

As

by

the

common

of all.
understanding

law prevails,
State
no
longas respectfor public

incurs

76

TURKEY.

any

peculiar
dangerfrom

is the express

its mere

of internationallaw
object,
indeed,

the small

the great. In
against

Holland

is as

secure

these conditions
of

actual power,

the

as

this sense

Kingdom

when

and

its

but
against
violence,

find props for

to
are

so

an

and in

which

well

The

as

men.

occupiedby

aliens in

alone.

In

be protected

Turkish

the

be

minions
do-

vast

an

time

same

impracticable
if

integrity"

opposingthose

existence of States

Ottomans

Empire of

as

represents

the Romans,

who
religion,

assume

so

have

of

long

strength

nothingless than

government claimingto exercise

in
controlling
authority

now

and

it,we
"protecting"
a

But

Duchy, it

that
title to possession,
original

the patronage of

An

to

seem

the Eastern
race

The

it is almost

monarchyof the

than

lost their

at

are

the
regulate

nothingless

Grand

the
guaranteeing

Empire,we

laws of nature

of

the pretensions

State may

Empire.

that
completely
disorganised,

of the Ottoman

of Prussia.

they comprise so

enormous,

them

Kingdom

againstdecomposition
;

not

and
aggregate of pretensions,

to preserve

insure

capacityfor political

own

to support a
thoughit is possible

is hard

to

to its
hugelydisproportioned

are

lifeis becomingvisibly
extinct.

and

the

affectedwhen
materially

are

government

relative inferiority
; it

three quartersof the

globe.

in the question
has
element,too,of signal
importance

of
appeared.Althoughthe spirit

the age may

be

AND

RUSSIAN

opposedto

any

FRENCH

77

PROTECTORATES.

assaults upon
crusading

the Turks

it is impossible
to
of their misbelief,

score

the

on

the
disregard

jects
fact,that these unbelievers hold millions of Christian subin

state

Turkey there

resemblingservitude.

The

3,000,000 Mussulmans.
reversed in Asiatic
be

show, upon
figures
of the

Ottoman
Such

Christendom.
an

are
proportions

there

Turkey,where

12,000,000Mussulmans

these

interest has been

European

12,000,000 Christians

about

arc

In

exactly

supposedto

3,000,000Christians ; but

to

the

are

to

whole,that

half the

Empire partakesthe
facts could

not

be

tion
populafaith of

and
overlooked,

wise,
claimed,whether sincerely
or other-

by the Christian Powers

yet with great plausibility
of

Europe,in

there

the Christian

of
subjects

to be
happensalso,unfortunately,

of Christianity,
there
description
one

than

more

has arisen

As
one

more

than

of protectorate. The original

schism
species

of the

Church
been

the Porte.

the
producing

Greek

mentioned, as
already

and Latin
well

antagonismengendered. The

are

now

representedby

two

the hostilitieswhich

as

this

communions,has

two

rival Churches

rival Powers.

claims to protectthe Christians of the Greek

beingherself the chief

defence of the Latin

member

or

Roman

assumed

by that

Church,as

of that communion.

The

Catholic Christians in

Turkey,has longbeen supposedto

havingbeen

Eussia

devolve upon

State

at

France,

the time when

its

78

TURKEY.

relations with the Porte

since. The Greek Congregations

are
relinquished

never

of

far

course

latter retain

numerous

some

establishments

have

the

but the

portance
of considerable im-

to

all Christians

Church

and
Nativity

The

Holy.

the rivalcommunions.

superior
rightof custodyor

of the

such

each

therefore,

its claim,
throughitsown

territoriallords. It is evident how

protectoratesmay

made

easily

the instruments

and

France

ambition; and
political
thus furnished with

be

than

Each desires to possess

access, and

addresses
offers,
opportunity

to the
protector,

their

those Places which

of somethingmore
are
Holy Sepulchre
objects

veneration

as

call

to

asserted
alwaysenergetically

of precedence
in
rights

combine

than the Latin

more

and

amicable,and
peculiarly

were

Russia

have

of

been

in
standingpretextsfor interfering

the affairsof the Porte.

The

"

Eastern

question,"
therefore,
simply stated,

what
inquires

is to be done with the East % It is scarcely

in the

nature

of

of the

unwieldyand

that
things,

The

State,seems

to

from
resulting
of
cannot

the

fabric
political

ruinous Ottoman

longsustained.

protracted
onlyby

an

existence of
have

reached

like that

Empire,should
Turkey, as

be

pean
Euro-

its term, and to be

and temporary suspense,

artificial

and jeamisgivings,
lousies
apprehensions,

Europe at large. But

if these

endure,what is to be the end ?

arrangements

THE

One

obvious

EASTERN

is that
hypothesis,

of the Turkish

in the Russian

natural order of

of the

of

Ottoman

the Greek

towards
at any

worshipof

Christ.

adolescence in
Her
senility.

She

there

is

there is

Europe are
at

could

not

makes

This

the

of what

which

she

this scheme

to

II.

than it

as

The

serious
power

of
as

of

then; and if

was

the governments of

of conaccord,it is the impossibility

niving

prodigiousaggrandizement.Russia
in her
incorporate,

second

own

the whole

cannot
therefore,
alternative,

The next isthat of

dominions,

without acquiring
empire,
a

alarmingto
manifestly
position
States.

the power,

in part with

secret

no

of Catharine

absorb and

the territoriesof

held

Sophia to

at least
objections

are

one

such

tions
rela-

from Constantinople,

of St.

destiny.But

singlepointon
of

same

Ottoman

conterminous

greater now

even

lance
ba-

representsthe vigourof cal

politi-

she

existed in the time

Russia

prescriptions

possesses

Turks

church

frontiersare

her natural

annexation

the

be

to the decrepitude
of politiopposition
cal

Turkey,and

considers

She

the
ejecting

the
restoring

and

the law of

the conditions of

Empire,as

Empire.

of

moment,

those of

Europe,and

the

Russia stands in almost the

of power.
the

absorption

of what would

things,
exceptingfor

publiclaw

to

of the

Empire,by

in pursuance

conquest only,and

79

QUESTION.

concerted

communityof
be admitted.

If the Ottopartition.

80

TURKEY.

Empire can

man

and
longerbe maintained,

no

of itsdominions to those of any

the formidable

contingencyof

Europeansystem, it

is obvious

divided,and

better be

that

territoriesshould take

plan. This

to

under

said,at the

had
experiment
on

accordance

alternativehas

It

revived

among

arranged
pre-

been
gress
con-

cept
excharacter,

with
tried,

been

Poland

the numberless

projectin

what
;

deemed

was

and

it

schemes

of

the
cess,
suc-

naturally

was

Napoleon.

figuredrather

the views of

Russian alliance. In any

connexion with

we

last century, when

if not
beingregardedwith especial,
a

any competent

be odious in

close of the

than
eventuality"

reference to

with

never
probably

by

Since those times,however, it has

'"'

they had

mentioned,however,as

was

kingdom of

the

that

argue

the

than
exigencies
greaterpressure of political

has yet occurred.

have

in

re-distribution of these

placein

for it would

cession
ac-

State involves

one

disturbance

taken into serious consideration

of Powers

if the

as

an

tists,
diploma-

with exclusive

for popropositions
litical

this contingency
has
Russia,

rally
gene-

been alluded to, and French statesmen, in particular,

have

framed
repeatedly

Prance

and

the bases of

Russia,upon

the terms

Againstthese views,if
ever

become

compact between

of

were

Eastern partition.

the emergency

and
sufficiently
desperate,

of all the chief Powers

an

should

if the interests

duly consulted,it might

82

rous

TURKEY.

and

which

and
energetic,
in

considerable advances

such

than any other. As

be made

to

almost

wear

commercial

scheme

prise.
enter-

this

as

are

zardous
be both less invidious and less ha-

It would

obvious.

and
political

advantagesof

The

of late years has made

regardsthe Turks,it might

semblance

of retributive justice,

since it isimpossible
to maintain that these Moslems
can

indefeasible right
to rule

possess any

and
in Christian territories;
subjects

should evince

confirmed

dangersand

of

of.
disposed

of its freedom.

Europe,this scheme

difficultiesof

terminate the Eastern

be

On

of South

would

process

now

Power, should

Turkey, like

ambitious

by the

afresh. What

to
subjected

pass under

the dismemberment

would

exist;and
really
the young

of the

This
speculation.

revival of Ottoman

some

if
publics
re-

incapableof

prove

the problemof the East,with

self-government,

dominions

obviate

and
partition,

America, should

mightrecur

regards

the other hand, it is doubtful whether

States of Christian

new

As

no
question,
by leaving
empireto

the materials for such

the

province

be assisted and
political
principle,

in the recovery

the great Powers

the

if any

itmight,
for independence,
out
withcapacity

violence to

much

Christian

over

isneeded

allitscomplications,
that the
is,

semi-civilisedand
rule so stable as

declining
to

make

of
Empire no longera subject
would be

either
accomplished

energy, if such

an

event

were

element of the

there would

stillremain

States
perhapstroublesome,

Empire ;
of this

at

St.

evince any-

and
impotent,

the frontiersof the Kus-

on

tion
considera-

in the
forgotten,
could

the
satisfy

never

and
Petersburgh,

subtleties of that Court would

both to

Ottomans,

ever,
latter chance,how-

cluster of

that it
alternative,

views entertained
known

it be

must

nor

for

should
population

for self-support.
the
capacity
Failing

siau

83

EUROPE.

the substitution of Greeks

or by
possible,

if the Greek

OF

POLICY

PRESENT

that all the

probablybe

cised,
exer-

and profit
the experiment,
prejudice
by its

failure.
These

remarks

Avillconvey

of the Great

Turkey,in

territories of

are
trulyimperial,

such

On

Eastern

at

tions
complica-

question. The

enormous

and
variety,

extent,

present under

character that itsduration

idea of the

some

richness

government of

hardlybe presumed.

can

the borders of this crumbling

monarchy lies an
of

prodigious
strengthand

bent upon

vast

pire
Em-

military
resources,

for generations
with
conquest,and possessed

the conviction that itsconquests will take this direction.

Such

consummation

it is the

interest of

for the purpose appear

avert; but allexpedients
that the crisis,
by
as

and
possible,

postponedby

Empire ;"

or, in

generalconsent,

the

"

other words, to

so

difficult,

is staved off

instead
question,

to
resolution,

Europe to

of

as

long

beingsolved,is

maintain

the Ottoman

as theyare.
keepthings

84

TUKKEY.

In the

one
interval,

and
itself,

that

conclusion

is,that

has

generally
approved

the affairsof

Turkey, whenever

should be regulated
extrinsicintervention,
tTieyrequire
by
concert

of the Great Powers

Powers

are

"

its contiguity,
and

of France
pretensions

of very ancient

are

be

to

Russia

by its

Englandby

these territoriesinclude.

India,which

to

route

Three of these

common.

and directly
interested;
largely

Austria by
expectations,
the

in

The

interest in the Eastern question

an

would

and
standing,

undoubtedly

supported;while Prussia,thoughless directly

strongly

of all in the preservation

the jointconcern
involved,
participates
of

therefore,
political
equilibrium.Partly,

by engagement, and partlyby consent, the

occurringin
inevitably

of the Great Powers

action
particular
fixed

States may
The
war,

and

been

enter

has

vessels of

Foreign

the Dardanelles.

illustrate
conveniently

Ottoman

Empire

In 1821, Greece

rose

the

vations.
foregoingobser-

has

been

political
decayin

provincescomposing its

This

pointindeed

alone armed

the natural incidents of

lords.

such

concurrence

of events, since the conclusion of the last

The

of the

to

by the

that conditions have

interdicted,

which

on

course

will

relations of this ruinous

settled from time to time

Empire,are

been

the

disturbances

enormous

in insurrection

proceedingwas

at

exposedto
the rebellion
dominions.

its Turkish
against

first regardedas

cul-

DURING

TURKEY

but

Congressat Yerona;

maintained,and

Russia

it

for the

decision
of Mr.

Great

treaty

that
on

signed

was

France,providing

the battle of Xavarino

this

became

from

Empire

great

of liberation

effect to the arrangement, and

Turkish

in

conviction

take the work

Greece

to

ism;
Canning'sliberal-

Britain,Russia,and

of
independence

war

the emancipation

was

the

in 1827,
Accordingly,

between

bornly
stub-

was

last resolved

at

quickened by

was

to
preparing

was

herself.

gave

Powers

in

year

the barbarities of the

as

due to the influence

but

next

the resistance

This

of the Greeks.

85

PEACE.

struggle
by pronouncingfor

terminate the

measure

the

met

as

the Great
horrible,

became

YEARS'

THIRTY

who
sovereigns

the

pableby

THE

detatched

the

portionof

the Ottoman

dominions.
In

1832, an insurrection of

The Pacha

of

Egypt

Egypt,Mehemet

son, Ibrahim

and

Syriawould

but
interfered,

not

alarm
letween

the

that

Pacha

it

and

be severed

from

against

arms

defeated

were

in concert, and not

insurgents.Russia
to

in

Ali,rose

the Porte

if

the dominions

again

in behalf of the

despatcheda powerfulauxiliary

Bosphorus,at
she

by

appeared as

Here, however, the Great Powers

of the Porte.

force

different kind occurred.

the armies of the Sultan

his master;

Mehemet's

which

France

eagerlyinterposedher
and

its rebellious

took

such

mediation

and
vassal,

sue-

86

TURKEY.

But

this

terms

renewal

had obtained

Ibrahim

and
perpetuity,
anxious

of the
he

the

war

Powers

"the

secured

was

even
proposing,

to

emancipatethe

her

Porte

and

its

by
the

Greeks

than

its colossal

from the Turkish

but

This

on

either

at

Russia
Delta

the instrument

gaineda
formed

termed

mouths

increased

the Danubian

was

or

more

clusively
con-

against

at

armies

kan
the Bal-

passed,and the

cityof Adrianople,
these arrangements

of coast, and

of the Danube.
her

onlyin

the Russian

from the

signed.By

followed

the Porte

the Danube

considerable extent

by the

also,and

was

yoke; and

were

evinced,even

this occasion the Balkan

Europe,

terminated

was

antagonist.Heretofore

treatyof peace took its name

where

war

Empire."

of

concurrence

of
before,the impotence

had been checked

of the Great

advances
gradual

the affair of liberation

of 1829.

autumn

the

It has been said that she

the

with the Turks, which

war

he

Egyptian vassal

Ottoman

of the
integrity

without

in
proceedings

in

secure

in 1839,
Accordingly,

visible.
clearly

were

to

thus conceded

In allthese transactions,
however, the

of Russia

sucb

for what

desired

renewed,and againthe intervention

was

retire.

to

exceptingon

the Sultan had

revoke.

between

contest

in trust

what

to

Ibrahim

obtained

not

was

success

foreboded

as

was

prevailing
upon

last in

ceecled at

She

influence in what

These
Principalities.

two

the
firmed
con-

are

pro-

DAXL'UIAN

THE

of Wallachia

vinces

aiul Moldavia

remained of the Ottoman

They
into

before remarked,

as

by Solyman
subjection

actually
deposingtheir
to

become

to
tributary

lying contiguousto

morsel

native

that

Great,who, without

the Porte.

and

as

with

solicitudeby
peculiar

The

treaty of

brought

princes,
compelledthem
Their

as
territories,

as
frontier,

leading

in short,the
forming,

devoured, have

be

to

the

the Russian

to the Danube,
directly

composed all

conquests beyondthe Danube.

was
originally,

were

87

VITALITIES.

trim

always been

the Court of St.

regarded

Petersburg*.

Jassy,which concluded,in 1792, the

campaignsof Suwarrow,

next

guinary
san-

invested Eussia with

of practical
species
protectoratein these parts,inasmuch
as

that
stipulated

it was

Wallachia
nor

and

or
Hospodars,

Moldavia,should

without
displaced
This

the

the

neither be

so

that it would
treaty of Adrianople,
the connection
and

beingthat
Russia.
can

of

If

Turkish

the

are

Government

yet Russian

by the

these provinces

their

position

the guarantee of

provinces,
they

called Turkish; for the Ottoman

ifdebarred from
and Turks

not

ment.
govern-

be difficultto define

under
quasi-independence

they are

hardlybe

far extended

stillsuffered to exist between

the

of

appointed

of the Russian

consent

protectorate was

governors

ment
Govern-

them by a military
force,
occupying

forbidden to settle in them, in order that

population,
being more

Christian,
exclusively
may

88
be

TURKEY.

have

the influence of Russia.

under
entirely

more

detached,in fact,from

been

annexed
beingformally

thoughthe

of Russia

manoeuvres

empirewithout

one

the other.

to

In 1833,

the Porte,

from
obtaining

again,

frustrated
partially

were

the
of French diplomacy,
by the energies
in

They

Russians

ceeded
suc-

the treatyof

by

of their
favourable recognition
a
Unkiar-Skelessi,

sumptive
pre-

claims.

Empire.

of the Ottoman
Such then is the position

all appearance, at the feet of its vigilant

Prostrate,to

redoubtable

and

security,
by
of

the

in
foe, it is maintained,

rather
jealousies

the

nations : For, although

on
surrounding

it has exhibited
occasion,
hour of

the Balkan

are

such

causes

very

narrow

based upon

never

and its force

force,

cohesion into its

that

cityto

and

been

tinople
Constan-

step.

of this decline.

think,within

Empire was

The Danube

frequently
indulgedin speculations

Historians have
the

from

one

years forbids

has
longerbarriers. Adrianople

no

there intervenes but

upon

than

in the
vitality

recent

resources.

reached; and

alreadyonce

sympathies

more

unlooked-for

an

of
peril,
yet the experience

all further reliance on

we

than

pr -carious

But

the

lies,
question

limits. The
any

has failed. It

Ottoman

but
principle

introduced any

never

and theynow
provinces,

As respectsits relations with Russia

that of

flyasunder.

it is not

merely

90

TURKEY.

in it

involved
obligations

from Seringapatam.Tippoo
Constantinople

to

Sahib demanded

guardianof

and

general.
feature in the

should be

Empires,that

Russian
of

matter

that
respectable
antiquity

such

fated centenary draws

dominion

have

by

an

in
its

people. Though

Europe

is

fourth,and perhaps

as
itself,

by such
distinguished

never

mere

has been observed

felicitous

of expression,
is stillonly"encamped"on
brevity
have

of

now

title beyond that of

nation

historian not often

They

mon
com-

nigh,*and though their rightsof

acquireda

prescription,
yet the

the Ottoman

the destinies of both

of the

of the Turks

establishment

historyof

tradition and
long-descended

acceptance in the minds

the

and

community, againstthe

the Mussulman

remarkable

Sultan,as the head

the aid of the

forces of the British

It is

in 1799, transmitted
actually,

was

its conquests.

either
comportedthemselves,

in Europe
if they anticipated
or
as
politically
socially,
Ottoman
home.
legendsrelate how a
any continuing

belief arose,

even

in the very hour of conquest,that the

banner of the Cross

would

again be

some

day

carried

the brink of the Straits; and it is said that this mis-

to

29th

This
of

was

-written in 1849.

The

centenary

in

question was

the

An
old prophecyforetold that the Turks
should
May, 1853.
it is certainly
reign in Constantinople400 years, hut no more
; and
curious that,on the very day above
was
current
mentioned, a rumour
that the Russians
in the European capitals,
had entered the city.

PRESENT

POSITION

givingis traceable

OF

in the selection of the

for the final resting-place

of true
too, that from

91

TURKEY.

Asiatic shore

believers.

It is certain,

the firstdefinite apparition

of the Russian

Empire, they instinctively

recognisedthe antagonists
of Fate.

Czar,when
the

to

the gaze of the Porte

impressionwas

the inhabitants of

Neva; throughoutthe

the other

side.

ImperialCourt

Nor

of
capital

The

the

all matter

with
to

the

make

generatedby

march

The
to

the

an

the

of

the

enter

on

of the

the

tions
crea-

earlier and

an

relations of Russia

which

inheritance of

legend;and combine,

the incitements of

from
Constantinople

as
obligatory

in
spirit

particular

Catharine,yet the

presumed

and
appealto religion

appear

work.

ancient

of national

the recovery

day

the earlyhostilities,
the
Cresars,

and
subsequentalliances,

Ivan, are

to

are

flow from

current
impressions
popularly

the

the

this

the visible ambition

been

have

corruptedsource.

to

the traditions less vivid

are

Although
may

troops

of Peter and the conquests of

with

and

Constantinople
pointout

Promise.

City of

less

directed
uneasily

was

weakened;

never

the Muscovite

which

by

gate

the

metropolison

new

the titles of the

hardlylearned

its chequeredincidents,
century,notwithstanding

whole

the

had

Europe

the

Bosphorus would

well

as

Russian

pride,

the Ottoman

predestined

legionswould

probablydiffer little

92

TURKEY.

Grenada

from that in which

invested

was

by

the levies

of Castile.
all these

Yet, with

of conquest,and
palliatives

semblance

of warrant,

sentiments

which

Russia

the

by

the

that the
certain,

of Constantinople
occupation
by
in the cabinets of

might awaken

be seconded

it is almost

all this

of
opinion

Europe,would

peoplebetween

every

the

Vistula and the Atlantic.

Though

the fourth century of their

stillsit
Europeanexistence,

like barbarous conquerors

they retain
Christian

in servitude

the very

most

the lands

on

and

famous

sympathy

of

an

be

invasion,
they would

whom

to

strange and

"balance

from

of a
acquisitions,
the main

source

must

probablybe sought

which

inclines
naturally

and

more

to

the

Power

in

the
of

unintelligible
sition.
propothere would

in the obvious

doubt be sufficientwarrant

stronger

the

command

the conclusions of statesmen

Russia; but

and the

"

publicpeace and freedom

world

of ancient story; yet for all this,

thousands

of

For

as

of

and thoughthese provinces

provinces,

scenes

power" would

such vast

though

millions
degradation

of the known
fairest regions

in the event

no

theywon,

in

thoughthey perpetuatethe hopeless

subjects,

desolation of vast
are

the Turks, even

dangerto

aggrandisement,
by
alreadyso menacing
of these

that

the weaker

decided bias

as

sentiments

popular instinct
side,and with
the violence at-

POSITION

PRESENT

tempted is
which

feeble and

arc

actingin

and

inoperative,
compared

misbelievers:

They

they wore

their

rule,the

their

the

misfortune

to

to

their

by

homage

Very

power.

been
probably,
encroachments

any

have

national

of

an

periodsince

induce
*

This

more

was

to the

and

Russia.

excite

in allusion

to

the

These

asylum

in
Hungarian refugees,

affected

at

upon

has

there,

which

given

defiance

are

by
of the

the

its defenceless

generalindignation

more

serious results.

events

has,
strength,

war,

Power

overgrown

neighbour would

the

had

European forms

of

it may

of the
elasticity

which

recent

the national virtues;nor

not impaired
least,

at

disdainful

that

by

plighted

refuses to avail itselfof another's

however
institutions,

vigourand

as

magnanimity, their

that the communication

Ottoman

to

which

extorted

have shown*

they are

States of

renders

been

never

but

title which

shamed
they have repeatedly

presumptiveduties, and

and

which

impressof

They

grandeurof soul
error,

those

Turks,

improved,by

not

their unswervingadherence
generosity,
faith and

the

semi-barbarians,

conquest:

by
loftypretensions,

more

tions
considera-

retain their native

made.

character,and

from

with

are

they have

of
or
policy
enlightenment

derived
theyoriginally

The

of
disparagement

their favour.

theyare

the

tend to the

now

93

TURKEY.

cruel.

and
gratuitous

more

are

OF

or

thingswithin
the Turkish
menaces

ment
governof Austria

94

the

TURKEY.

dailyobservation

deduced

from

of all; what

the less obvious

of the

elucidate the character

facilitatethe
must

be

one

comprehensionof
day

we

have

facts of

iTCORQUOBALE

the great

END.

CO., PRINTEB3,

AND
WOllKS

"

history,may

and
crisis,
long-pending

solved.

THE

previously-

NEWTON.

LONDON.

problem which

London

Spottiswoodes
and

Shaw,

New-street-

Square.

MAXIMILIAN

I. AND

FERDINAND

II.

OF

AUSTRIA:

AN

ESSAY

ON

POLITICAL

THE

IMMEDIATELY

RELIGIOUS

AND

OF

GERMANY

REFORMATION.

THE

AFTER

STATE

BT

RANKE,

LEOPOLD

PROFESSOR

TRANSLATED

FSOM

LADY

DUFF

THE

GERMAN

GOKDON.

LONDON:

LONGMAN,

BROWN,

GREEN,
1853.

AND

LONGMANS.

TRANSLATOR'S

Some

of Professor

that

mine,

opinions,or
view

of

need

works

translations

nothing

say

his

about

even

are

by

in the

far abler

the

Zeitschrift"

known
hand

to

than
of

nature

Iris

reputation in Germany.
is

in

given

followingEssay,

(Historicaland

or

Pamphlet, publishedin
retrospective

Politische

well

so

about

interestingperiod

very

possiblemanner
call it

Ranke's

in

readers

English

PREFACE.

the

shortest
almost

might

the

His

Historisch-

"

Political

Periodical)

for 1832.
From

influence of religiousdifferences

the

questions
moral

warning

day.

present
in such

the

at

for

the

I know

historical

time

of which

he treats, he

use

of his

not

how

much

but

while

parallels
;

draws

countrymen

own

truth

there

the

at

often

translatingthe

is

sages
pas-

immediately treatingof religiousanimosities,it

more

seemed

to

rather

than

as

me

to

though

Germany,

the Author
"

de te

might

fabula

to

say

England,

narrator.

L. D.

Esher,

tical
poli-

upon

\3lh

Jan.

1853.

G.

CONTENTS.

Page

INTRODUCTION

of

Peace

Religiocs

the

of

the

Peace

of

the

Internal

III.

Politics

of

Relations

I.

Ferdinand

State

of

the

of

German

the

the
been

means

11

V.

CHAP.

VI.

18

-------24

German

whereby

preserved

Nation

the

VII.

Peace

of

Maximilian

30

of

Germany

CHAP.
Expectations

Princes

CHAP.

CHAP.
Of

Germany

IV.

CHAP.

Personal

...

-----

CHAP.
State

II.

CHAP.
Conditions

I.

CHAPTER
Effects

5"

II.

might

have

-49

VIII.
.

Gi"

CONTENTS.

Till

"I

CHAP.

Theological

IX.

Disputes
-

Enterprises

of

the

87

XL

Provincial

Restoration

of

-..-.-.

the

beginning

of

104
-

and

XIII.

1576
-

CHAP.

Conclusion

and

Catholicism

of

1575

95

XII.

Churches

CHAP.

Negotiations

Position

altered

the

Maximilian

CHAP.

Concerning

X.

CHAP.

Maximilian's

70

CHAP.

Military

Page

117
-

XIV.

129

FERDINAND

in most

I. AND

II.

MAXIMILIAN

conviction
by the painful

that it was

also the

cause

of intestine divisions,
of the horrors of the

ThirtyYears'
characters developed
in the various
War, of the heterogeneous
German
races
by the differences of their religious
and thus of the decayand ruin of the Empire.
confessions,
the Reformation was
But although
inevitable, a fact
admitted by both parties is it certain that these consequences
"

"

were

the German

too

so

Was

that which

elevated and freed

associatedwith
peoplenecessarily

that which

disunion among
not
them; or was
of takes
that rather the result of accidental circumstances,
mis-

broughtdiscord
which

and

mightjustas

It appears to

me

well have been avoided ?

that this is

questionstillopen

to

discussion.
here to

inquirewhether it would have

from the firstto giveanother directionto the
been possible
and to arrive at a totally
differentresult,
such
Reformation,
union between the two faiths. An inquiry
of this
as
a
would be universal and theological,
rather than
nature
national and political.
Let us rather take itfrom the point
ithad reached under
Charles V.
German
destroyed
Was
miitythen completely
to maintain it
; or would it stillhave been possible
after the Reformation had been completed
even
although
without embracing
the whole of Germany ? If indeed this
let us examine what were
which
the causes
was
impossible,
I do not

mean

rendered it so.
In many respects
these questions
are
which agitate
the presentperiod.*
*

to those
applicable

If is true that in no former

:
Canning'swords are very apposite
periodof historyis there so close a resemblance to the present as in that
of the Reformation."
Speechon Mr. Macdonald's Motion.
"

"

The
those

reignsof Ferdinand
duringwhich the course

consideration

decided.

was

PBACE.

RELIGIOUS

THE

Maximilian

I. and

of the events

Had

II.

were

under

now

it been at all possible

to

interests of
to the general
give a decided preponderance
Germany,it mightthen have been done ; and if that was
look for the obstructing
must
at the
not done,we
causes
same
period.
I am about to offer a few remarks on this subject
; they
have no
claim to be anythingbeyond the thoughts
and
attached to his native land. Beof a German
sides
suggestions
the German

reportsof

I have

sources,

few

I consulted in

CHAPTER
EFFECTS

OF

invaded

the

French

peopleof

those

talked
regions

deeds and events

Swedish

that ; and those who

lore talked about
in

now
fortresses,

In all

the
in

were
one

Northern
so
nothing

Germany the
much

Years' War.

as

of the

The

older
to

the

had gone before

war
thirty
years'
fond of anticpiarian
and legendary
which
of

course

had
ruins,

these
probability

TEACE.

them, in reference

among

camps, told how

years, and

of

of the Seven

better informed

Vienna,

I.

RELIGIOUS

THE

Before

and

of the

use

of several Venetian envoys,

Florentine resident,

Papal Nuncios which

and Venice.
Rome, Florence,

and

also made

had lasted for

which

the

been built and

vague
B

hundred

neighbouring
destroyed.

current
traditions,

among

FERDINAND

I. AND

peasantry,refer

our

ancient

to

MAXIMILIAN

II.

feuds,and
private

the time

when

mightmade right.At all events the duration of the

in them; it took more
than a
not exaggerated
war
was
century after the decayof the Imperialpower to restore
the tranquillity
of Germany.
The publicpeace, so often proclaimed,
often
was
as
had a more
succeeded
broken,and scarce
peaceful
generation
many turbulent ones, when the excitement of
the Reformation againdisturbed all minds.
The disorder
to

so

lasted

the reignof Charles V. ; at one time the

throughout
from Thuringia
all in insurrect
to the Rhine, were
peasantry,
; and,after that,the Hanseatic league
together
foughtits last great battles againstthe Northern Powers.
of the Empire threatened each
For a time the princes
and counter
other in leagues
leagues
; then the Protestants
raised

armed

an

Wirtembergin

force,and

his

reinstated

dominions,from

the

Duke

of

which

theyexpelled
the whole of Germany,
the Duke of Brunswick ; at length
but divided against
met
in the fulness of its strength,
itself,
and Miihlberg. The
at Ingolstadt
Emperor Charles,
powerfuland able as he was, and decisive as was the
The
he had achieved,failed in establishing
victory
peace.
and he
turned against
arms
were
himself,
same
untiring
from Germany,wearied and extook his final departure
asperated,
after havingwith difficulty
escapedimprisonment.
Ferdinand

was

not

to
comparable

his brother either in

remarkable
that the
in power ; it is the more
and that not by his
peace*which he established,
religious
talent

It

or

was

at the same

and
religious,

common

publicpeace
publicpeace."
time

itwas

"
The following
called,

RELIGIOUS

THE

PEACE.

but onlywhen empoweredby

influence,

own

should

been

have

the sudden

the

commencement

Emperor,
of a long

peace.

The

ambassadors and envoys were

more
foreign
ticularly
parstruck by this change in their observations on
Germany.
During the latter part of the Emperor
Charles's reign,"'
in his report to
says a Papal Nuncio
"

Cardinal Carafta upon

"there
affairs*,

German

was

not

in Germany, that was

not at
a
state,or a town
sovereign,
strifewith its neighbour
ecclesiasticalor temporal
for some
interests. Margrave Albrecht and the House
of Brunswick,
the Elector Palatine Ottheinricb,
and Cardinal Otto

of

Augsburg,were

distrust towards

in open
each

feud ; all the rest

full of

were

other,and alwaysremained

under

territorial
of contention were
religion,
subjects
The Nuncio
and questions
of jurisdiction.
usurpations,
denburg
looked upon the meetingof the Houses of Saxony,Branand Hessen, at Naumburg, for the purpose of
sort of
as
a
alliance,
renewingtheir ancient hereditary
Diet. On revisiting
counter
Germany a few years after
the religious
peace, he found everythingchanged. He
the religious
;
disapproved
peace, which he called impious
arms

the

but he admitted that it was

*

MS.

Informatione

del Rev"'

in the Bibliotheca

extremelv

Vescovo

Ddfino

Barberina,at Rome,

n"

as there
efficacious,

M. Sr ILLm0 Rm0

3007.

"

Ed

in

Caraffa.

somrua

chi

chi
chi per causa
della giurisdittione
chi per beni usurpati
religione,
per altri gravami ogn' udo viveva con sospetto,e convenUra per consequente
Si aggiungea questo
la ruina di Germania.
stare in anni, il che causava
di Sassonia
li principi
della casa
il sermo re sta nella dicta,
che mentre
e capi degliheretici si
Brandeburg et Hassia che sono in se potentissimi
antidieta serisseroa S. M."
ridressero a Naumburg e di la quasida una
Menzel has lately
called attention to the importanceof the meeting at
Naumburg.
per la

had

been

appealto

no

II.

MAXIMILIAN

I. AND

FEEBINAND

small,throughout

great or

arms,

long indeed since

such union had prevailed
sovereigns.*
among the German
is certain,
Thus much
that there was
peace for thirty
affairwhich was
sisted
soon
ended,conyears. The Grumbach
rather of mischievous intentions on the one
hand,

Germany

and

since its conclusion ; it

called

The

war.

hitherto encountered
attended the

Empire
;

the

be
scarcely
the Emperor had
resistance which
now
ceased; the princesof the

retribution

severe

the

on

"

had

been

divided

will

examine

now

this result after so

the

then

to

"

had

intestine

and

war

Ed

OF

PEACE.

THE

conclude that this peace

stato

dire il

per

tumque empia pace, che dall'hora

non

i-

mi dolsi

fece

me

il serm0

re,

di tanta

vero

was

happy a
contending
so

so

efficacia questa quan-

ne
piccolo
grande movimento
la risposta
qua credo che nasce

quando

la seconda

lei da parte di S. Beat"* di questo recesso

da Vienna alii 27 di Marzo 1550."
(I have not seen
con

mously
unani-

stato

in parte alcuna dell' imperio,

e di

che
gagliarda

fusion.
con-

II.

so

"

came

produced

"

Delfino.

d' armi

which

causes

an
satisfactory
adjustmentof
?
Had
it been so carefully
weighed
agreedto ?

claims

lutions
reso-

Public liberty
prevailed.

longa periodof

CONDITIONS

solution

unanimous

time to be combined.

CHAP.

we

to

for the firsttime

now

order

security
appearedfor

Are

came

it could

the separate constitutions of the circles into which

Empire

We

other,

Diets,and

into effect: and unwonted

and

was

volta andai

S. M.

pienoscrissi
this letter.)
come

CONDITIONS

I will not

PEACE.

THE

OF

all the conditions laid down

here enumerate

by it the greater part of them were not new ; and it

does not appear that the most important
subjects
certainly
treated.
were
very judiciously
Without doubt nothing
of greater consequence
than
was
with respect to the spiritual
who
the regulations
princes,
mightbe said to have the chief influence in the affairs of
the Empire,seeing
that the decision of the weightiest
affairs
rested with the college
of princes,
where the spiritual
now
from their numbers
maud
to com
a
sure
princeswere
majority.
the spiritual
well as the
The question
as
was, whether
should have the right
sion
to adoptthe Confestemporalprinces
of Augsburg? It was
that theyshould
not proposed
be empowered to secularise their dominions.
testants
The Prodeclared that this would be contrary to
expressly
their wishes and to their interests.* They wished the
of the Empire to retain their nonspiritual
principalities
of
but theywanted to have the right
character,
hereditary
to them.
beingappointed
This naturally
provokedthe most vehement disputes,
and several times nearlycaused the dissolution of the
at least,
assembly.It is remarkable that,in the beginning
"

"

The

lastfinaldeclaration of the electors and

in Lehmann,
Confession,"

of
princes

the

Augsburg

b.:i. c. xxi.
Their electoral
Religionis,
and princely
Highnesseshare already expresslydeclared,and do
the Church,
unto
therein,touchingthe property appertaining
againpersist
that it is not their "will to allow their domains
to
to he lost or neglected,
the injuryof the religious
foundations of the empire. But rather,together
"with the other estates of the empire,to be careful that they should remain
in undisturbed
of the said foundations, and that if any one
possession
should claim any rightof inheritance therein he should be debarred from
so doing."
de Pace

"

I. AND

FERDINAND

the

electors were
spiritual

claims,and

that

MAXIMILIAN

in
secretly

II.

favour of the Protestant

the

of
spiritual
princes
the Empire there were
some
who, if theydid not declare
the same
were
opinions,
onlydeterred by intimidation from
German
doing so.* Unfortunately,
historyis but too
often silent

as

even

among

to the influences and

counter-influences of

in deliberative assemblies
individuals,
alwaysso all-important
and

unable

ascertain how

it

happened
that the contraryopinion
at length
entirely
prevailed
; but
Ferdinand was
that side ; and
even
so it was
on
entirely
if the Protestants would neither yield
(whichtheydeclared
all idea of
their conscience would not allow)
abandon
nor
clear that theymust
the peace, it was
middle
pursue some
conceded to the King a right
of
course.
They accordingly
but with the express reservation that theyhad not
decision,
;

are

we

to

"

agreedto any such article themselves.f Ferdinand decreed

that a spiritual
princeof the Empire should forfeit his
officeand his
was

revenues

if he forsook the ancient faith. This

reservation.
spiritual
Another
arose
questionimmediately

the

Among

others,the Bishopof

Passau.

"

Extract

what

from

to

was

be

the Instruction

In Sattler's
Wirtemberg envoy at the Diet,1556.
Geschichte"
(Historyof Wirtemberg),vol. iv. p. 96.
Wiirtembergische
time oppose
I It is remarkable how they agree to, and yet at the same
But as
declaration quoted before from Lehmann.)
this. (See the
and
resolution,
Majesty'sHighness adheres to your above-named
your
to enforce this article as drawn
hath at length determined
up by your
instead of
in
of
office
and
virtue
authority,
Majesty'sHighness,
your own
referringto the power and dignityof his ImperialMajesty,our most
graciouslord,their electoral and princelyHighnessesknow not how to set
to your Majesty's
tions
Highnessbeyond the dutiful petiany bound or measure
have
and memorials
already presented; but notwithstanding
they
in conscience bound to declareelectoral
feel
themselves
their
Highnesses
that they for their parts cannot
agree to the article in question."
drawn

up

for

the

"

"

"

"

10

FERDINAND

I. AND

MAXIMILIAN

II.

states in which

theyhave the most to fear the free

exercise of the new
The whole future of Germany
religion.
turned upon these points.The conditions were
cussed
disand very minutely
at great length
; the contending
at lengthsubmitted,
but found means
to avoid
parties
serted
beingbound by them. The reservation was indeed inin the decree of the Empire,but with the additional
the
to persuade
remark,that it had been found impossible
very

different faiths to agree upon it; and

that the King had enacted it in virtue of the full power he
had received from the Emperor.*
of the two

estates

Then

to whether
an
as
question,
fully
binding.In this instance

declaration

Imperial

the

came
was

too

it had

character. A conclusion which had been so

peculiar
much
arguedand discussed could hardlybe called an Act
of Imperial
Supremacy. It was admitted that such an act
could,in form at least,
supplythe placeof an unanimous
agreementwhen that was unattainable ; in fact,it was an
a

agreement combined with

protestfrom either side.

This did not look like a very stable peace. It is true

conditions of
confirmed the tranquillizing
that by it were
ing
stillvery far from affordfor the past,or settlement
compromise
satisfactory

the treatyof Passau ; but it

a

was

ordines in hoc puncto concordari

utriusque
religionis
fratris ac domini
non
potuerint.Quapropternos, de S. C. majestatis,
constituimus
data potestatis
et arbitrationis declaravinius,
nostri,
plenitudine
*

"

et

Adeo

ut

decrevimus,"c."

of the Electoral Diet of 1575, in

ten

Part

und

raren

in.

He

in the Protocol

This declaration is quotedin German

Schriften"

"

Senkenberg'sSammlung
of unpublished
and
(collection

adds,however, that

Latin tongue, in the which

itwas

"

Ton
rare

it is to be found word

ungedruckwritings),

for word

written." It is,however, like most

in the
tions
resolu-

"
For what does it mean,
of this peace, very undecided.
quia longo
hunc usque
ad
et
confessionis
addicti
religioni
tempore Augustanae
diem (earn)observant," who shall say what is a longor what a short
"

....

"

time ?

I'OLITI'

INTERNAL

11

S.

not because such

concluded,
peace was
of its havingfailed.
had been made, but spite
compromise

for the future. The

a

ThoughGermany
cannot

peace

remained

free from intestinewarn, it

The

this.
have been these conditions that effected

the result of other circumstances

was

it to be maintained.
these circumstances

Our

task

OF

THE

III.

INTERNAL

POLITICS

of Charles V. were
history
revolution
sources, the prodigious
If the

at

is to discover what

were.

CHAP.
STATE

now

caused

which

GERMANY.

re-written from

original

in affairswhich

the end of his lifewould

admiration and

OF

excite at

he

countered
en-

nishment,
asto-

once

pity.

At the end of the Smalcaldic

war

his task in

Germany
magnificent,

in the world
his position
important,
all her
his might prodigious.
had showered
Fortune
favours upon him.
While Englandand France were
at
the affairs of Germany,and
war, he had time to regulate
which he prized
to establishhis power in Italy
so highly.
was

most

AVe

are

struck bv the contradictions in which

involved when

he

he

was

if not absolutely
to restore
endeavoured,

the papacy in Germany, at least to establish a form of

less opposed
time he had
to it, while at the same
religion
"

no

more

dangerousenemy

in

than Pope
Italy

Paul III.,

and after his death the Farnese party.

We
find that in Italy
his servants
and adherents,
Don
Fernando

Gonzaga,Diego Mendoza, and

constantlv endeavouring
to
were
Florence,

the Duke

of

induce him

t'

12

FERDINAND

I.

AND

take decided steps,and to

MAXIMILIAN

II.

him
entangle

in

war

but that

theyencountered an invincible obstacle in his character

which was
to all violent proceedings.*
averse
essentially
The result was
that nothing
was
achieved,while much
excited. A doubtful and fluctuating
line oi
was
hostility
is always
to call forth serious opposition
more
policy
likely
than the most

decisive measures.

beneath
Meanwhile,Germany sighed

an

unwonted

Many partsof the empirewere

Spanishtroops. Several of the

pressure.
Italian

occupied
by
and
German
were
princes
driven from their dominions,
and
others were
imprisoned,
in favour
there were
violent religious
everywhere
changes
of a form of worship
be the
which seemed as if it must
immediate

precursor of a return
conduct of German
affairs was

Alba
foreigners,

and

and
character,
faithfulprinces,
f
their

It

hardlybe

can

the ancient faith; the

to

in the hands

who
Granvella,
who

did not

of detested
understand

wantingin respectto

were

considered

as

their

fortunate circumstance

Concerningthis period,the Florentine Despatchesin the Medici

of Mendoza
in the Corsini
Archives at Florence,and the Correspondence
Libraryat Rome, givevaluable dates hitherto unknown.
f Relatione del clmo Sr Frederico Badoero ; ritornato Ambre da Carlo V.
MSS. in the Libraryat Vienna, and also in several Italian libraries.
1556.
*

"

Tutti i Tedeschi

governo

loro,di

vivere." He

si lamentano

non

aver

bound

was

non

conoscimento

avuto

onlyto

S. Mta

che

have German

avuto

amore

verso

quel loro vero modo

"c, but he had
ministers,
di

il

di
not

Regierungdes Rom. Reichs (Concerning

Another mischief
the government of the Holy Roman
Empire),sect. 15.
"was
brought by the Emperor Charles's government into the temporal
element into the government of
rule,namely, the introduction of a foreign
cherish a secret anger and dislike
the kingdom. Hence the Germans
to the government of the Emperor
althoughthe Emperor
; and

kept

to

this.

Schwendi, Von

"

Charles

was

the German

faithful German

in many

hero,and bore

nation,nevertheless

\n" deceived him

these

true

heart and zeal towards

(solcheLeute)blinded
foreigners

importantmatters."

INTERNAL

13

3.

POLITK

her Emperor
a period,
Germany that at so momentous
likewise possessed
Spain and America, Italyand tlie
determined rather by
Netherlands ; that his measures
were
than by national interests; and that foreign
sellors
coungeneral
man
influence upon Gerexercised so preponderating
an
affairs. The nation murmured, it is true, but it endured

for

evil of which the end could be foreseen.

an

Ferdinand
German

of Austria,who

the

great was

himself to be

It may

kingof Rome.

was
prince,

be conceived how

had shown

Already

therefore

dismaywhen

true

easily

Charles V.

the succession to the German

planof securing
who had been educated in Spain,
throne to his son
Philip,
and who arrived in Germany surrounded
by Spaniards.
endurable even
for a short
A union which seemed scarcely

conceived the

time, would

thus have

been rendered

permanent ; and the

have established themselves in

would as easily
Spaniards
Germany as in Milan or in Brussels. What must have been
the consequences,

if at the conclusion

of the

Council

of

Philiphad governedGermany ?
than anxiety
this question
It was
to the
more
as
even
which filledGermany with
fate of the imprisoned
princes,
Trent

vague

ferment and uneasiness.

his troopsat

of other German
way

the wind

Before

Maurice

of

bled
Saxony assem-

Magdeburg,with the secret connivance

as he said, which
princes, awaiting,"
"

"

should blow."

longit was

favourable.
France concluded
decidedly
a
peace with England,and allied itselfwith the
in Germany and Italy.The storm
which had
opposition
burst over
the head of the aged
now
longbeen gathering
and forced him to bend

conqueror,

It

was

proofof

weakness

before it.

in him

to

desire the main-

14

FERDINAND

of

tenance

to

so

endeavour

such

I.

unnatural
to

AND

an

MAXIMILIAN

union

bestow upon

II.

after his

his son, who

own

death,and

was

the sovereignty
of Germany ; it
station,

unfit for
was

also

towards his brother's family.He was

injustice
circumstances
punishedfor his fault ; no mitigating
heavily
of events.
to arrest the inevitable course
interposed
act

an

of

That which

producedin

most

concerns

us

here is the great change

the situation of

Germany.
The
chancellor of Electoral Brandenburg,Lambert
remarked
that the
to his sovereign,
once
Distelmeyer,
be of advantage
to
Emperor'sschemes would ultimately
Germany,for theywould compelKing Ferdinand to desert
him.*
fulfilled.
was
Distelmeyer's
prediction
In the
was

course

carried

Ferdinand

on

of the Ions;and doubtful negotiation

which
upon

the matter

in the

Emperor's
family,

sometimes

appearedto giveway ; but he never

did so in reality;
his privycouncillor,
Hoffmann, whose
deserves to be had in remembrance
name
long-forgotten
for this one good service alone,
was
never
gainedover to
the Emperor'sside. There was
another whose voice was
most
importantof all,and who remained firm ; this was
the son of Ferdinand,who had hopesof succeeding
him in
the Empire,King Maximilian.
Since the year 1548 they
had been secretly
standing
underto come
to an
endeavouring
with the German
and all were
united by
princes,
hatred of the Emperor's
advisers and what
common
foreign
called the Spanishscheme.
was
Gundling, Auszug ChurhrandenburgischerGeschichten (Extracts
in his Account
of the Life of
of Electoral Brandenburg),
from the history
See also the Extracts from MarilMartin Lampert Distelmeyer,
p. 124.
Briefe aus
Paris (Lettersfrom
lac's Despatches in F. v. Raumer's
*

Paris).

The

achieved

great successes

15

".

TOLITK

INTERNAL

by the Elector of

Saxony

againstthe Emperor on the Danube,

when
consider that his
will not seem
so
we
surprising
that of nearlyall the German
was
cause
princes.Even
his ally.
Ferdinand himself was
to a certain extent
turn of affairs.
This was
a very unexpected
It was
not Mam-ice
onlywho had deserted Charles ; in
all those who had been on his side at Ingolstadt
and
fact,
united against
him.
were
now
Miihlberg,
Charles V. knew this well. He soughtfor help from
lie marehed

when

those whom
he had

whom

confidence.

had

he

then

Austria

now

himself.

The

was
plundered
formerly

The

of Lower

towns

the Elector's most

been

subdued.

strove

No

to

now

country had

Elector

taken

into his

Saxony had

faithful allies;

gainthem

very

over

to

the

always
court

its side

often and

as

of
well

heavily
felt the might of Austria,and her preponderance
in the
Charles hopedto
Empire,than Wirternberg
; nevertheless,
obtain the support of the young Duke
for his
Christopher
to persuadehim
that
fitted
son
were
none
more
Philip,
to bead the Empire than his Majesty's
"Whatever
son."*
disturbances took placein Germany between
1552
and
the feuds of MargraveAlbrecht,who was not
1555, even
always forsaken by the Emperor,may be traced to these
schemes.f
as

more

more

"

"

On

this

of Duke

subjectPfister

has

some

well-founded

observations

in his History

of "Wirtemburg,
It is much
to be wished,
Christopher
p. 213.
that papers of so much
which
the author
importanceas the documents
made
of in this book were
use
publishedmore
fully.
f It appears to me that the followingpassage from Soriano throws
much
cleared up
lightupon this subjectwhich has not been satis actorily
by Lang in his Neuere Geschichte des Furstenthums Baireuth (History

16

FERDINAND

It

I. AND

MAXIMILIAN

II.

till the year 1555 that the Emperor gether

altoabandoned them.
tude
Perhapsit was the decided attinot

was

assumed
towards him by Pope Paul IV.,
hostility
with France,
which, after causinga renewal of the war
this plan also. The sanction of such a
finally
destroyed
a plan for the election of Roman
Pope to so far-reaching
not to be hoped for,even
if the
emperors and kingswas
of

German
In

nation could have

France

might then

broughtto

make

in order that the dissensions in

be

Charles
allayed,

to it.

consent

Ferdinand's request,that he would

replyto

with

been

peace

Germany

said that in consequence

of

of those very French

he was
affairs,
unable to devote himself to those of Germany,and that he

his

illness and

own

leftthem

and

treat

to

This

an

without

"

era

1'

tumulti

in

arme

si temeva

imperatorea
di Germania

finche

bandito per la camera

scritte a

al bando

di Spira:
imperiale

quelmarchese

this word

Delfino,Informatione,has

che alle cose

guerra
mi fu

della

dopo

di Germania

Francia,e
affermato

non

passato,quando il

imperialecome
o

quatro volte

perro si trovo

mar-

si pote indurre

Bohemia, non

autore

delli

benche

fosse

letteredell' imperatore

no

dargliprima
did not

Soriano.
for word

puo attendere per la

rimettendo
a

himself.

these matters, indeed,Schmidt

Upon
with
acquainted

was

to

tutti i titoliche si solevano

con

che fusse dichiarato ribelle."

touch, althoughhe

L'anno

fu rotto tre

non

empowered him

reference

ch' assaltasse la

sententiarlo

He

abdication.

of Baireuth),vol. ii."
Principality

of the

mai

conclude

to

in itselfalmost

was

chese

to his brother.*
altogether

il tutto al

parlare di volersi

sermo

"

Risponde S. M.
malattia e negozjdella

re

"

comincio

ritirare in

allora

Ispagnaet

come

lasciare

scrisse 1' anno

del 55
L'imperatore
al sermo Ferdinando ch' eglinon
volevasaperpiu cosa no di diete ne dialtri
negoci di Germania, e che intendeva rinunziare quel carico." The king
che all'imperioera gran freno solo il
begged him not to do so, as he saw
di Carlo V."
nome
Nevertheless, L' imperatorescrisse assolutamente
cording
Actanto
di voler cosi,
piu,che pensava di lasciar ogni cura mondana."
the
to this Charles's abdication took placein 1555, in all save
1' impero." In another

placehe

"

says

"

"

mere

formalities.

18

I. AND

FERDINAND

MAXIMILIAN

CHAP.
RELATIONS

PERSONAL

II.

IV.

OP

THE

PRINCES.

GERMAN

powerfuland the richest princeof Germany at

Elector Augustus
the periodof which we are treating
was
had achieved the great
of Saxony. His brother Maurice
which he was
destined to enjoyand to enlarge.
position
The

most

had

revived.

been

rendered

Bohemia
this very

broughtup at the King'scourt, took

Augustus pursued a very determined
both in his

but ruled in

seven

It is not,

which
dominions,

own

however, to

millions of

Saxon

accounts.

elevation
death

it

to
was

and
arbitrary

an

be taken

the throne
reckoned

is

have

may
to

amounted

amount

he

accordingto

Venetian reportswe

our

of

course

he raised in

politics,

importance*,
and also

had

500,000

of

revenue

the most

find that his

to

been

continued.

and

up

granted that

thalers,
although this
la

had

relentless manner,

for

For

alliance between

natural

Ferdinand.

Ferdinand,which Augustus,who

and

Maurice

was

with

connection

hostile to
utterly

him
there

reason

Frederick's

John

houses

the Saxon

late years the old differences between

Of

moderate

revenue

his

on

thalers;at

his

According to Jacopo
Praga,14 Oct. 1586. Roma,

to

2,000,000.

(Letteredelle Cose di Sassonia. Di

Bibl. Barberina)impartial
peoplereckoned it at about 1,500,000. This is
increase.
It consisted chiefly,
and an
enormous
an
extraordinary
sum,
of the produce of mines, as
shall see in how large a proportion,
and we
well as of taxes levied somewhat
harshly. The tax on drinks brought in
discover that these impostswere
400,000 thalers. I cannot
necessary, nor
useful. The Elector saved an immense treasure.
that they were
especially
Soranzo

"

Resta

1' erario,"says

e
introdotto,
somma

J.

"

Soranzo,

tenuto

in

una

gran

sala,dove

fui

lo viddi in

di 30 milioni di

sacchi ; affermano coloro per la

e
bote, casse
mi riporto
alia veritii,
ma
che mi par molto a
taleri,

che possinoascendere
persuadermi,

(only)a questa somma

mi

par

assai

che vi si possa metter

principe,

20

milioni ;

ma

vi deve

perche non
paragone."

al

arrivando
esser

anco

in Christianity

PERSONAL

RELATIONS

in the affairsof the

lie had

OF

GERMAN

THE

Empire. lie

taken into his head must

once

characteristic of

-what

It is very

fortyyears of age,
might be a real Elector,

is requiredby the Golden

as

he done."

"

him, that when lie was

he learnt Latin,in order that he

such

that
himself,

said

19

PBINCES.

Bull.

In the Diets he

the personal
which was
of such consequence
displayed
superiority
in those days,
when the most important
affairswere
transacted

verbally.He

and dignified.
The
eloquent
courts, Tuscany and Venice,France
envoys from foreign
and England,Poland and Denmark,
courted him more
was

"

"

than any

princeof the Empire.

Joachim II.,
of Brandenburg,was
stamp

princewho
carry

of

man

and
good-natured,
magnificent,

wished

live and let live.

to

of

in the Mark

needed.

Never

produced so
science.
amass

Brandenburg,the
before had

many

It is true
treasure;

possess.

It

would
obtained
son

small

if

must,
never

shook

which

enjoyedsuch

or

threw
over-

of

learningand

dominions
This

with

Augustus,

left considerable

Margrave Hans,
the

of

Ciistrin,

economy

which

talent the Elector

did not

however, be
have

greatly

did not, like

the contrary, he

on

it so

periodof
of manufactures,or
activity

that Joachim

for the future.

amasses

it

peace

men
distinguished

debts,while his brother

governedhis

States,he managed to maintain,

such
prosperity,

commercial

generous ;

His

much
changes,and avoiding
the tempests which
the Empire. Amid
the other German

ferent
very dif-

policywas, to
without violence,
by gradual
with the Emperor or
dispute

the Reformation

out

confessed

extended

his

that

parsimony
dominions, or

Magdeburg and the succession of Prussia for his

he would
he had thoughtonly of savingmoney,

20

FERDINAND

AND

I.

MAXIMILIAN

II.

have

never

gainedthe powerfulinfluence which

the Empire.* He had alwaysbeen more

in
the

with

Albertine

than

with

the

Ernestine

he

cised
exer-

allied
house

of

milian
Saxony. Having been educated at the court of Maxiand confidential terms with
on
L, he was
friendly
his descendants,
with Ferdinand.
especially
They called
him

their father ;

and,indeed,he

was

to

one

them.

united as they were

under
Saxony and Brandenburg,
these princes
and their successors, had a very powerful
influence in the Empire,especially
the northern part of it.
alliance with Philip
They renewed the ancient hereditary
The Duke of Pomerania
received
of Hessen,and lus son.
the oaths of

Julius

found
to

an

of envoys from Brandenburg.

in the presence
allegiance
of Brunswick

had

in his earlier years

ing
he now
governedaccord-

asylum in Berlin,and

the advice of Joachim

II.

posture of affairs in Upper Germany seemed

The

threatening.The
endeavoured

to

Emperor,

as

Wirtembergand King Ferdinand,to

latter.

this,
however, he

In

bronn, King
Duke

which

I have found
had

did not

the

succeed.

At

Heil-

of
joinedthe Heidelbergleague,
the chief.
Christopherof Wirtemberg was
documents
to prove that this leaguesecretly

Ferdinand

rather
tendency

Nic.

"

alreadyseen,
between
disputes
of the
prejudice

have

we

of the old

avail himself

more

adverse to the

Leutingericontains

Joachim II. and his times in his book

rich
"

Emperor than

collection

De Marchia

of

notices

favour-

concerning

ejusque Statu Joachimo

I.

other
electoribus Commentarii."
See among
principibus
He speaks also of the neighbouringprinces
passages, vol. xviii. p. 632.
in his "Geschichte
Mobsen
der Mark Brandenburg" (History
judiciously.
of the March
of Brandenburg)has collected materials with much
tion
appreciaSect. 50.
for what is worth knowing among
others.
et

Joachimo

II.

RELATIONS

PERSONAL

It is true

able to him.*
wa-;

renewed, but

not

OF

THE

GERMAN

leagueat its termination

amply compensated
by the

that the
it

was

attachment between
strongpersonal
which

21

PBINCES.

time had

increased

and
Christopher

milian
Maxi-

and

Their

elevated.

not have been quiteso romantic as it has

friendship
may
been represented
and hearty.
manly,rational,
; but it was
It was
limited to sending
each other the wine
by no means
of their respective
for the
countries,or the requirements
chase. They held close and friendly
counsel on the most
importantaffairs of Church and State. They mutually
exhorted each other ; Christopher
admonished the King to
adhere to the true undoubted religion,
and to promote the

stillfurther extension

of God's

word.

Maximilian

quested
re-

to maintain the unityof the

carefully
Lutheran Church, and to disregard
the unfavourable rumours
which had been spreadconcerning
the intentions of
the Emperor. Their policy
cided
as well as their sentiments coinon
ances,
exchangedassurmany points.They repeatedly

the Duke

As

Maximilian's

on

"

far

as

know,

and that is meagre

part,that he desired from the

Sattler has but

enough, in

his

berg" (Historyof

the Dukes

of

report for

sqmewhat

"

L' altra

155-4 is

(lega)che

more

fu conclusa

one

notice of this treatyof Heilbronnr

Geschichte

"

der

Herzoge von

"Wiirtem-

Wirtemberg),vol. iv. p. 58. Soriano's

full,but scarcely
quiteaccurate:
in Hailpron terra di Franconia, nella
"

duche di Baviera,de Verqualeil sermo re de Romani, li conti Palatini,

1'arcivescovo di Salispurg
et alcuni altri principi
e di Cleves,
sono
tiinberg
di forze alia difesa e conservatione 1'uno dell'
certo numero
con
un
obligati
ho potuto
altro contra quoscunque.
La conclusione della qualedieta non
ha voluto che sii publicata,
non
e la
vedere, perche il sermo re di Romani
fu perche S. M. non
e* nominata
causa
come
concome
intesi,
principal
che S. M
come
traente, ma
aggiunto; e mi disse il smo re di Bohemia
1' imperatore,
ch' anco
S. M. Cesarea
tratasse alcuna cosa
contra
contra
ma
sarebbe quella
lega,quando ella tentasse di "voler molestar i confederati in'

qualche

cosa,

li

quali hanno

da

stare

ordine."
c

con

le

sue

forze

deputate

all

22

FERDINAND

bottom

I.

of his heart to

MAXIMILIAN

AND

II.

friend in all things,

great

pleasehis

that the King should

Christopher's,
to do him service : and
find him ready and willing
ever
spiteof the generaldissensions which so
accordingly,
attached until
nearlyaffected them,theyremained faithfully
and

small ; and

Maximilian

death.*
as

on

lamented

his friend in noble

and peaceful
wise,righteous,
prince,whom
nation did indeed

the whole

furtherance of the

terms

he and

yet stand in need of for the

weal.

it was
a great
Certainly
his side.
on
advantageto Maximilian to have Christopher
He was
and
active,honest,and resolute,
straightforward,
common

the happy talent of carrying

in
out his views
possessed
he was what was then called "effectual." He stood on
short,
cordial terms with the Landgraveof Hessen,to whose house
and also with the
he owed the recovery of his dominions,
he possessed
Over
the latter,
Palatine.
great influence.
"

that the Elector

mainlyowing to Duke Christopher
Palatine at lengthgave his vote to Maximilian,whose
election he had longopposed.
f
it to the Emperor that two
Of no less advantage
was
had often
of the Empire,whose ancestors
powerfulprinces
It

was

led the

"

the Dukes

of Cleves

commencing about the

time of the treaty of Heilbronn
and endingwith the death of Christopher
;
of
Lebret
for
and
should
the
he
ever
we
Gemmingen
gratefulto
memory
Staait
Lebret's
Magazin zum gebrauchder Kirchen-und
making public.
vol. ix.
ten-geschichte"
(Magazinefor the use of Church and State History),
which precededthis election collected by Veit Stoss,
f The negotiations
I. Wahlcapitulatiou
in his appendix to Franz
and publishedby Moser
of great value towards a
of the Election of Francis I.),
are
(Capitularies
relations
the
Electoral
Princes. Hiiberlin,
internal
between
knowledge of the
Deutsche Eeichsgeschichte"
"neueste
Empire)*
(laterHistoryof the German
*

Their

Austria
opposition
against

correspondencedates

from

1554

to

1563,

"

vol. iv. p. 467

"

636. has made

long extract

from

this.

RELATIONS

PERSONAL

and Bavaria
him.*

his

were

"

would

not

even

himself the

more

and
sons-in-law,

to

of Bavaria had

Spaniards
; he

the

their salutes,
and he

return

attached

now

the interestsof the German

to

line.

the officeof

Maximilian's election he undertook

23

goodterms with

on

V., Albert

aversion
especial

an

PRINCES.

GERMAN

THE

of Charles

At the court

alwaysshown

OF

At

Imperial

Commissioner,and promisedto hazard lifeand land for his

When
the learme of Heidelbergand Heilbronn
success.

chiefly
throughhis exertions that another
formed at Landsberg.
The bishops
of Salzburg,
Wiirzwas
burg,and Bamberg,the towns of Augsburgand Niirnberg
and thus
to it,
joinedhim in it; the Emperor also belonged
influence over
Bavaria and Franconia.
a special
acquired
the power
of the Emperor extended
In this manner
the whole of Germany throughthe various circles,
over
it was
expired,

each of which had its own

It made

centre.

littledifference

They felt
that theycould not do without each other. The Emperor's
the proceedings
of the Protestant princes
sanction legalized
;
but he stillliked to see the envoys of Brandenburgand
ing
Saxony appear at the HungarianDiets,or at the swearin Bohemia.
It was
free and voluntary
a
allegiance
and more
of the leadingGerman
princes,
co-operation
than any formal treaty.
to peace and security
important
whether

Soriano.

mostrano
generi,

princewas

"

II Duca
verso

Catholic

di Baviera

S. M.

et

il Duca

segnid'araore

-i

Protestant.

or

di

Cleves,tutti due

di riverenza."

sue

24

FERDINAND

I.

MAXIMILIAN

AND

CHAP.

T.

FERDIXAXD

It is very
to

remakable

German

how

manners

II.

I.

well Ferdinand
and

customs

it

was

form
con-

than

more

could have been

He

was

to

expectedof him.
born in Spain,and with some
the throne,for which reason

learnt to

educated
had

He

grown

to
according

up

the customs

beside his

prospectof
he had been

ceeding
suc-

fully
care-

of that country.

mother
melancholy

and

his

solemn

the
Ferdinand
When
the Catholic.
grandfather,
latter one
day saw him at Burgos walkingup and down
and warlike Cardinal Ximenes,
with the learned,resolute,

pronouncedhim to be fortunate in his companion.*And

what a companion for a princewho had no inheritance to
such as Austria then
territory,
expect but a small German
he

was

from what
Things turned out very differently
might
have been anticipated.
The mother, sunk in her own
and secluded from the world, and the elder
melancholy,
fond
absorbed by worldlyaffairs,
were
Ferdinand,entirely
of the pretty,fair-haired,
lively
boy,but unable to devote
left to the free
much
attention to him ; he was
accordingly
developmentof his natural character.
When, however, Charles really
occupiedthe throne of
Spain,and leftAustria to Ferdinand,the latter found it
in Germany.
very difficultto reconcile himself to living
*

Breve

Fray

Relacion

Alvaro

Carlos

del Infante

Osorio de Moscoso

V.," lib.i. sect.

G4.

Fernando, hermano

Emperador ; from
in Sandoval, vida y hechos del Emperador
"

del

26

I. AND

FEEDINAND

of

MAXIMILIAN

II.

the unpremeditated
unconscious
thoughtand feeling,

accord, which

betokens

inward

brotherhood,not

mere

It appearedas though,during
relationship.
of their lives,they would
the remainder
never
again
be of different minds.
The Emperor,as the elder,more
cised
giftedand more
powerfulof the two, naturallyexerthe chief influence. The King revered Charles as
his Emperor and Lord,and looked upon his will as law.
With
all this theywere
very unlike in temperament,
and totally
The Emperor,
oppositein personal
appearance.
as
we
slow, grave, severe,
know, was
phlegmatic,

accidental

and

At the Diet of 1548

every one.
that he should keep in his pay
surprise

silent towards

caused

much

it
so

hear any
singersand musicians,and yet never
music.
Very differentwere the habits of KingFerdinand,
in whose
palacethere was every day banquetingand
in use at the
music,and whatever other diversions were
but full of the good
hot and hasty,
time. Eerdinand was
many

humour

and

frankness which

win all hearts.

He

talked

He was
with every one and on all subjects.
freely
ous
generand magnificent.
By degreeshe had adoptedthe
and had learned to live with
German
customs
completely,
and like one
after their own
the German
fashion,
princes
Like

of themselves.

great part of
like them

them

he left the

his affairs to his servants

he was,

on

management

and counsellors ;

of peace and
himself to circumstances.
He
the

of

whole,fond

quiet,

gained
bybeinglenient in punishing,
popularity
among the masses
and unaffected
in conversation,
plain,
gracious,
indulgent

and

accommodated

in his behaviour.*
*

Niccolo

Relc
Theupolo(Tiepolo),

Chronicle of Sanuto.

"

Di

di Germania.

complexione

MSS.

contained in the

costnmi quasiin tutte diversi;

FERDINAND

OF

CHARACTER

27

I.

during the active periodof his mature

his real power, he was not entirely
when he displayed
life,
in
which he showed
free from the harshness and obstinacy
ter
charache was
offended his original
the beginning.When
was
forgave
apt to break out ; it Avas said that he never
that

It is true

his honour
any offence against
in person, which he had never

Frederick,who,
of Bohemia

done

John
before,against

aspiredto

this occasion he

on

took the field

He
dignity.

he asserted,
had

as

and

or

crown

of the first

"ne

was

the

the victory,
Miihlberg. After obtaining
in a tone of violence which,
he addressed his prisoner
amounted
almost to cruelty.It
under the circumstances,
has also been supposedthat he hesitated so long about
to

cross

the Elbe

at

enteringinto a treatywith Zapolyaat the greatestrisk to

offended at the thoughtof a mere
because he was
himself,
of a
with him for the possession
privateman
contending
He

crown.*

afterwards visited his wrath

upon

mian
the Bohe-

nation.

It is remarkable
grew up
German

ambi

that of these two

in the Netherlands
manners

brothers the

one

departedfrom
gradually

and customs;

while he who

di tutte le
savii,
prudentie molte intelligent!

cose

was

; ma

who
the

educated

1' imperatore

piu reservato, piu considerate e piu grave ; questo piu pronto, piu emcace,
di molto spirito,
ambitioso di honore, desipiu espedito; in vero principe
deroso di esser
risguardato."
*
Soriano.
Riputandosiad ingiuriach' unajpersona privatahavesse
ardire
di contendere
avuto
seco
che per molte ragioni,
regno
per un
antiche e nuove, doveva pervenire
a lui,e fu che senti allora S. M. che disse
che voleva piu tosto spendere tuttigli altri suoi regni,che sopportare che
"

"

"

"

cohii re^nasse."

28

I.

FERDINAND

in

AND

MAXIMILIAN

Spainentirely
adoptedthem.*

results of this were

manifold.

the old

revived.

between the two

disputes
claims upon Wirtemberg gave

The

and

causes
political

Charles tried to get possession

of the

When
his son,

The

II.

Empire for

brothers

were

rise to angry

and bitter words.

Ferdinand

allied himself

still

closely
the
with his German
whose dissatisfactionagainst
subjects,
Emperor decided the questionof the succession in his
favour.
opposition
Againstthe Pope, who offered some
to it,he even
soughtsupportfrom Protestantism.
He
succeeded
in gainingthe full confidence of the
German
people. They admired his steadyresistance to
the foreign
counsellors of Charles V., and what Schwendi
and paternalendeavours
called the
faithful,
diligent,
the treatyof Passau and
wherewithal
he had accomplished
the
he rejected
the peace of Augsburg." On one occasion,
the
of the clergy
demands
another, he condemned
; on
without caprice,
in both cases
conduct of the Protestants,
submitted
both parties
and moved
onlyby a love of justice;
and
with a good grace, conscious of his sincerity
goodwill.!
impartial
Hereupon

more

"

It seemed, however,

more

Estraordrii Veneti,Zuanne

nando,

1558.

cerimoniosa
temuta

MSS.
ma

: non

than

nmile
veste

the Italians liked.

Navagier,all'impr Ferdipossession. Non e S. M. molto

Ranke's

"

libera,talche

Relnc delli ambri

Bernardino

Capelloe

in Professor

molto

ed obbedita

so

pomposamente

per
:

va

la

sua

humilta

levandosi

poco

la mattina

dal

comparisceallacciandosile
calze,con un scuffiato di tela in testa, onde a ogn'unorispondee parlacon
lei
di S. M. parlandocon
nella camera
ogn'uno,e quando noi eravamo
due o tre volte si partidi noi, lasciandoci e
e stando S. M. e noi in piedi,
e ripucon
ritornando solo per parlare
questo e con quellocon poca dignita

letto,s' introduce ogn'uno nella

camera

et

ivi

tatione sua."

f Schwendi, On

the Government

of the

Holy

Roman

Empire,sect.

53

He himself

dominions,thoughwith

rather

about

court, and

his

not
appeared

to

more

remark

him

of

were

he

household,and

own

He

the difference of faith.

satisfied if those about

own

Lutherans

lie had

in his

even

what

repugnance,

in Germany.*

forced to endure

was

he tolerated in his

but
Catholic,

was

29

I.

FERDINAND

OF

CHARACTER

and

good lives

was

proachabl
irre-

pointhe was inexorable ; his

and even
the
had to shapeits manners
court
accordingly,
obligedto conform, as they
foreignambassadors were
the influence
to acquire
could not hope by any other means
from personal
which
is inseparable
sympathy and agreeconduct

that

on

nicnt.f
great satisfaction that

It is with
advanced
fiercer

of
passions

and

more

life who

in

thus do

find him

we

the

wras

described

Let
foreignpowers.
Micheli,who quittedhim
last
*

illness,his
"

Relne di Micheli

non
glialtri principi
ma

1564.

ha

"

die when

in the year

death must

Ferdinando,Catholico
che

ha lasciato vivere ciascuno nel

senso

sia dato

suo,

quale ciascuno

"f Michael
alia M.

Soriano.

viwea
"

al modo

suo,

amati

Quelli sono

si sa,

will

sopratutti

fastidio alii Protestanti,

nella
nella

facea vista di

chi hanno

S.,la quale stima sopr'ognialtra cosa

from

In him

come

pin strano
e

and

may," says
1564, during his

dico tanto

non

suoi stati,
anzi che pareva
quanto nelli proprii
casa, nella

he

grieveall men.

comportato

the ambassadors

by

him

"

display
good and

Ferdinand

with

case

and

thus

groundworkof
original

This

nature.

pure

harder

off the

shaken

their earlier years, and

the

more

have

men
contemplate

we

propriasua

non

i costumi

vedere."
confonni

la modestia, e la
religione,
hoDta della vita,e di queste partine fanno gran professione
li suoi cone tutti chi li sono
piu cari. Onde niuna cosa puo fargliun ambasseglieri
ciatore piu grata che questi
costumi,costumi proprida buon Christiano e
di republica,
chi
di vita civile e d' huom
veramente
et all'incontro questi,
hanno costumi diversi o contrarii a questi,
sono
e scandariputati
leggieri
e
losi,

sono

poco

amati del sermo

re,

poco

la

Germania,

stimati della corte."

30

FERDINAND

die

of the best

one

make

AND

MAXIMILIAN

of
princes

by choice : his
his
God, and,above all,

him

be held

worthy to

time

II.

princepeaceable
his continual
life,
unspotted

our

and

by nature
fear of

I.

"

kindness

and

saint."

His

of him.
Schwendi
thoughtthe same
and holy emperor,
rightpraiseworthy

graciousness
own
subjects

calls him
and

"

the

father of the

fatherland."
Such

was

the character and

such the sentiments of this

Emperor and of the other contemporary rulers of

of princes.
Germany. It was a remarkable generation
On closer investigation
of the conit appears that most
stitutions
which have lasted down
times
to quiterecent
were
given to their dominions by the princesof this
of the Reformation,
and the
period.The great movement
which they
combination of temporaland spiritual
affairs,
had to reduce to form and order,gave an unusual impulse
German

The

to their mental

powers.
while
their ideas,

greatnessof their task

panded
ex-

and changeof fortune

experience
in their opinionsand projects.
moderation
reasonable and peacevigorousand resolute,
able,

taughtthem
They were
and theywere
of Germany.

united

by

VI.

CHAP
STATE

OF

THE

urgedthat

It may

well be

German

would
princes

existed between
hostility

interests

the great common

GERMAN

NATION.

union
political

be of small avail

so

between

longas

the

rooted

the Catholic and Protestant popu-

MATE

OF

THE

GK

31

NATION.

U.MAN

rendered
and their mutual antipathies
lations,
to

any

of reconciliation.
projects

No

doubt this is true

it,I go

and far from

and
stepfurther,

adverse

pute
to disattempting
that

such union

no

the nation had

and

degreeunanimous,

certain

assert

placeunless

taken

could have

them

unless

been,to

the

animosities

the lower classes had been,not indeed at

among
of
but somewhat
by the preponderance
suppressed
of

end,

an

set

one

opinions.
I have

to

come

that between
the conclusion,

the reformed doctrines had

1560-70

upper hand in Germany.

We know that theywere

dominant

the years
decidedly
gainedthe

in

Upper and

Saxony, that they encountered a very

and took
from the Franconian bishoprics,

Lower

feeble resistance
root

within their

nobles and the towns

very territories; that in Swabia the
from the very first. But
and adoptedthem
welcomed
theyhad likewise made considerable progress in Bavaria
and Austria,in

and
Westphalia

Albert V.

forced

favour

was
a

"

to
subject

to

make

which

went
voluntarily

Catholic in the year 1561

whole court to hear the sermons

Duke

Ins nobles
that

were

theywould

than return

tur

so

to

f Relatio

strict

with

his

of the Calvinist preacher

so

attached
strongly

to

the

rather live without services

new
or

doctrines
sacraments

the ancient rites.

|

in Strobel,
Leben
Sitzinger

(Lifeof

so

late as the year 1570, the

the Pope that a great number of

Neuburg.* Even

himself informed

in their

and it is remarkable

"

afterwards became

at

In Bavaria

largeconcessions

I shall revert

that he himself who

Pfauser

the Rhine.

on

von

Pfauser,Beitragezur Literavol. i. p. 313.

Literature),

J. Seb.

J. S. Pfauser, Contributions to

de infeliciStatu Bavaria? ad Pium

V. MSS.

archiyio Yal. No.

32

AND

I.

FERDINAND

MAXIMILIAN

II.

In the year 1563, four districtsin Salzburgdemanded

for the laity,
and the Archbishop
the sacramental
cup
told the Council that
desist from

to

the demand.

Austrian

Some

no

Austria

native Austrians

and

Schwendi

by

The

of the

either inclined to the

The

3221.

convents

was
States,

to

sons

Lutheran

them.

preachers
if
tolerated,

is

1570, that nearlythe

not

attached

or
faith,

same

copy

to

Catholic
the

new

these opinions
profess

he adds,"
Cathedrals,"

no

were

There

p. 418.

their

throughoutthe Empire,in

nobles

canons

period.

dissolved because

the nobles and

about the year

in Lutheran

as

send

and that those who did

religion,
openlyheld them in secret.^
"

of the

the government,f

asserts

body of

well

there

introduced

were

would

filled with

Styriawere

favoured,by

as

received

nobles visited the Protestant

accordingto the custom

Wittenberg,
Jesuit schools were
of the principal

of

whole

been

short space of time three young

sity
nobles filled the officeof Rector of the UniverWithin

Universities.

not

tinued
concongregations
very longtime.*

doctrines had

The

ardour.
especial

with

them

Lutheran

the Lutheran

In Austria

induce

would

power

exist there in secret for

to

who

human

no

were

cold and

and
longersupported,

mostly

indifferent,
no

masses

in the Bibliotheca Vallicelliana at

Rome,

Bavariae nobilitatis
Sanctitas V" rnagnam
"Noverit
p. 175.
vivere,
partem hseresi infectam esse et malle sine sacramentis et religione
recipere."
se ad fidei catholicaeunitatem
quam
No.

20.

"

der Salzburger (Historyof the

GockiDg, Emigrations-geschichte
SalzburgEmigration,
p. 86.).
f Raupach, EvangelischesOestereich (LutheranAustria),vol. i. p.
*

"

"

"

58, and other passages.

% Schwendi, "Von Regierungdes Rom.

the Holy Roman
Empire),sect. 38 43.
"

Reichs"

(On

the Government

of

34

I.

FERDINAND

MAXIMILIAN

AND

II.

feared than death,

formerlythe Papal interdict was more
The life and doingsat Rome
it is laughedat.
are
now
world that nearlyall
to the whole
well known
now
so
of the old or of the
he theywho they may, whether
men,
do hold them in abhorrence."
new
religion,
This generalfalling
away of the whole nation from the
papacy is also described in the reportsof foreigners.*
The princesand peopleof Germany,"says Soriano,
and all infected with heresy. The
in 1554,
are
one
Church
of Rome
has but little authority
over
them, and
that littleit is losing
every day."
In 1557 Tiepolofinds the Protestants full of courage,
"

"

and

the

Catholics

called upon

to

lukewarm

the Church
At

asserts

with

was

that seven-tenths

of

determined

majorityof

the condition

of

Emperor.

shows

himself well

at

The

least that

with
acquainted

Germany

Lutheran,and that onlyone-tenth was

he says, had joinedthe other sects.f
decisive

the

givesof Germany

he

he took the trouble to make

This

Were

"

this very time Badoer

He

"

of Rome."

which
description

it.

irresolute.

opinion,"
says he, I should say
alienated from
be entirely
soon

give an

this country would

that

and

had become

Catholic

the non-Catholic

Germany, its

the rest,

population

internal peace

attitude.
and its political

Germany

was

divided into
*

not

then,as it has been since,completely

Catholic

Consilium,or Memorial

f Badoero, RelDe.
altre opinioneet una
go to the -wall.

"

to

and
the

Delle dieci

Protestant

portion.The

Emperor Ferdinand,"c. Seld,p.

partile sette sono Luterani,due

di Catolici." He

also finds that the Catholics

90.

delle
must

STATE

were
parties

two

there

was

Even

raged.

the

spiritual
princeshad
for religion's
sake ;
subjects

begun to persecute their

determined

most

their conduct

for

Catholic ; the

one

of them

the year

long time

their declarations.

have

all their

been

hard

cillors
coun-

to

and
Protestants,

were

from the

placeswhere
whether

Micheli

1564

he, "'has got

both

so

find
some

of

or

in the

faiths
religious

the parents follow

another.

Brothers

Relatione

"

One

party,"

other that in

Protestant. Xor

even

in which

and Protestants

apprehenddanger

it is scarcely
observed
religions
prevail,

community,but

same

does not

differences.
religious
used to tolerating
the

be Catholic

man

this mixture

for

at, for among

rest

the

very violent Protestants.*

Germany

the

with

chancellors it would

and

In

in accordance

-was

not

and
conciliatory

of 1562 ; and

this to be wondered

was

above

extol their

Protestants

declarations
well-meaning

Nor

side by side ; neither

dwelling

where

every

35

RATIOS'.

GERMAN

yet any of the fierce sectarian hatred which

as

afterwards

THE

OF

There

creed

onlyin

that
family,

same

exists.

one

is it

and

are

houses

the children

and
professdifferent faiths,

Catholics

takes any

notice of

intermarry.Xo

one

Religionein Germania,
mission to the Diet of Xaumberg ; not so
composed after Commendone's
full of details as might have been -wished,but stillvery remarkable.
HSS.
in the Bib. Yallicelliana at Rome.
St. 19. n" 14.: "Li
Catolici principi
del Commendone

dello Stato della

"

non

ardiscono

convenienti."
sono

"

di mostrarsi
He

remarks

disunitiet hanno

hanno

appresso

sanno

di chi

anche
valere

that

i Tasalli
un

solo

anzi vi
fidarsi,

they -were
e

tuttavia

avvezzano

le cord

not

sono

earnest.

tolerar molti
"

che

in-

Essi Catolici
molti

prelati

solo servitore Catolico

ne

qualiritengono studiosam
quelli,Ji

di

de'

in

loro corrotte.

o un
consigliere

piu arrabiati heretici

i principi
Protestanti."

canto

con

di loro

si

per

potersene secondo

1' occasione

36

FEEDINAND

I.

AND

MAXIMILIAN

is at all offended thereat."

it,or

where

even

Protestantism

II.

Throughoutthe Empire,

had not

received the sanction of

government, in the country, in the towns, and in

toleration was
a spontaneouspractical
established.
families,
the

There

few other

pointson which
in connection with this subject.
There is a very prevalent
opinionthat
poetry and literature in Germany received
are

I wish

to

touch

the progress of
a

check

severe

from the effectsof the Reformation.

But

which firstgave
movement
religious
of the Meister Sanger,
interest to the writings
whose tedious
had for some
time supersededthe ancient
compositions
siastic
form of poetry? Did it not likewise producethe enthuof the religious
of
expression
thoughtand feeling
Germany contained in the Protestant hymns? Master
Hans
Sachs sets forth in an honest,pleasant,
ingenious,
and

was

it not

the

the views

instructive manner,

and

sentiments

of the

burgherclass. No one has ever equalledhim

and his works will ever
retain
in his own
style,
peculiar
and Fischart is
their interest. The poetry of Rollenhageh
imbued with the vigour,
warmth, and sincerity,
simplicity,
German

of the German
Nor
the

should

sixteenth

character.
we

overlook the merits of the Chronicles of

century: they are

and
feeling,
patriotic
which

that

is so useful both in

written with

research,

manly honesty
straightforward
action and in writing.

still active,
of the German
nation was
unspirit
of Faustus and
and productive.
The legends
perverted,
and numbers
the WanderingJew, so full of deepmeaning,
The

STATE

OF

of beautiful and

QEBMAN

THE

tender

37

NATION.

popularsongs*,without

doubt

owe

their existence to the sixteenth century.

The

geniusof

effort had

the nation,which

greatspontaneous

ligion,
deeper and purer form of reits own
in so doing,
have destroyed
hardly,

reawakened

would

by

works.
gance
of this time lack,it is true, that eleproductions
of style
which is onlyproducedby an intentionaland
conscious restraint put by the writer upon the abundance
of his own
thoughts
; theypossess the merits of ingenuity,
and variety,
rather than any excellence of
thoughtfulness,
of
But it would be difficultto say which other period
style.
to
German
literaturecould be comparedwith this entirely
The merit
its own
not our
own.
advantage.Certainly
of thoughtful
at
wanting
least,is entirely
simplicity,
The

to

us.

of Germany, at that time still

spirit
vigorousand healthy,seemed to be only awaitingthe
dissensions should cease, in
when the religious
moment
order to try its strength
in every fieldof action useful and
The

national

honourable

to

mankind.

It has likewise been asserted that,towards the middle of

the

sixteenth

German

towns

of
to

me

to

new

of the
century, the trade and prosperity
were

almost

channels of

have been the

entirely
destroyed
by

commerce.

the discovery

This does not

seem

case.

Among others,George Forster has collected them

I would
refer especially
to the elegantpreface to his
(LivelyBallads),Nurnberg, 1552.
*

with

much

Frischen

taste.

Liedlein

38

FERDINAND

The Venetian

AND

I.

ambassadors

before the Smalcalclic war,

MAXIMILIAN

at

II.

all events,after,
as well

mention the German

towns

as
as

of the chief props of the nation. Bacloer describes

them as built in well-chosen sites,
adorned with fine town-

one

halls and

and with numerous

and vast churches,
palaces,
which he even
to those of Italy.*He
prefers
says they
were
keptvery clean,and inhabited by wealthyprivate
and by the most
skilfulworkmen
in the world,all
people,
well armed and jealous
of their liberties.
to him, the seaportswere
According
by no means
falling
to decay. He
reckons that Hamburg, Liibeck,
Rostock,
and Riga,had each of them from a hundred to a
Dantzig,
hundred and fifty
shipsof their own.
Dantzigwas,
the second or third commercial town of the world.
perhaps,
The

Russia and the

across

to the

great routes

two

both met

East, the old

road

caravan

guese,
passage discovered by the Portuhere ; it was the central market between
sea

Eastern and Western

Europe,from four to five hundred

shipswere often lyingthere in the roads.f
The northern trade,too, was
In
not
yet destroyed.
confirmed the
1560, by the treatyof Odensee,Denmark
*

"

Le chiese molte

grandie

a quelled' Italia."
superiori

be that he refers

may
to

must

"

sica dove

L'anno
entrano

in 500

ornate, che vengono

judgment for

strikes the eye

churches, or
as

an

stimate

Italian. It

that he

means

largeand massive in Italy

later time.

Relne del clmo Sre Giralomo

Polonia.

di 400

di maniera

remarkable

to the Gothic
especially

say, that in fact whatever

be attributed to

1575."

MSS.

in

Lippomani,ritornato ambre del

Professor Ranke's possession.
"

le navi nel tempo dell' estate,che

alle volte il

della

numero

re

di

Dane

Suetia,Dania, Nor-

mercato
frequent"10
somministrando
e Portegallo
wegia; Fiandria,Francia,Inghilterra,
pani,
zuccari e drogherie
che vengono di queipaesiin Polonia,in Littuvini,olii,
ania,et altre provinciesoggettericevendo da quelleformenti,
line,canove,
lana,corame, mele e cere." There exist stillmore
of this
accounts
flaming

harbour.

commodo

OF

STATE

THE

GEUMAN

39

NATION.

leges
enjoymentof their ancient privifavoured foreigners
the most
as
; they remained
the herring
of the trade at Schonen,and possessed
masters
the Norwegiancoast, which were
fisheries on
extremely
profitable.
exclusive priviIn Sweden
leges,
theyhad indeed lost t,heir
and custom
there. In
but they still had access
defiance of the King,theyopenedthe passage to Narva, in
with Russia.
order to keep up a direct communication
station was
But by far their most
London
important
the privileges
which theythere enjoyedwere
that
so great,
of cloth from England,
in 1551 theyexported
44,000 pieces
bottoms.
carried only 1100 in their own
while the English
and the ability
The connection of Charles V. with England,
of his ambassador,
Hans von "Werdern,maintained them in
In 1554
their ancient privileges
spiteof all opposition.
of cloth,
30,000 pieces
theyagainexported
upon which, as
Of
be supposed,
theymade an immense profit.
may easily
vantage,
adan
however, the enjoymentof so overpowering
course,
those who
as
enjoyedit did not keep
especially
could not fail
within their lawful privileges,
very strictly
the part of England; and
to call forth much
on
opposition
and with
this effectually
the question
to meet
was, how
Hanseatic

towns

in the

"

discretion.
trade between

The

England and

stillchiefly
in the hands
year

1561

the Dukes

the seat of the

des

League),vol. ii.book

the

built a

of Brabant,who

Sartorius,Geschichte

Hanseatic

of the Hanseatic towns.

PhilipII. confirmed

Antwerp,then

the Netherlands

commerce

Hanseatischen
14

17.

"

was

In the

privileges
enjoyedby
new
palaceat
splendid
of the world.*
Bundes

(History of

the

40

I.

FEKDINAND

Their
that

to

II.

to

such

extent

an

for the first time,to have

resolved,

theynow
agent

increased

France

trade with

MAXIMILIAN

AND

in that

Lisbon

in

There,as well

dent
resi-

their journeys
country. They performed

largecompanies.
as

in

Flanders,France,and the whole of

Europe,theyencountered on the same fieldwith

themselves the representatives
of the great commercial
of Upper Germany, which
at this periodwere
towns
equallyflourishing.
enlivened by the trade
The Rhine and the Maine were
between Antwerp and Nurnberg. The latter cityderived
its chief importancefrom the fact that it in a measure
between the
suppliedthe want of water communication
had so
of which
and the Danube, the necessity
Rhine
Western

often been insisted upon.

of the Rhine

mouth

to

It

was

the mouth

calculated that from

of the Danube

there

the
was

and all this trafficpassed

only 1 60 miles of land-carriage,
ter;
throughNurnberg. Neither was it merelya placeof barSilesian linen,Italian silk,and Englishcloth were

dyed and preparedfor the different markets

of manufactures,
the variety
knows
many of
allied to art, which
of the

found

their way

all countries. In the year 1544

visited

Nurnberg,and

the acute

one

nearly
all parts

ported
againex-

were
one

every

them

thither from

world, and the productsof which

to

of

our

tian
Vene-

Republican
He praises
the
refuse his tribute of admiration.
cannot
the scarcity
of splendid
of the domestic life,
silks
frugality
the moderation
and furs in the dresses of the Nurnbergers,
that as theyare thus conof their banquets
tinually
; and observes,
makingmoney abroad,and savingit at home, they
must
grow richer every day. The affairs of the town, he
authors

42

I. AND

FERDINAND

MAXIMILIAN

II.

in the world,
changers

the

who carried
gartners,

business to the amount

"

on

Fuggers,Welsers,and

Baum-

of hundreds

lived there. In the year 1560 Guicmany.

ciardini calls it the richest and most powerfulcityof Ger-

of thousands

In

at once,

1566

received

were

"

the

Emperor

there with

Maximilian

the utmost

and

his wife

and
splendour,

sented
pre-

magnificent
gifts.It was not till the year
silver plate,
1567 that the town-council purchasedcostly
salvers and goblets*, then the great article
magnificent
of German
luxury, in order more worthilyto entertain
Minister,
royal and noble guests. The cosmographer,
dwells with peculiar
complacencyupon Augsburg. He
extol the equitywith which the magiscannot
sufficiently
trates
the virtue and felicity
rule the people,
in which the
and carry on their trade in foreign
burghersdwell together
with

"

"

the furthest quarters of the

lands,

even

towards

the four winds

"

broughtup
other

in the

unto

of heaven."

their children ; how

adornment

and

How
each

beauty of

earth,and

honourablythey
did vie with
his house

the
how

of
and well-ordered was
all their way
splendid,
costly,
living.fThe garden of the Fuggersexcelled the parkof
of Europe bloomed in the
Blois ; and in 1559 the firsttulip
gardenof Herwart.
kind of
towns
These Upper German
enjoyedthe same
In
countries as the Hanse Towns.
in foreign
privileges
renewed
France
by Francis I. and Henry II.
they were
allied with France,
so
Like the Swiss, who were
closely
subjectonly to the ancient established taxes,
they were
*

Stetten, Geschichte

von

Augsburg (Historyof Augsburg), p.

577.
p. 880.
f Munster's Cosmographie,

567.

OF

STATE

THE

43

NATION.

GERMAN

ones.
Specialrightswere
exempted from all new
of
grantedto them for the fair of Lyons. The parliaments
Paris and Rouen, Burgundy and Dauphiny,registered
Charles IX. confirmed them
their warrants.
again in

and

1566.*
Of

all the western

towns, Lindau

was,

to

the best of my

the most
important.The transportof goods
knowledge,
between Danzig and Genoa, between Nurnbergand Lyons,
Our
cosmographercalls it the
lay throughLindau.
Venice of Germany.
which exported
Vienna was
the market in which Italy,
and Hungary, which sent cattle and hides,
wine and silk,
and
carried on
their trade with the Danubian
provinces,
The road from Vienna to Lyons
with Poland and Bohemia.
laythroughLindau.
established and attended by
The
Frankfort fair was
Englishand Frenchmen, Italians and Hungarians,Poles
and Russians.
There," says Scaliger, the East and
their own
the West may each recognise
productions
; and
be gathered."
stores of information may
there,too, lasting
These largetowns
had a very importantinfluence upon
the whole interior of Germany.
The Altmark of Brandenburg,
for instance,
most
was
now
"

"

prosperous.

In Stendahl alone there

were

700

or

800

cloth

Gardeand in the year 1547, so small a place

as
legencould raise 700 soldiers. Thousands of pocketsof

weavers,

hops were
*

exported. The

transit of

afforded
herrings

berg,
des villes de Augsbourg,Ulme, NuremPrivileges
pour les marchands
Constance, Strasbourg,
Norlingen,Memmingen, et autres villes et
cites imperiales
de la nation Germanique,in Roth, Geschichte
des NiirnbergischenHandels (Historyof the Trade of Nurnberg),vol. ii.p. 288.
305.

44

FERDINAND

considerable

I.

AND

MAXIMILIAN

II.

profit.Even Berlin,strangeto

say,

was

now

rich.*

of salt from Liineburg,

and of corn
from
exportation
of those towns.
Magdeburg, maintained the prosperity
the
Magdeburg was rich enough to defend itself against
of a garrisonwhich
cost
Emperor Charles by means
made
4,000,000 of florins.fThe Sale and the Spreewere
navigable.
In Swabia trade was
alreadycarried on systematically
and by companies
and women
were
| ; men
employed in
and weaving linen. In Ulm
100,000 piecesof
spinning
sold every year.
The Italians restuff and dimitywere
marked
made of cotton,which
that this dimitywas
partly
The

had to be bought from them,

on
solely

so

that the advantage was

not

the side of the Germans.

they maintained,the
balance of profit
was
against
Germany,the loss could then
be borne.
Perhaps the German
easily
copper mines were
than at that time.
more
never
productive
There is an ancient legendcommon
to many
districts,
who sits undergroundbeneath the mounof the old man
tains,
guardingrich treasures behind iron doors. The
which is obvious enough,at that
meaningof this legend,
Even

if this

time received
have been

far

so,

and

as

brilliant solution than could

more

ever

expected.

Mohsen, Gesch.

were

der

Wissenschaft

of the Sciences in the March

of

Geschichte

von

f Rathmann,

in der

Mark

Brandenburg), p.

Brandenb.

(History

483.

Magdeburg (History of Magdeburg),

vol. iii.p. 600.

for word as in Boemi Mores,
Word
p. 527.
his materials in his Historyof the Trade
drew

% Minister,Cosmography,
"c, from whence
of

Germany.

Fischer

STATE

This
We

OF

the
chiefly

was

will not

THE

GERMAN

case

in the

repeat the

of the Cronica

45

NATION.

Erzgebirg.
incredible statements

and

monstrous

Carionis

the quantity
of
concerning
raised in the Schneeberg,
ore
spiteof all the endeavours
them
of the worthy Albinus to make
appear probable.
But that it was
is evident from common
extraordinary
show,
althoughvery incomplete,
report. The registers,
duringthe first seventy-nine
years, that is until 1550, a
of 2,000,000 of gulden
about 3,000,000
or
profit
groschen,
of dollars *, which

divided among

were

the adventurers.

Annabergabove 5,000,000 of dollars between the years

for a long time, from
and
In Freiberg,
1600.
1500
gether
annually, making alto50,000 to 60,000 guldengroschen

In

"

above 4,000,000 of dollars in seventy-oneyears,

and 1564,
between the years 1520
in Marienberg,
"

and

3,000,000 of dollars

placeswe have the most

1540, was
find,at Trinity,
exists.$

exact

celebrated in

I have mentioned

What

of

time ; all the expences

from

song which

onlythe

were

most

others flourished at the

mines, and many

alreadydeducted

Concerningall these
records.f The largest

divided.

were

had
mining and smelting

the

mentioned.

I have

sums

still
siderable
consame

been
Nor

of the Meissen Mines),

Berg chronica (Chronicles
The accounts
fail from the periodprevious
to 1511.
p. 33Bergbaues (Historyof German
f Gmelin, Geschichte des Deutschen
*

Albinus, Meissnische

Mining), p.
t

322.

towards the History

(Contributions
Geschichts-beitrage
Marienbergische
"vol.viii. "From
of Marienberg),
in the collection of Saxon History,

sure

archive."

Gmelin, in the
found

same

in Albinus

actual accounts

exaggerate.

The

accounts

of the find at

vol.
collection,
reckons

the

x.

p, 338.

product of

give 114,810, so

that

Annaberg

The

the mine

song

corrected

-which

at 113,262

by

is to be

florins: the

it is evident that the poet did not

46

FEKDINAND

do

they include

which

the

AND

MAXIMILIAN

very considerable
had been built out of the

of the
profits

century

to

Venetian

Saxon

or

Dresden,which

have amounted

would

in that

40,000,000 of dollars.

that 3000

asserts

the

sovereign
Moreover
a
good many
profits.Unquestionably

mines must

30,000,000

II.

royaltyof

tithe and

were

taverns

the

I.

dollars

amount

to

were

dailyin

coined

million in the

Our

course

of the year.
Some

1516

The
his

districtsof Austria

rich. The proequally

duce
of Joachimsthal was
recorded by every succeeding
accurately
Between
the years
of the mines.
superintendant
and 1560, 4,000,000 dollars nett profit
divided.
were
miner, Merten Heidler,with the assistance only of

wife,raised

In

the value of 100,000 florins.

to

ore

the Leberthal

were

mines

no

until the year

sunk

were

above thirty
silver mines in
already
when
work, yielding
nearly7000 marks of silver annually,

1525, but there

were

solid veins of silver

ore

discovered at Bachofen

were

and

St. Wilhelm.

inexhaustible. There,"
appeared
dug and smelted by
says Miinster, untold wealth is ever
drawn
by Ferdinand
day and by night."The revenue
The

"

mines of Schwatz
"

tween
has been estimated at 250,000 florins. Be-

from this mine

the years 1526

million marks

of

and

it

1564

producedabove

two

or upwards of twenty millions

silver,

of

florins.*
the old mines

Meanwhile

berg Duke

Henry

miner, carried
*

on

Gmelin, Geschichte

Mining),"" 319,

320.

the

Younger,who

the work
des

not idle.

were

Deutschen

very

was

At Rammels-

himself

actively
; and

Bergbaues (Historyof

skilful
it

was

German

afterwards

continued
took

who
Julius,
Goslar

and
shaft,

more

year
When

off,at

had been made

to 20,000
profit
by his father.*

take all this into account, and

we

how

above

left

his father

where

raised his annual

than

Matthesius

stillgreatervigourby Duke

with

it up

47

NATION.

GERMAN

THE

OF

STATE

other silver

many

in Bohemia

23,000 marks

alone

"

mines

at

raised in

were

dollars

likewise

mentioned

are

the

member
re-

by

Budweiss,for instance,
seven

years;

Rohrbii-

yieldedabove 22,000 marks in the year 1552, and

did mightily
Rauris and Gastein
pour forth their gold,"

chel

"

not

to

mention

all this,
we

innumerable

other mines

if we

"

consider

Germany contributed very little

of the precious
metals current
in
during the first fifty
years after

shall find that

less to the whole

mass

the world than America

discovery.We now know indeed that the amount of

treasure
not
hemispherewas
broughtfrom the western
supposed.
nearlyso great as was formerly
of the silver the only
Neither was
the mere
production
of mining,
which in itself is
advantage.The occupation
from the peculiarisolation and liberty
very important,

her

which
number

characterises it,likewise called into existence

of kindred trades.

Duke

Julius,
"

the true

vast

father

of all

workingmen," took care to keep the iron-works at

Gittelde and the brass-foundry
in good and
at Buntheim
efficientorder.
The armourers
of Suhl already
supplied
Germany, Italy,
Hungary, and Poland. No periodwas
richer in new
inventions or improvementsupon old
ever
ones
to the
they range from the finest lace-weaving
for mining,
and include watches and tiniehuge machinery
"

Rehtmeyer,Chronik

p. 1008.

von

Braunschweig (Chronicleof Brunswick),

48

FERDINAND

I.

AND

II.

MAXIMILIAN

celestial globes
and mariners' compasses, which the
pieces,
German, George Hartman, manufactured with such care
of the
and nicetythat his work led him to the discovery
And
here we are immediately
declination of the needle.
broughtback to the consideration of the great intellectual
movement.

Germany was
search
ingenious

filled with

of
generalspirit

after novelty
and fresh means

the elements,which

was

connected
closely

active and

of power

over

lectual
with the intel-

which she stillhad in Europe. At

preponderance
from Minister's account, wealth
the same
time,as we gather
the
diffused throughout
and comfort were
prettygenerally
land.
He tells us how the produceof the country found
and Uebenlingen
its way to the towns ; how Schweinfurt
trade ; how 200 towns, villages,
centres of the corn
were
and
wheat

hamlets went
was

to

market

to
exported

at

all the

Worms

how

the Alsatian

and
adjacentcountries,

even

throughChurwalen to the frontiers of Italy

; how chestnuts
northward by the Thuringian
or
carriers,
were
transported
the river to England; and how the wine of
down
sent
lands.
Weissenbergfound a market in Brabant and the Netherfollow his description,
that we
It is with pleasure
with a
which leads us down from the mountains,beginning
which grow upon
of the healing
minute description
plants
less
them, alongrivers and throughdistrictsfilledwith countand well-situated castles,
surrounded by oak
villages
and
and beech trees,to the hills on which the wine ripens,
stands so high
where the corn
thence to the fertile plains
on
horseback,and
as
nearlyto reach the head of a man
medicinal hot springs.He paints
to the wondrous
finally
landscape,
gailydecked with various
Germany as a summer

50

MAXIMILIAN

I. AND

FERDINAND

II.

importantquestionwas, how to maintain this state

the task altogether
of affairs; nor was
neglected.
made
to remedy the evils arising
An endeavour
was
divisions. The College
of Electors was
from the religious
into two
halves
of the Spiritual
and
one
consisting
split
Catholic,and the other of the Temporal and Protestant
putes
Princes ; and between these two
parties
very serious dishad arisen.. In the year 1588 theyconcluded a new
alliance. They resolved to assist one
another with word
and deed,and to comport themselves in a brotherly
and
to another,
not to exclude any one
at
one
manner
confiding
future elections for religion's
sake,and to keepthe Empire
The

"

nation.

in the German

had

which
electors,

1338,

Greater

Catholics.

to

successors

the

was

care

to

as

since

ever
as

well

as

exercised in the election of

was

Empire, so

suit Protestants

meetingof

as

to

ensure

safer and

more

succession.*

undisturbed
Another

the

oath taken at the

been held from time to time

so
altered,

now

was

The

made

use

of the tendencies of the Reformation

enfranchisement

dependencein

which

of the

it had

Empire

itself from

hitherto been upon

the

the

Pope.

tion
the abdicacrown,
Imperial
upon
of Paul IV.,and
of all the protests
of Charles V., spite
unable to prevent.
Pius IV. agreedto that which he was
Catholic princesexAt the election of Maximilian
pressly
even

Ferdinand assumed

insisted upon

the

Pope,and expresseda hope

would

rather

Compare

this

Hiiberlin's Neueste
vol. iii.pp. 449.

have

of any mention of the

that for the future the Pope

the omission

to

seek

his confirmation

from

the

meeting of electors with those previouslyheld, in

Reichsgeschichte
(Modern History of the Empire),

458.

PEACE

HOW

HAVE

MIGHT

BEEN

the

Emperor than the Emperor from

Vice-Chancellor drew up
Imperial
prove that the Pope had no more
the election of

over

accession to the throne

an

an

When

Pope.*

the

elaborate report to
claim

rightto

than

emperor

of any

51

PRESERVED.

an

over

other crowned

fluence
inthe

head, the

in fact lost its European and Christian

Imperialdignity
and became
German
in its character.
significance,
assentially

But this was

all that was

needed to secure
by no means
the prosperity
of Germany.
Even
of sickness ;
perfecthealth impliesa possibility
the most stable greatnesscontains the germ of decay,
and
all union the chance of division.
wise and

prudentstatesman
from the chattering
herd, and the
tizans by the recognition
of remote
The

the endeavour
There

is no

furious crowd
elements of

dangerand

these elements

were

peculiarly

strong in the condition of Germany at that time.

of

concurrence

into another

nation,but

which
circumstances,

channel,preventedthe
the fermentation

utter

diverted them
ruin

of the

barelyallayed,
by

was

tunate
for-

no

subdued.

means

The

of
period

the most

to

of par-

them.

to counteract

denyingthat

is mainlydistinguished

internal peace

earnest

endeavours

should have
to

been devoted

prevent the threatened

explosion.
The
German

chief

dangerevidently
layin the relations of the
and temporal
Church, at the pointwhere spiritual
"

The

Duke

of

Juliers,
accordingto the Report of the ImperialEnvoy

in 1560.
"

52

I.

FERDINAND

affairscame

MAXIMILIAN

AND

The

into contact.

II.

Church

German

in its very foundations by

duringthe periodof disturbance when

attacked

had been

and
Protestantism,

might made

right,

stitution
injuryand insult. And yet the conof the Empire rested mainly on the Church, of
members
sat in its two
which so many
councils,
principal
and that of the electors.
that of the princes

suffered much

had

I do

not

Church

was

than

think it too

quiteas much,

little. With

the

they took

cure

but

universal Church.
the

and

that the German

assert

perhapsmore,

of

such.

political

functions
spiritual
amounted
to very
archbishops
souls they had nothingto do,

little.partin the government of the

They

German

were

fourteenth

as

and

and
princes,

their peers;

and

fifteenth centuries

played
distainly
cer-

they

any in the administration of

active part than

more

The

characteristics

same

during the
took

as

and
bishops

of the German

and

to

institution.
religious
any rate, it acted

At

much

generalaffairs of Germany. We find their names

recorded in connection with their political
occupations.It
titlesoften contrasted strangely
is true that their spiritual
with their mundane
employments. But nothingwas to be
them with very superficial
attacking
gainedby continually
the

ridicule.

It would

have

been

better

to

accept their

it was.
as
position

To

these

considerations

was

added

another

of

no

less

stated by Protestant
continually
importance. It was
foundations were
tuted
instiprincesand nobles that religious
for the honour and gloryof God, in the firstplace,
no

doubt,but

noble

also for the maintenance

houses,and

to

that end

of

endowed
richly

and
princely
by emperors,

HOW

PEACE

PRESERVED.

BEEN

HAVE

MIGHT

and lords,
of gracious
kings,
memory*
princes,
that the continuance

of their

own

families

It could
these ecclesiasticalpossessions.
that

considerations of this nature

the founders ; and

had

of time

in process

53

theyurged
dependedon
;

he denied
scarcely
some
weightwith

they had

hecome

foundations were
the inheritance
religious
of the younger sons
of princely
and noble houses ;
the condition that
inheritance which theyenjoyedon
an
By the side
theywould found no families of their own.
of the elder brothers the
of the hereditary
principalities
The worldlydistribution
younger found these elective ones.
of course
followed by a
of spiritual
property was
worldlyemploymentof it.
be hopedthat in those partsof Germany
It could hardly
in which Protestantism had not secretly
(forthat was the
almost everywhere),
but avowedlygainedthe upper
case
hand,the greatfamilies would cpiietly
giveup their share
in the
of the ecclesiasticalbenefices and the participation
connected with it,in
affairs of the Empire which was
reservation.
obedience to the spiritual
spiteof the conditions of the religious
Accordingly,
who by no
find Protestant spiritual
princes
peace, we soon
in the Imperial
their standing
means
college.
resigned
bishop
When
Joachim Frederick of Brandenburgbecame Archof
of Magdeburg,
he promisedto exercise his right
other
session in the Empire,and to hold the territory
as
had done before. He even
claimed the spiriarchbishops

paramount.

The

from some
of the estates addicted to the
Copia Supplicationis,
Confession
of Augsburg," in Meissner's
Beschreibungdes Augsburger
of
of the Diet
Seckenberg,
Reichstag(Description
Augsburg),anno 1566.
*

E. g.

"

vol. iii.p. 306.

e

54

FERDINAND

I.

AND

MAXIMILIAN

II.

tual

primacyin the council of Princes of the Empire,after

he had openlymarried
and introduced a princess
consort
into the bishopric,
without layingclaim
though of course
to the hereditary
of the territory.*
His prepossession
decessor
his adherence to
Sigismund,had even
professed
the reformed faith,
in the face of the Emperor and the
whole Empire,and had been left in undisturbed possession
of his dominions

and honours. f

Duke

Henry of Saxe Lauenburg,

Archbishopof Bremen,
when
even
married, kept his place upon the bench of
+
spiritual
princes.
sedly
BishopEberhard of Liibeck and Verden, was confesconfirmed by the
he was
a Protestant ; nevertheless,
attended the Diets
Emperor and the Pope; he constantly
in the person of his delegates,
and
without opposition,
signedtheir resolutions.
BishopHermann, of Minden, an undoubted Protestant,
likewise had a seat and voice in the empire.
In Osnabriick they had a Catholic and a Protestant
who were
of each
tolerant that one
so
bishopalternately,
faith was
of beingsecretly
attached to the opposuspected
site
party. In Paderborn,too, John of Hoya for a long
time ruled with great moderation.
*

Rathmann, Geschichte

von

"

Magdeburg (History of Magdeburg),

vol. iv. p. 69.

f Hamelius

in the work

There

which

will be

referred to.
presently
concerninghim in Hamelmann,

is a cotemporary song
burgischesChronikon
(Chronicle of
+

"written :

Oldenburg), p. 435., where

Oldenit is

"

"

Quin lolium papalesacra

runcavit ab a;de."

Deutschland
Nord
von
" Schlegel,
Kirchengeschichte
in the North of Germany), vol. ii.p. 422.
Church

(Historyof the

"HOW

MIGHT

PEACE

Julius of Brunswick

Duke

BEEN

HAVE

was

55

PRESERVED.

by
recognised

the Emperor

but on condition of his

Bishop of ILilberstadt,
which the Duke
the Pope'sconfirmation,
by no
receiving
of obtaining,
means
despaired
testant,
The Abbess Elizabeth of Quedlinburg,
althougha Profound less difficulty
in gainingthe confirmation of
the Elector
than that of her neighbour,
the Pope'slegate
of Saxony.*
But my readers will ask,how did this accord with that
as

clause of the
how

was

religious
peace

which

this consistent with German

had

been

confirmed;

conscientiousness and

respectfor law.
Protestants

argued that

the

not
religious
peace was
infringed,
theymaintained that by it onlya prelate
already
from goingover
from the Catholic
installedwas prohibited
of the clause
to the Protestant Church
; that the sole object
had been to prevent the disputes
which would otherwise
arise between a chapter
which adhered to the ancient faith,
and a bishopwho had gone over
to the new
; but that it
to
intended to forbid a Protestant chapter
was
by no means
elect a Protestant bishop.f

The

Haberlin, Neueste

vol. vi. pp. 438. 456.

State and

(Modern Historyof the Empire),

Reichsgeschichte
Eichhorn's Stadt- und Rechts-geschichte
(Historyof

Law), part iv. s.

503.

Freistellung
of electing
(Thoughtson
Dr.
drawn
Henningius
Protestants to SpiritualPrincipalities),
up by
He maintains, That the religious
1596.
Hamelius, anno
peace ought to
in Cologne,in
But as for example the Elector Truchsess
be maintained.
had not had a good time of it,seeingthat his chapterhad not
fundamento,
Bedenken
"j"

iiber den pass des geistlichen

Yorbehaltes,oder
of the Spiritual
the case
Reservation,or Power

"

been

reformed, while, on

the

other

hand, Joachim

his chapter
as
admirably,inasmuch
thinking."In Lunig,Staats Consilia,
p. 482.
E

had

Frederick had
been

of

his way

ceeded
suc-

of

56

FERDINAND

It appears

I.

MAXIMILIAN

AND

II.

the

of this opinion.
Emperors were
the sovereignty
of Protestant bishops
or
They recognised
in the
and allowed them to keep their standing
coadjutors,
Empire. If the confirmation of bishopshad rested with
would have been settled;
the Emperor alone the question
that of the Pope,
but accoi'ding
to law, theyalso needed
and herein lay the difficulty.
The nation hesitated to deny the Pope'sclaim altogether.
There is perhapsno strongerinstance of the German
respect
for the letter of the law, than the fact,
that long after the
in Protestant ecclesiasticalbodies,
the
Reformation,even
that

to
rightof presenting

benefices which

fell vacant

during
the reserved months was
stillconceded to the Pope ; only
it often turned out that the privilege
somehow
cised
exerwas
in favour of persons who were
too late,
or
ineligible
from other causes.*
This,however,beingthe case, it was
in
that the ancient forms would be disregarded
not likely
the appointments
to bishoprics.
The Protestants,
however,were
luckyenoughto find an
stillin use which they could turn to their
ancient custom
the
under the new
order of things.I mean
own
advantage
Indulta.
Under
the pretext that the money required
Imperial
for the payment of the Roman
*

Minuccio

cattolica in
in

Brema,
tutto

sono

Minucci,

Halberstad;Verd,
distaccati da

hanno
filo,

quando

di

sua

natura

che le collationi

Roma

state
con

sin

sono

tarde,e ben

qui sempre

non

avuto

forth-

Religione
Magdeburg, in

ancora,

overo

luoco

manchevoli

fatte in persone

spesso

finta et

state

sono

state

not

di restituire la

il Modo

questo loro madre,

che

le
; ma

in

legaticon
provisioni
apostoliche,
si tengono

accaduto

piu

volte

inhabili per difetto di nobilita

per

fraude delli

sono

di
speditioneri

e talora
beneficjagliheretici,
impetrati
imaginaria."

false relationi si

qualchepersona

sopra

was

Di qua e venuto
che in
Lubecca, Minda et altri Vescovati che

MSS.

Allemagna."

debol'"0

sono

Discorso

"

fees

58

FERDINAND

Would

it have

been

the

in which
to

I.

II.

stood
Empire already
Churches

towards

the

sition
oppo-

Pope,

from
completely

more

the influence of the Curia ?

under

it incumbent

Was

of the Council
taken

Would

it not

Church
in fact

tions
resolu-

of

of allegiance

bishopsto

extended
have

in which

been

the

the

Pope

were

so

establish

greatly

?
to
possible

temporal element, which

should
predominated,

have

been

the most

German

already
powerful

also ?

in form

Might

not

which

so

made

Germany to accept those

Trent by which
the oaths

upon

the

by
and
strengthened

to

MAXIMILIAN

the
difficult,
considering

so

the German

withdraw

AND

the
few

of
possession

these electoral

duties
spiritual

of
independent

the

were

principalitie

attached,have

been

of any particular
form
profession

of faith?

Germany during
agitated
the religious
between
the whole periodintervening
peace
and the ThirtyYears' War.
the
Protestantism
It was
to make
not in contemplation
in view was
to render
The onlyobject
dominant
religion.
of
of the electoral principalities
the possession
independent
This

was

the

questionwhich

of any particular
faith,and to liberate the
profession
connected with them from
was
status in the Empire which
The
the influence of the Curia.
by no
questionwas
first
would
at
one
as
a
so
religious
means
exclusively
man
of the Gerwhether a number
appear. Its real importwas
to the Pope and to
to remain in allegiance
were
princes
form part of the great political
body of Christendom,or
out
whether the German
Empire was to unite in shutting
the

PEACE

HOW

Pope, and

influence of the

the

would

heen

have

manage

its

affairs

own

interests and ideas.

to purelynational
according

There

to

59

PRESERVED.

BEEN

HAVE

MIGHT

in this

need

no

case

either to

into
altogether
from its spiritual
entirely

have converted the property of the Church

or
benefices,
parochial

to

alienate it

destination.
Those

these foundations
the maintenance
far

so

the

and

oaths
stringent

more

and for exemptions

from
and duties.

relieved from

The
stricter discipline.

much

however, was

carried their claims

of their families,
never

promisedif theywere
very

endowed

relaxation of the statute

only for
new

had been

strenuously
urgedthat
partlywith a view to

so

After the Council of Trent, theypetitioned

this.

as

nobles who

and

counts

They even

these,to introduce

principal
suggestion,

destination of the Church

spiritual
but in a modified form, and
retained,

that the

property should

be

that it should be conferred

as

reward

for deeds of

arms

of the
the Turks, just as the possessions
against
ancient order of Teutonic knightshad been grantedto
the heathens,and as
the war
them for carrying
on
against
received permission
in Spainthese orders had even
to
done

marry.

Distinct
than

set

meetingof

one

than

The

kind

the estates of the

Diet ; and

one

on

of this
propositions

were

made

Empire,and

were
introductory
proceedings

at
at

more
more
even

foot to this end.

great national interests were

two

concerned

in this

question.
The

conqueror

Germany
the

once,

of
and

feeble bulwarks

Hungary, who had alreadyinvaded

been arrested by
most
unexpectedly
of Vienna, still lived. Again and

60

he to lead

againwas

order to subdue

Was

"

MAXIMILIAN

II.

his hundreds

Germany and

of

thousands,in
Europe, and lay

Western

the feet of the Ottoman

a
befitting
greatnation tamelyto
inveterate as to aim at nothing
short
and never
alwaysto await the attack,

unsheathe
Had

have

the
light

shown

Deityand

obscured

endure

tility
hos-

of its destruction,
to

be the first

understood

their true

mission,
they

been contented with

truths of

and

horses.

the sword ? *

the Germans

would

for

so

havingsimplybroughtto
freed from all human
tions,
addiChristianity,

the relation in which

His

eternal purposes,

many

lose themselves

to

AND

it

so

the

on

beneath
prostrate

them

to

I.

FERDINAND

ages.

once

more

There

was

mankind
after
no

stands to

theyhad
need

been

for them

in dialectic subtleties,
and

to

the

goldwith fresh heapsof rubbish.

newly-discovered
But it was
the dissensions which
to allay
indispensable
of the religious
had arisen in consequence
and to
changes,
giveto the constitution of the Empire a form which might
cover

endure

for

time,and

allow the life of the nation to deve-

lope itself. Then the great enterprise

might have been
begun,and the foe who was at the gates of the country
have been attacked with the united strength
of Germany.
And
what
a
prospect would this have opened! We
recollect that the Ottoman
must
Empire,which is quiteas
AugeriiBusbequiide re militari contra Turcas instituenda Consilium:
Ad bellum omni
nulla;
spe pacissublata cogimur : nulla? hie consilii,
nostri
necessitatis
omnia
violenter
arbitrii
occupavit
; ad bellum
partes : vis
*

"

rapimur : bellum
dum.

nobis

vel invitissimis subeundum,

Quid frustra obnitimur

decipimus? In media nimirum flamma otium

remedia
malumque, cujus si advigilaremus
cogitatione
fingimus,
et parum
providendoreddimus
poterunt, differendo nutrimus

cificationibus somniandis
nobis falsa

aliquaesse

gerendum, exantlanQuid circumspectamus? Quid van is pa-

insanabile."

nos

HOW

BEEN

HAVE

MIGHT

TEACE

61

PBE8EBVED.

at this time
was
as
a political
institution,
religious
and more
powerful,
menacing
undoubtedly
greater,more
but that its uwn
far
than ever
were
subjects
externally,

much

from

being converted
then

numbers

Albania

Mohammedanism

happened

since.

restored Bosnia

have

well

as

has

as

stroke would

to

as

in

A
well

same

singlehappy
as
Hungary,
In this

Greece,to Christendom.

as

the

case

Germany, whose Emperor governed Hungary,and had a

rightor claim upon all its ancient appurtenances, even
then it was
proposedto incorporate
Hungary entirely
with the Empire,
Germany,we say, would thus have
influence in Eastern Europe,and
obtained the predominant
with the overplusof
have been able to fillthose regions
"

"

her

population.

If
how

consider how

we

for

rapidwas,
of their

Germany, we

weak

Sultans,
succeeding
tutions
internal decayof the instithe armed force of
powerful
that this might well have

time,the

State,and

the

were

how

shall conclude

been carried into execution.

But

then it was

necessary that the nation should will it.

should

have

united

for the purpose;

nation have

been

been

engagedin

Under

and

the

called forth.

such circumstances

doubt have become

Let

no

one

think that
to

it,or

of movement

preachingpeace
elements
them

weaker

the

is
onlysafety

the

Empire

have
nobility
of the
strength

it ; the

have taxed all the national

must

no

powerfulprincesof

interests of the most

The

been
whole

So great a national work

resources.

the

divisions would
religious

and less mischievous.

nation

is to be

tranquillised
by

by denyingthe presence of the

still less by violently
restraining
in

them
directing

into

proper

62

FERDINAND

channel.

that

its

its real

following

and

To

prevent

course,

to

divided

be

must

ing
tear-

view,
laws

own

great future

the

ensure

in

kept

for its

respect

alone

itself and

against

to

"

forth.

instilled,and

be

must

repose
action

destructive

satisfied.

requirements

mere

unfettered

vitals, its real tendencies

own

ordinances

and

to

called

are

against becoming

nation

the

II.

destined

free

powers

from

movement

MAXIMILIAN

not

in

is

It

human

the

is

nation

dulness.

inert

AND

I.

opened

it.

to

Such

the

was

establish

to

both

which

of

attack

conform

and

which

power

Such, too,
insisted

are

books, but
There

put

into

they

execution

resolved

the

utmost

This

prince

to

for

abilities,moderate,

in

on

carry
now

Maximilian

to

and

the

fight out

great

always-threatened
of

ruled

writing,

the

good hope

in

as

repeated

at

that

day

the

firm
Avar

ascended
II.

nation.

called

that

the

Diet.

they

would

be

extraordinary
of

in matters

against

They

[all Schwendi's

every

prince gifted with

gentle,and

vigour,
was

be

to

first,

"

constitution, to which

then

which

likewise

were

seemed

now

and

only

not

upon,

inevitable.

ideas

the

were

Germany

Germans

the

hereditary foe, rendered

the

before

often-renewed

the

the

lay

ecclesiastical

uniform

parties might

struggle

which

task

the

religion,

Turks

Imperial

with
throne.

CHARACTER

OF

MAXIMILIAN

CHAP.

EXPECTATIONS

63

II.

VIII.

OF

MAXIMILIAN

II.

of Maximilian
II. know
not how
to
contemporaries
tion
praisehim enough for the high degreeof generalcultivaThe

had

he
and made
he knew

attained.

He

had

mastered

the languages,

himself familiar with the

the virtues and the

characteristics,
peculiar
the proverbs,
the jests,
faults,

and the literatureof the different nations he had

visited.

treated the natives of each

He

fashion :
peculiar
he

was

frank

with

and

the Italians he

cheerful with

the

Bohemians,vivacious

his

maimer

was

new,

towards

noble,and

the

seen

after their

and
own

condescending,

was

Germans, easy

with

with the

measured in
Hungarians,
the Spaniards.
It seemed as if all that
to the time was
in
peculiar
displayed

his

singleperson. We shall afterwards have to revert to

the importantpart which
Maximilian took in the new
of religious
ideas. The studyof nature was
development
justenteringupon the path of experiment
; he pursued
made
in
botanyin his garden; he diligently
experiments
music was
to be cultivated
metallurgy
; modern
beginning
in Europe,and that which he introduced into his private
chapelwas reckoned the best then existing; but although
"

he confessed that if he

might follow his own inclinations he

Avould never
wish for any other pursuits
than these,he
did not allow such tastes to gainthe mastery over
him.
There was
balance
I may say harmony
in the
perfect
of his mind.
It was
to find a more
impossible
powers
full of wit and goodhumour,
agreeable
companion
; he was
"

"

6-1

I.

FERDINAND

princesin

and

MAXIMILIAN

unaffected.

and

perfectly
easy

AND

II.

treated

He

which

manner

bassadors
foreignam-

made

them

nounce
pro-

courtier in the world* ;

perfect
but in him these graciousmanners
the result of a
were
kind ; and when
he saw
the village
disposition
naturally
confessed with satisfaction
he had formerly
to whom
priest,
of his audiencecorner
standinghumbly in a remote
dors
chamber,he stepped
rightthroughthe crowd of ambassaand nobles who were
with
present,accosted the priest
and took him with him into
kind greeting,
his well-known
him

to

his closet.
addressed

no

be the most

He

to

gave

man

as

"

every

due

one

honour,

and

thou."

pieceof good fortune when we chance to

and finely
find ourselves in a circle such as gifted
organised
We
them.
to gatherround
wont
natures
are
seem, as it
of cultivated
in the society
to breathe a purer atmosphere
were,
from the world onlywhat is
minds which
extract
and discriminating
good and beautiful ; contact with a searching
minds into a state of agreeable
intellect puts our
of
and the unaffected expression
tension ; graceful
manners
We

feel it as

goodwill and kindliness

cise

real fascination upon

Micheli, 1564:

"Di

sanita per
che

non

di

quellitremori

si credeva, e di

gratiain tutte
affettionarsiogn'uno

tanta

contemperata

insieme

le attioni
e

cosa

mediante

is in itselfa talent
"

Such

the natures

are

grande, non

piccolo,ma

exer-

that

di bella

viva rossa
di bel aspetto,con
came
una
propriode' Tedeschi,fatto quanto alia

pativamolto piu gagliardo,

giornofortificandosimeglio. Questo ha

et

core

giornoin

che

non

tutto

insieme,color naturale

bianca

us.

statura

e sopra
tagliae dispositione,
e

which

"

altro che

cosi bel procedere,e belle inaniere da

con
maravigliosa
che
una
allegrezza

una

e dolcezza
gravita.

dimostra

pud desiderare cosa

ne
piu viva ne piu amabile. Benche alcuni prendonoquesta prontezza a
ridere con ciascheduno
per duplicita."

accompagnata da

una

tal vivezza

d' occhi che

non

si

nell' esteriore,

66

FERDINAND

I.

MAXIMILIAN

AND

II.

and

of expression.
He possessed
the rare
propriety
gift
of eloquencein German, to a very high degree
; and ke
exercise for it at the numerous
found frequent
imperial
assemblies which he was
forced to attend,
and provincial
and where he alwayshad stubborn spirits
to deal with.
but his brillianteyes flashed fire as
His words were
gentle,
he spoke.
It is manifest,
like his must be full of ambithat a spirit
tion.
And

with
and

so

it was

of

"

an

ambition not

be satisfied

to

for great undertakings

but thirsting
empty praise,
achievements.
glorious

Obedient

and devoted

as

Maximilian

to

was

his father

in all besides,
he did not attempt to conceal that he

thought
swayed either
easily
of some
of
opinions

and alwaystoo
too peaceful,
policy
by circumstances,by the accidental
influences.*
his counsellors,
or
by foreign
had in part been origiline of policy
The anti-Spanish
nated
by him, and he intended to follow it out far more
He complained
that the Emperor Charles
bitterly
strictly.
his

had

of
He

branch

treated the younger

in the division
unfairly
and had injuredit repeatedly
the inheritance,
since.
his son-in-law,
as
riage
himself,
thoughthe had by his marlands,
acquiredcertain claims upon Milan or the Netherand

small
most

yet he

which
pension,
direct and

forced to content

was
was

not

even

attack upon

severe

himself with

regularly
paid. The
him, however,was

the

the succession to the

Emperor'sscheme of transferring
that so
Empire to PhilipII.f It could hardlybe expected
*

Soriano

1554
Rel1"",

"

Nelle

cose

del governo

biasma

1' imperitia
de'

all' imperatore."
la facilitadi S. M. et il troppo rispetto
consiglieri
La materia della cession dell' imperio ha acceso
f Soriano, 1551:
"

CHARACTER

a man
high-spirited
be deprived
of the

he

OF

as

MAXIMILIAN

Maximilian

firstcrown

of

the natural successor,

was

should

Europe,a

and

67

II.

tamelysubmit
crown

find himself

to

to

which

compelled

whose faculties he
play a part subordinate to Philip,
thoughtso mean, and Avhose vanityappearedto him so
of whom
he never
ludicrous, to a man
spoke but with
to

"

and contempt. Indeed,it almost seemed as though

disgust
it was
partlydislike to his cousin,that had induced him to
cultivate those talents and pursuits
in which Philip
was
so
deficient.
utterly
He thenceforth banished all Spaniards
from about his
He behaved in such a manner
person and from his court.
that it appeared,
said at the time,as thoughhe
as
was
wished

be honoured

by all other nations,but to be

feared by Spain. His sympathies
and tastes became altogether
German.
To the descendants of LandgravePhilip
of Hessen he promised good round German
words and
deeds, not Spanish ones." f To Duke
Christopherof
Wirtemberghe declared how greatlyhe desired to be
worthy,not in one thingonly,but,as he expresses it, in
to

"

"

all the troubles which

that I may

be enabled

some
perfect

and

ways

therein indeed would

1' animo

di

do

quelre

di sorte

oppress

our

beloved

country,

and
discover,to practise,

to
means

lie my

for

the
relieving
f
joy."
greatest

to

same

e bench e paiaal presente,

piu non si potria,
che questa trattation sii sopita,
pero m' a detto quel re in gran secreto che
1' imperator
e
lieved
per tentarla certo un' altra volta." Even in 1562 it was bethat Philip
had not givenup the idea.
*

From

Letter of

che

mel's
Maximilian, dated 9th November, 1563, in Rom-

vol. ii.p.
LandgrafPhilip,

579.

f A Letter of Maximilian, dated

Magazine,vol. ix, p. 71.
F

9th

December, 1556, in Lebret's

68

I.

FERDINAND

In the year 1564

this

AND

MAXIMILIAN

II.

ascended
sovereign

the

imperial

throne.
to deliberate
to reflect,
thingto possess talents,
lian
Maximiplan,and quiteanother to act and to execute.
called upon
to realise the hopes he had
now
was

It is one
to

raised.

of
longbefore the two greatquestions
which I have alreadydescribed,
external policy,

It could not

internal and
must

When

be

come

before him.

consider the ironical tone

we

in which

he repeatedly

about the Pope and

his
Christopher,
proper council at Trent,"from whose Decretals scanty
he enumerated
comfort could be gathered how carefully
and rethose works of Luther which he already
quested
possessed,
wrote

to

Duke

"

"

his friend the Duke

the

as

of
writings

Melancthon

onlycontributed funds

him the rest,as well

send

to

and

Brenz

that he not

"

for

the Slavonic translation

printing
of the Bible,but caused the proofsheets to be examined
that he expressed
a fear lest the
by competent scholars
and,
Papistsshould mislead the young King of France
called the Protestant partyhis own,
that he actually
finally,
"

"

and the Catholics his enemies ;

all

this,we

must

be

when, I say,

"

convinced

that he

consider

we

at

was

heart

Protestant.

questionwas, whether
when Emperor.
opinions

The
same

he would
In

one

continue in the

of his lettersof the

year 1557, he laments that his father did not then do more
towards openingthe spiritual
electorates to Protestants,
and

promisesan

him.*
*

ill reward

At all events, it was

to
to

those who
be

Prague,13th April, So far,however,

"

had

that
expected
as

concerns

the

prevented
he would
openingthe

CHARACTER

MAXIMILIAN

OF

69

II.

of internal policy
with
go into this greatquestion
to forward
disposition

On

the other

greater

the

change.
great questionhe

for
equalcause
the Turks
hope. He intended to carry on the war against
in a very different manner
from his father,
whom
he altogether
far surpassed
in warlike spirit.
His favourite talk
of fortifications,
of sieges,
and of battles.* The acute
was
Venetian

who

was

ambassador

at

gave

his father'scourt,thought

that the limited sway to which he was

would not
destined,
him ; that space must
be givenand a career
satisfy
opened
his ambition and love of
gratify
the whole of Christendom. f A
glorywithout disturbing
the Turks would have opened to
great campaignagainst

him, in

to

him

which

he could

this career.

electorates to 'Protestants (Freistellung),

I should have
spiritual
content, had his Majesty proceeded further in this matter, and
"well guess
mercedem
*

they -were who prevented such

suam."
Lebret,p. S5.
"who

"work.

Sed

been
can

recipient

Continuamente
contentandosi
Tripolo,1558 :
pensa, poco
dello stato suo.
Disegnaa cose grandi." Tripolodescribes his religious
si alienando in tutto da cattolici
Non
in the following
manner
:
position
luterani."
si ha guadagnato una
con
gran gratia
ma
f Micheli : Saria per beneficio universale non solo da desiderare,
altri principi
qualche occasione senza
per diu cosi da procurare da tutti gli
nella quale avesse
di 6fogarsi
modo
maleficio di alcun principe
Cristiano,
;
che questa poverta con questa ambitione
altrimente e grandissiino
pericolo,
siano causa, che si precipiti
tanto piu."
non
e desiderio di gloria
Paolo

"

"

"

70

I.

FERDINAND

AND

CHAP.

THEOLOGICAL

Xo

one,

MAXIMILIAN

II.

IX.

DISPUTES.

that
think,will dispute

man
single

can

do but

littleagainstthe force of adverse circumstances.

Even
have

from such

seen,

was

power

and

show

whether

and

by

an

both

influence

Emperor as Maximilian,who, as we
and well meaning,but whose
gifted
and who had stillto
were
limited,

his talents would

be seconded

by resolution

favoured
energy, littlecould be hoped,unless he were
circumstances and furthered in his schemes by the sympathies

of the German
nation.
feelings
he encountered onlyresistance ; he was
Unfortunately,
opposedby tendencies hostile to all exertion in behalf of
general
utility.
for the Emperor to giveto the
It was
impossible
clearly
of the new
Empire a constitution fitted to the exigencies
unless that faith bore in itselfthe elements of victory,
faith,
all convictions.
and of increasing
of stability,
power over
Unhappily,a violent internal breach took plaoein it,
justat the decisive moment.
As the Princes of Germany had acquired
so powerful
an
and colleges,
this rupinfluence upon the churches,
schools,
ture
of a political
character.
assumed somewhat
infallibly
Charles V., hadbeen
The party which,when it opposed
beaten in the Smalcaldic war, and again after it,had
1 ecome
favourable to him owingto the circumstances
more
his abdication
which accompanied
a partyfirstconquered
and

"

THEOLOGICAL

and

71

DISPUTES.

then discomfited

binations,
comby political
had recourse
to theological
now
polemics.The
of the hereditary
Elector of Saxony established a new
sons
in opposition
had fallen to the
to those which
university,
the
share of Electoral Saxony, and to it theysummoned
declared opponents of the professors
established in them.

by

force of arms,

This

another form of feud.

was

had by this
the Theologians
hostility
among
of the course
in consequence
to a great height,

The
risen

time
of

events.

Wittenberghad, without givingup any point

inclination towards the Interim;
of doctrine,
showed
an
rather than
while others had been exiled or had emigrated
therans
accede to it.* The most
rigidand zealous sect of Luhad offered
to be found in Magdeburg,which
was
Those

of

determined

so

resistance to the Interim.

The

successful

which had giventhe upper hand to the moderate

exploit
had had the contrary effectas to Theology.
party in politics,
caused by it,
The downfal of the Interim,which was
wgs
pelled
by the Protestant zealots. The exvictory
preachersreturned,and held forth with increased
had
the more
natural that the persecutions
th.?y
violence,
it; theyspread
suffered seemed
in a measure
to justify
throughoutthe Lower Saxon towns, and were called thither
by the Dukes of Saxony.
Were
?
they to submit to the school of Wittenberg
Were
they to acknowledgeits head, Melancthon, as the

hailed

as

Musculus,Osiander,Sarcerius,
Schnepf,Flacius,Amsdorf, Gallus,and

others

were

(History of

obligedto fly.
the

Church

and

See
of

Arnold's

Kirchen

Heretics),
part

p. 934.
r

und
u.

Ketzer

Hlstorie

vol. xvi. ch. xxvi.

72

MAXIMILIAN

I. AND

FERDINAND

II.

fluler of the Chariot of

the Preceptor
of Germany,
Israel,
as he was
by his followers ? It had longbeen
proclaimed
logy
and an offence to them,that in his Theoa stumbling-block
Melancthon
the

with

had

ancient

givenindications of
that he
philosophers,

his

familiarity

recommended

Terence,and that he declared his admiration for Homer

well

as

for St. Paul ; it

was

an

abomination

to

them

as

that

Major had called this Homer a divine work; and the

of the
studyof Pindar theylooked upon as part and parcel
wherewith theycharged
of holythings,"
defiling
Strigel,
of Melancthon's pupils.
one
the quarreltook a dogmaticturn, and
Uufortunately,
of difference from the Catholics,the
the two great points
Eucharist and the doctrine of Justification,
againbecame
of a dispute
cipal
which,in time,embraced all the prinsubjects
of Theologyand the whole relation of God
questions

John

"

"

"

mankind

to

and the universe.

In the year 1548, a tolerable degreeof moderation still

the
for instance,
; in the article of Justification,
prevailed
doctrines of St.
ultimate

were
Augustine

consequences;

it lias

yet pushedto their

been remarked
that,if
not

thon
inclined towards them, those of Melancopinions
were
tacitly
opposedto them.* In Bremen, where
it sufficed that Hardensectarian zeal afterwards raged,
of a lack of Protestant
berg,though alreadysuspected
declared that he accepted
onlythe real presence
orthodoxy,
of the body and blood of Christ in the Eucharist ; a precise
combined with
in which theywere
definitionof the manner
not yet required,
the elements,
was
f
Luther's

(Historyof the
Plank, Geschichte des Protestantischen Lehrbegriffs
vol. iv. p. 562.
Protestant Doctrine),
vol. ii.p. 146.
f Ibid.,
*

74

FERDINAND

exhibit
of

one

I.

MAXIMILIAN

AND

ingenious
attempt to

an

man

so

appear

the inward

make
with

consonant

II.

conviction

as
Scripture

to

form

sary
integral
part of the Christian system. But was it necesfrom the pulpitand the readingto proclaimthem
desk ? "Was it rightto shake the ideas of salvation which
had prevailed
until now, and which were
well fittedto
so
the exigencies
of mankind ?
We
may indeed ask whether
the whole dispute
when
considered from a
not in fact,
was
higherpointof view,merelya disputeabout words ; for
Osiander laysdown
that by justification
had not
men
imputedto them, but were actually
merelyrighteousness
and it may be be asked whether in the
made
righteous,
of God this is not the same
sight
thing.Be this as it may,
an

however, his
Lutheran

doctrines disturbed the peace

community, and

of the whole
irremediable

produced an

breach.
This breach
after the

widened

was

by

that
the circumstance,

soon

of
renewed under the auspices
was
dispute
the Dukes
of Saxony. An old friend and colleague
of
chievous
Melancthon, George Major, endeavoured to meet a misthe part of the unthinking
on
prejudice
vulgar,
from the established doctrine of justifinot by a departure
cation,
but by the mere
assertion that good works were
useful towards salvation,
which his Thuringianopponents
condemned
as
a
rash, impious,and ungodly doctrine.*
They eagerly
soughtto establish the contrary. Amsdorf,
an

that
and

old

same

friend of

good works
what

were

is more,

Luther, went

so

far

as

detrimental
positively
his doctrine

Adam, Vita Majoris,

p.

40.

was

to
to

received

Plank, Menzel.

maintain

salvation,
with

ap-

75

DISPUTES.

THEOLOGICAL

remarks, that
rightly
plausc
; Mclancthon

leader of this sect

The

will think this incredible.

future generations

in Germany, and
of Albona, educated
Illyrian
named Flacius (Wlacich)
who, after many spiritual
temphad imbued himself with the doctrinal theoryof justificatio
tions,
in its most rigid
form, and had longbeen the most
was

an

opponent of Mel

rancorous

he firstmaintained

the

once

had
virtue,and piety,
into

that

he proceeded
to
this,

soul of man,

In the heat of argument

cthon.*

sin
original

was

the actual

beingsatisfied
how the
great detail,

soul f ; and far from

substance of the human

with

an

set

forth in

of justice,
image of God and source
by the fall of Adam been changed

image of Satan, and become like unto the flames of

justas though one should thoroughlyimpregnatea
and convert
it into the very
substance with poison,
of that poison. This extravagantdoctrine was received

an

hell ;
pure
essence

by a sect
the
throughout

at

Jena, and found adherents and supporters

whole

domain

of Protestant

Theology.

not to be satisfied
were
partisans
with voluntary
adhesion to their opinions.At Jena,they
established a kind of inquisition
; and it is characteristic

But

Passagesfrom

"which
to

In

Flacius and

retorts

upon

his

Flacius all his

Arnold, vol. ii.p. 1599.

f Passagesout of his -work
a

work

by

J. B.

und Wittembergers,
Leipsickers
in the Appendix
vehement
complaints,

the last report of the

De

Peccato

in Plank,
Originali,

vol. i. p. 292.

at Frankfurt,1725, entitled
Ritter,published

"

The

Life

logian
famous and learned Theoa once
Illyricus,
ehemals beriihmt- und gelehrten
in Germany." (M. M. Flacii Hlyrici,
Theolog in Teutschland,Leben und Tod.) I met theTollowingexcellent
gen
Leonhard
remark
made by a certain physician,
Fuchs, a teacher in Tubinof M/Mathius

and Death

and
remark

is

friend

of

Flacius

Flacius,viz.

"

Morbum

esse

the original
source
contained,possibly,

and the germ

temptations

of his doctrines.

substantiam."
of Flacius's

In

this

religious

76

FERDINAND

AND

I.

MAXIMILIAN

II.

directed against
was
enough,that their persecution
chiefly
of irreproachable
life, such as otherwise are
persons
learned,upright,and pure; but who have not received
the doctrine of truth unto
salvation." Neither dignity,
faith
of the Lutheran
birth,or even
profession
learning,
"

afforded any

from
protection

did not

who

Matthew

with

agree

to
persecutions

their extravagant ideas.

had

Wesenbeck, who

and the service of his

freedom

their

left his native

in order
sovereign,

those
Poor

werp
cityof Antto enjoythe

of the

did not find much of it at Jena.*

Gospel,
The much-vexed
of the sacrament
not long
was
question
suffered to rest.
The opposition
to Calvin beganin Lower
Saxony. Was it reallywant of candour which led the

zealous party to take

no

of the Calvinistic system of

heed

and
arguments and objections,

again that

which

Calvin

part of his belief?f

obtuseness of

was

or

mind

which

which
distinctions,

to refute over
constantly
himself acknowledgedwas
no
it merelyowingto the natural

is unable

will endure

notions,and
preconceived

own

the

in
cudgels

With

what

with

behalf of whatever

rude

hands

no

do these

to

seize upon

deviation from
blind

fury takes

it has
opinions
men

cate
deli-

embraced

its
up
?

touch these sacred

! how
coarselydoes John Timann of Bremen
mysteries
handle the subject
of the Lord's Supper! Whosoever
was
because God is omnipresent,
not convinced by his argument that,
be
therefore the body and blood of Christ must
also,incurred Ins hatred,as was the case with
omnipresent

See

Concerning the disputedexcommunication of Matthaeus Wesenbecius

J. J. Muller's State's Cabinet Displayed.
(EntdecktenStaats Cabinet),

Preface,p.

38.

f Plank, vol. ii.p.

98.

77

DISTOTES.

THEOLOGICAL

afforded to the
Hardenberg. The protection
colleague
at the Cathedral,
who was preacher
by the Chapter
latter,
declared
roused the fury of his opponents. Hcsshusen
itAvas justas bad as thoughtheymade the Cathedral
that
the townsfolk
into a den of murderers,and foully
slaughtered
there
therein,or as thoughtheyhad erected a battery
wherewith to bombard the city."
should these
Manifestlythe results must be terrible,
succeed in obtaining
the
opinions
championsof extreme
affairs. It was
to see the
direction of public
a woful sight
who had justbeen
from the Netherlands,
poor fugitives
from Englandby Mary Tudor, how in the depth
expelled
driven without mercy from every town
of winter theywere
in Lower Saxony in which theydared to set foot ; and this
than that theyinclined to the views of
for no other reason
the Lord's Supper.
Calvin respecting
The whole of Lutheran Germany was
by these
agitated
it rumoured
not
discussions,At Konigsberg,
only was
that Osiander was
alwaysaccompaniedby two devils in
stated from the
the shape of black dogs; but it was
even
anti-Christ had appearedin his person." His
that
pulpit

his

"

"

adherents

were

spat when

forced to go about
those who

they met

often their nearest

fellto
On

march

Simon

had

been

his opponents

in his

church,

friends and

sity
neighbours.The Univertions.
decay*,the whole country was split
up into facof soldiers marched
occasion ten squadrons
one

into'Jena,in order to arrest

to

armed,and

them

off

as

and
few of Flacius's opponents,

to
prisoners

Grimmenstein.

De Rebus Gestis sub Maximiliano

Schardius,

nicarum, vol. iv. p. 14.

"

Cum

academia

nis essentialijustitia
fuisset."
collapsa

falso Osiandri

II. Rerum

When

Germa-

dogmate de

homi-

78

FEEDINAND

these

AND

I.

MAXIMILIAN

II.

their liberty,
from among
regained
preachers
thirty
the number
of those hostile to them were
in
at once
ejected
The Elector of Saxony at one
their turn.
time expelled
men

all the followers of Flacius from

Thurinma.

Duke

John

William, on the other hand, received them all back again.

The

into power,

religouspartiescame

in their turn

were
adversaries,

againhad

make

to

These

way

their

overcame

who
by others,

overcome

for those who

feated.
been firstde-

had

with
administrations,
spiritual

their

leaders,

their

not unlike
are
rulingideas,and their discussions,
temporalministries which govern the great states at

the
the

justas dependentupon the favour

of princes,
the force of circumstances,
or
the political
tendencies with which they

presentday; theywere
the convictions

or

the endurance

of

associated.

were

these animosities afforded no

Unfortunately,
scope for
those explosions
find
by which violent passions
naturally
and relief: this war
carried on with the poisoned
vent
wras
of literary
hatred, and evil
calumny,collegiate
weapons
speakingat court and among the people;weapons which
leave the body unscathed,
but which piercethe soul with
innumerable

smarting wounds.

of Melancthon,whose
feelings
lifeof contemplation
understood by none, and who was
was
if with a moral transgession,
with every
as
reproached,
What

must

have been the

into which

error

which

he

had

been

humbly admitted
for
lengththe long-wished
*

he

driven

and
hour

tried to

rando."

hurried,and

"

drew

Multas

et concoxit

At

excuse.*

of death

Camerarius,De Vita Melancthonis,ch. lxxxvi.

Melancthoa
hausit Philippus
quasipotiones,

and

near.

tunc,

amaras

tacendo

et

tole-

According

to

which

the custom

fathers' lathers,he recorded

:

himself," thou wilt

but he found comfort not

enter

onlyin

the

in
to
"

but
hope of happiness,
ness.
present wretched-

wilt,"continues he, " be delivered from all

Thou

from

and
thy tribulations,

these very

And

the
men

could

this side the grave

on

our

of his soul
feelings
said he
into glory,"

likewise in the prospect of relief from

"

amonrr

and behold the Son of God

God

see

stillsurvived

the

wilt

Thou

"

short sentences

79

DISPUTES.

TIIEOLOGICAL

hate of Theologians."*
implacable
from whose enmitynothing
shield him, were
his own

of
disciples
; he, the teacher of Germany, the founder
had called them into existence as it
Protestant Theology,
and trained them up ; but for him theywould never
were,
But there was
have been.
one
thinghe could not teach

them, he could

mind,

his

with

endow

not

them

humane

own

with

his

and

generous

elevation of

own

the
spirit,

trulygood and wise in man.

his ! A man
with splendid
What a lifewas
so richly
gifted
who
had begun so nobly in the
talents and aspirations,

foundation

of all that is

in it so steadily,
and foughtthe
rightcourse, persevered
all but victorious
was
good fightso manfullyuntil his cause
and free from
; alwaysmagnanimous,
long-suffering,
such as are inherent in a nature so delicately
all faults,
save
of this very generosity
and
organised then,by reason
refinement (unpardonable
crimes in the eyes of base humanity)
he attacked,
was
misconceived,
slandered,
pursued
"

In the Vita

thonante

mortem

primum, ut

Adam
Ut ilelanchto this.
recurs
Strigelii,
frequently
dixit :
Cupio et hac vitamigrarepropter duas causas:
"

"

fruar desiderato conspectu filiiDei et ccelestisecclesiae ;

ut liberer ab

immanibus

geliusssepe easdem causas

Theologorum,p. 427.

odiis
et implacabilibus
inter

precandum

Theologorum."

usurpare

deinde,

Ita Stri-

solitus fuit.
"

Vitae

80

into
by malignity

the inmost

beneath

succumbed

he

need

to

Such

his weary
is
spectacle

in that which

take comfort

soul,until he

inflicted by his
head

rest

II.

of his

recesses

the wounds

to
and sighed
disciples,

of the grave !

MAXIMILIAN

AND

I.

FERDINAND

so

own

in the shelter

mournful

that

we

him; the

comforted

and of his joy in beholding

thoughtof his finaldeliverance,
after which his piousand lovingsoul had
that perfection
alwaysthirsted.
I

assertion of

nothingto
to

the

to

come

can

other conclusion than

no

contribute
which, after all,
theories,
theological
was
or
injurious
extremely
virtue,piety,
religion,

the

which

greatcause

was

in progress, and

of the unfortunate

reasons
principal

German

that this fierce

one

taken

turn

of

by

affairs.

in 1557,
held at "Worms
conference,
religious
free
did not seem
hopeless. Germany was
altogether
of
from feuds and intestine war
; the leadingsovereigns
united by common
interest; the Pope had
both creeds were
offended the Emperor and the Empire,by his veto upon
and thus givenfresh
the transfer of the imperial
dignity,
which always existed. Upon
to the opposition
strength
this opposition
depended. If they had
every thingnow
been able to agree upon a few importantpoints,
a
great
have been opened to the German
nation.
future would
It is
than Maximilian.
No one desired this more
ardently
to be forced to record that the conference was
humiliating
between the two great parties
not broken up by disputes
;
last

The

it never

even

got

themselves
of Weimar
almost

verbatim

so

put

far
an

came

from

the divisions among

"

end

to

it altogether.
The

with
provided
a

the Protestants

memorial

an

which

gians
Theolo-

instruction taken
had

been

pre-

82

FERDINAND

In it the

Frankfurt

estates

did
electors,

the Confession

Lord's
At

the

Supper. Its tone

this period,
so far

the German

as

the

Elector

then

than

can

certain

temporal

and rational.

the majority
of
discover,

Palatine,althoughhe
later

the three

the

more

prehensive
com-

attitude
political
Princes at Naum-

the declarations of

satisfiedwith

were

in

Augsburggave

Assemblyof

At the

of the

the Calvinistic view of the

suited to

well
doctrine,

preferthe

most

inclined towards

potentateswere

theyhad assumed.
burg,in 15G1, all

of

moderate

was

to

which

of
auspices

anathematise

not

not

of 1558, to

recess

to
belonging

II.

Christian peace and

to
passions

own

under
adhesion,

their

MAXIMILIAN

admonished

were
Theologians

of their
gratification
unity.
The

AND

I.

could

no

deny

more

leaningtowards

Calvinist

opinions.*
the

But

them

Elector
imprisoned

absolutely
faith had

and
their territorialpossessions,

to giveit
disposed

means

were

Their support of the pure reformed

intractable.
cost

of the

sons

Frederick

John

much

less.

made

him, when

up

the

boy, repeat

that

now

theywere by no
the dangerwas
so

Middle,whose

father had

the catechism

in church

with the other children before the whole

most

rigidin
to

the

recess

Interim."

opinions.He
of Frankfurt,which

his

On

Report of Sebastian

Gelbke's

Account

was
congregation,
tion
opposeda formal recusa-

when
occasion,

one

Glaser

of the

he called

to

Ernst

Assembly

von

of Princes

he

was

"

ritan
Sama-

at Hals-

Henneberg,4 Feb. 1561, in

at Naumberg (der Naum-

The Elector Palatine did there make

burgischeFurstentag),
p. 96.
and so clear,that the Electoral Princes
Confession in terms so stately
others were
quitesatisfied therewith."
"

his
and

pach

83

DISPUTES.

THEOLOGICAL

the Count
his brother-in-law,

alone with

Palatine,

he promisedto
of Wirtemburg,
Christopher
to prevent his
rest satisfiedwith signingthe Confession,
from publishing
and to bear
writings,
polemical
theologians
himself towards his chief opponent,the Elector Augustus,
and

Duke

became

as

friend and cousin.

This,indeed,was

the first

Assembly of Princes at Naumburg. At

the latter place,
however, his theologians
againgot about
an
him, and the consequence was that,instead of holding
he published
and
amicable consultation,
a violent protest,
went
stubborn,
Headstrong,
away without leave-taking.*
and yet easily
and over-bearing,
swayed by suggestions
he rushed headlong
which flattered and excited his passions,
occasion of the

inevitable doom.

an

upon

Thus, then,the theological

disputes
pursuedtheir
unchecked.

course

instance
signal

of abuse

which had

This was,

of the power

become
already

chievous
mis-

perhaps,the
of the press,

first
"

irresistible. The

people
of Nurnbergwere, as we
have seen, an independent,
rich,
and powerfulcivic body. Even
they,when attacked by
and that,so far as we can discover,
without any
Flacius,
to utter
a
justcause, dared not, after long consideration,
word in their own
defence,
deeplyas theywere wounded by
the affront,
The
too formidable.
was
f Their adversary
power

H.

21st
Christophto Maximilian.
March, 1562: "Duke
Stuttgard,
Hans Frederick of Saxony not only agreed to the Assembly of Princes,but
declare himself willingto subscribe to the Augsburg Confession
did even

of Faith.

He

did likewise consent

to

the omission of the

Condamnationes,

and agree "with the Elector of Saxony as to the draughtof the document
his former agreement, he did make this rupture.
but, notwithstanding
resolution

touchingthe unquietFlacius,1564, in Strobei's

vol. ii.p. 403.
(Contributions),
Beitriige
f Nurnberg

84

I.

FERDINAND

II.

MAXIMILIAN

AND

had succeeded in establishing

who
princes,
peace in the
great to
Empire by the exercise of a power sufficiently
were
restrain the conflicting
parties,
passionsof political
happily,
unable to put any check upon these fierce disputes.Unso
unimportantas
by no means
too, they were
trous
theywere absurd ; theywere followed by the most disasto the Protestant party.
results,
especially
Each
day the doctrinal pointsof difference diverged
until
and more
and more, and became
more
more
precise,
in complete
Protestant systems were
at lengththe two

opposition.
death,and spiteof the divergences
Switzerland,the various Protestant sects

after Luther's

Even

opinionin
might stillbe
of

splitupon

considered

the two

as

formingone

importantpointsof

party,until they
Justification and

ther
Supper,after which their differencesstillfurincreased. We
might,I think,describe the course
that one
side
they took in the fewest words by saying,
and the
adoptedthe most extreme views on the firstpoint,
tificati
other on the second. With regardto the doctrine of Jushad to applythe theory
soon
as the Lutherans
as
to save
and
of God's absolute predetermination
some
men
to particular
to damn
others,
cases,
theypaused. They
their method of reconciling
rather indicated than explained
their conflicting
ideas,and were
content, after all,to be

the Lord's

somewhat

inconsistent.

without
proceeded

Calvin,on
any

the other

misgivingto

lutely
hand, reso-

establish the

harsh and relentless doctrine of Predestination.

"

tination,"
Predes-

"
says he in so many words, is the eternal decree
of God, thereby he hath resolved within himself what

shall be the doom

of every

soul.
living

For

all

arc

not

born -with the

eternal
It

gifts.Some

same

and
life,

85

DISPUTES.

THEOLOGICAL

chosen beforehand

are

others doomed

to

eternal damnation."'

to

difficultto reconcile this doctrine with any sense

of individual freedom ; nevertheless,
it became the distinctive
seems

beliefof his party, and

Beza

the
against

againdefended by

was

founder of the Lutheran

doctrine of the Eucharist

The

was

old

Concordia, f

developedto

the

opposite
party. Calvin,who would neither
giveup the mystery nor adopt the somewhat material
views of Luther, hit upon the idea of a spiritual
substance
and a spiritual
The Lutherans,on the concommunion.
ordinance.
The
trarv, adhered to the letterof the original
bold and positive
assertions which Timann
had opposedto
theyexpandedinto the doctrine of the symHardenberg,
bolical
communion, whereby the divine nature of Christ
transfused into the human, thus involving
the omniprewas
sence
by

utmost

the

of his human
to

nature

also :

doctrine

the collective feelings

of mankind

no

less repugnant

than the former

is to their individual sentiments.

Thus, then,in the second half of the sixteenth century

Confessions

the two

Moreover, the

absolutely
opposedto each other.
Churches
unlike in
were
essentially

were

two

constitution.
In

both

Protestant creeds

gainedadherents
and influence. We
know how great a share the quarrels
excited at Heidelberg
from personal
by Hesshusen,chiefly
Germany

Calvini Institutiones,
vol. iii.pp. 5,

Beza:

sarum

the

"

Summa

totius Christianismi

21.

et dissertatiocaudescriptio
salutiselectorum et exitii improboruni." This document
represents
"with
doctrine hy an emblematical woodcut.
the
Concerning
quarrels

Andrea

consult Schlosser's Life of Beza

G

sive

(Leben Beza),p. 268.

86

FERDINAND

motives,had

I.

AND

MAXIMILIAN

II.

in

causingthe Palatinate to separateitself

and more
from the Lutheran party. The
more
completely
results which this separation
produced in Germany are
incalculable. They firstbecame apparentat the firstDiet
held by Maximilian II. at Augsburg in 1566.
The Protestants pressed
for religious
It would
equality.
have been happyfor them had theybeen unanimous.
But
while the Count Palatine "Wolfgang
took with him as his
counsellor
Palatine

Hesshusen, the

had

exiled,while

conceded
rights
by the
Elector by those
same

It

and the

the Elector

in the
legalparticipation
denied to this
religious
peace was
a

of his

faith,it

own

that the influence of the whole

Emperor

whom

man

very

manifest

was

Protestant party upon

be both faint and

Empire must

the

injurious.

by this very Elector Palatine that the demands for

made.
most
were
religious
equality
strongly
A completebreach would have taken placebetween the
Protestants had not Augustus of Saxony exerted himself
which he thought
to prevent an
to the utmost
occurrence
could onlybe advantageous
to his cousins of Gotha, whom
he so cordially
hated.*
Meanwhile
the Catholics were
was

united than

more

It

not

was

nuncios which
with
inspired
*

onlythe presence of a few very able papal

kept them together.The whole body was
of renewed cohesion.
a strongfeeling

of Thuanus,

Remark

accordingto
3rd

the Letter

June, 1567, we

incendium

enough
culpam

ever.

of

lib. xxxix.

p. 783.

Mundt
Christopher

find, Differentia;et
"

out

that the Palatine

was

coenu,

right:

violatae confessionis Augustana: everso."

he feared

to

Cecil,dated

Germanise
disjunctions

pertinaxilia logomachia de

makes

Ed. Francof.

State Papers,p. 450.

Burleigh

Domini."
"

Palatino

He
per

Moreover,

Strasburg,
fomes

et

naturally
speciemet

So that this also

was

to

THEOLOGICAL

The

Council

DISPUTES.

of Trent

at

was

an

end

the

disputed

to the spirit
according
duced,
introecclesiasticaldiscipline
of the old system ; a severer
and the decrees of the Council gradually
adopted
in Germany. A German
seminaryof modern Catholicism
established in Rome, at which young Germans
were
was
for the higherdignities
of the Church,
educated,partly

of
points

and

doctrine had been

partlyfor

decided

the duties of instruction.

The

different

kinds of education which

lated
they received were well calcufor the several careers
theyhad to fulfil.
Thus while the Protestants split
into two distinctparties,
rather over
and the advantages
each
theygamed were
other than over
the common
enemy, Catholicism regained
of its own.
within a separateterritory
a firm footing
Germany became the battle-fieldof the three different
creeds and systems.

X.

CHAP.

MILITARY

"With

ENTERPRISES

OF

the best will in the

MAXIMILIAN.

world,Maximilian

could not

Protestant
to
principalities
opened the spiritual
at the Diet was
decidedly
seeingthat the majority
princes,
divided
were
opposedto the measure, while the minority

have

amongst themselves.
The

now
question

dissever from

was

the rest of

whether

Europe a

he would
nation

have power
so

to

and
divided,

impartto it an
perhapseven by some
great undertaking
the intestinedivisions.
impulse
strongenoughto overcome
G

88

FERDINAND

Maximilian

I.

did not

alwaysirked

him

AND

MAXIMILIAN

II.

It had

long delaythe attempt.

that

Germanyhad lost all courage

face the Turks, who were
not onlyleft in possession
exacted a tribute
a
largeportionof Hungary, but even
of 30,000 ducats for allowingthe Slavonians and

to

of

Croats,who

had

Maximilian

see

of the Empire,to
subjects

were

lands which

to

fallen into the

hands

attributed this state of

cultivate their

of the

less to
things

Turks.*

the

vigour

of the attack than to the Aveakness of the resistance.

quitebelieved

the

that the real force

its

of Count
representations
of the Turks was
by no

reputation
; and
with

that if 70,000

Nicolas

Zriny,
equalto

means

could

men

He

be got together,

God's

help the infidels might be defeated.f

His ardent and chivalrous spirit
glowedwith ambition to
performthis enterprise.
It cannot be said that Maximilian purposely
provokeda
renewal

of the

war

but it is certain that he did

nothing

prevent it.

to

Sultan

stilllived ; he

Soliman

but
ambition,
political

also

his daughter Mirmah

time,he

thirteenth
Once

Avar.

more

come
erano

occupato

reason:

del Turco."

che 1' imp" ha ricevuto

e

"

volti

the

holy

"II

Turco, al quale si pagano

Schiavonia,e deglialtri confini

far questa guerra

He

loro decline

che
"

adds, moreover,

del Turco, S. M. si

avvilita tutta la nation

ancora

of

his poetsfollowed him with the prayers

quellidi Croatia,di
possinosicura"1 godere le loro entrate e le
danni

For
for the

girdedhimself

30,000 due. accioche

hora

Nurreddin.

Sheik

and

Micheli, 1564, gives this

nel paese

onlyby

not

exhortations
by the religious

and

arose

moved

was

Tedesca

ma

era

hanno

dentro

Per

li molti

totalmente

tutti i

avvilita,

del
pensieri

re

piu felicemente."

Historiarum
f At least Isthuanfly,
mouth.
in Zriny's

lib. xxii. p. 221., puts

similar speech

90

FERDINAND

war

for

II.

the Turks, the Empire had

against
internal struggle.
an

Maximilian
Nevertheless,
before him

Emperor
him

noble

him

at

Comorn
from

number

awaited

him

manded
largearmies,the one comother by Schwendi, awaited

two

the

He

and
princes

himself took his departure

common

nobles.

The

Hungarians

plainsof Raika. His army was

to
Zriny had formerly
pronounced

the Turkish
the

war

whole

was

Savoy,who

troops. The

sent

be

once

Dukes

The

otherwise

were

more
cessary.
ne-

German
exclusively

not

of Christendom

with them.

cause

other,both

The

the

than

of

than any
supported
Diet had granted

and accompanied
Vienna,well equipped,
by

Hungarian;

and

been.

Caschau.

and

on

Moreover

made

and

of German

numerous

and

had

likewise to prepare

better

was

and
subsidy*,

by Salm,

MAXIMILIAN

AND

I.

at

of

more

Tuscany

enmity with

Dukes

of

Mantua

each
and

a diligent
search, Lessingfound no other trace of
Notwithstanding
which
first put
this,exceptingin Heydenreich'sChronicle of Leipsick,
him upon the track.
other was
forthcomingat that time.
Probablynone

vol. i.

found of the same

sort, and
however, other poems were
Subsequently,
also one
author, a certain Klewitz as it appears,
upon
by the same
for the destruction of our
the ordinance
of the Emperor Maximilian
[German Museum] 1779, vol. i. Walch in
party" (DeutschesMuseum
Meusel's Hist. Lit. Magazin, vol. iv. p. 167). To all this we
add,
may
his
Letters
to
of
in
likewise alludes to it
one
that Maximilian
Christopher
"

"

"

(Prague, 12th April, 1567). He wished, above all,to know who the
that it was
author was,
Duke
forgedby those
Christopherconceives
"

who

have

since received their justreward

It has been

said that it was

Instruction of 1576
found
vol.

x.

was

denied

have

p. 22.

been

grantedwith

maintains,that

7,800,000 florins had

that

at

This

was

an

at

enormous

when
been
sum

the

Gotha."
an

illgrace.

sum

was

conceded
if it was

Court,accordingto Mieheli's account.

paidslowly.

The

reckoned

Palatinate
up it was

paid. Hiiberlin,
reallypaid. But this

and

At any rate, it may

ENTERPRISES

MILITARY

Ferrara

appearedin

of warlike French

pany

91

II.

MAXIMILIAN

of Guise

retinues
stately
followed by
came,

nobles.

John

of

with

person

Duke

the young

OF

valry
ca-

Smith, the nephew

Seymour, PhilipButshide,and several others,

lack of adventurous
from England; there was
no
; all those who had justbeen engagedin the defence

of John
came

Poles
of

Malta,and

satisfiedwith

not

were

one

in order to try their luck

Turks, came

battle with

againstthem

the
once

more.

It is much
succeed

by

in

He

however

Raab.

beingwell

The

Turks

attacked
them

advanced

Instead of

to

the

at

any

whole

their old arts of war,

to

at

and

resolved to conquer
fortresses,
neighbouring
The firstattacked was
cost.
Szigeth.
incumbent

Maximilian

on

Zriny who

to

hasten to the

it,a
defending

was

who

man

for pay, and who possessed

and rich
a large
the shores of the Adriatic,
and could any day

on

have made

his

terms

own

no
Unhappily,

such

Apparently Schwendi's
Schwendi, Kriegsdiscurs
; vom
War),

that he expose
off his
or

p. 289.
not

"

-wear

disorder,for

them

such is the

advice

influence

some

in

this matter.

krieg(Discourse on War; on the

the generalhath to take heed, first,

Tiirken

that the enemy

harass

out,

had

Solymansunk
before the
Szigeth

made.

the climate of

Likewise

his camp,

or
provisions

with the Turks.

attempt was

and
age, exertion,

cut

slowly,and encamped

serve

domain

Turkish

not

war.

but

recourse

reliefof the brave

under

did

the enemy, he gave his

attacking
to receive the attack.*
prepared

had

Surelyit was
did not

of the

Maximilian

character to this movement

givinga permanent

successful conduct

care

that
regretted

be

to

or

turn

his

not

people -with constant

keep them in terror, or

of
practice

the Turkish

his flank and thus

alarms
throw

-warfare."

mishes,
and skirthem

into

92

fortress was
have

The

taken.

formed
injuncture. They were
dervish friendly
to the Christian
this

at
a

before

believe his report,and remained

but did not

cause,

by

forces could and should

German

attacked his camp

of his death

II.

MAXIMILIAN

AND

I.

FERDINAND

without

a step.
advancing
The bold and simplestratagempractised
by the Wezir,
the Sultan's death,gainedthe victory
of concealing
over
and talents of the German
all the gifts
Emperor.
The power of effectiveaction is something
quitedistinct
and analysis
of perception
brilliant gifts
from the most
;
of the two.
the combination
and nothingis so rare
as
and a knowledgeof the enemy gained
Moreover,practice
in order to oppose an
are
experience
required
by personal

Raab

effectual resistance.
It availed

long and
assaults.

so

so
nothingto Zrinyto have defended Szigeth
and to have beaten back so many
bravely,

It is true

death
glorious
defended
which

that

but he

fell into the

had

been

so

warrior

no

died

more

the fortress he had

and
perished,
of the

hands

constant

ever

to

enemy.* Victory,
did
Solymanwhen living,

forsake him in death.

not

Meanwhile

and
the wearisome,unavailing

hard

service

the ardour of the troops.

discouraged
the Turks, whose advance theyhad been awaiting,
When
their ends,Maximilian's vast army
retreated after gaining
action
a single
retraced its stepswithout havingperformed
the
as
of note, nay, without havingso much
seen
rightly

of the German

camp

enemy.

I. Barbaro,Relc di

1573
Constantinopoli,

quelesercito (Turchesco)con
ne

risentono."

tanta

fattura

"

Ritorno

danno

che

altera

(da Zhiget)

sin al presente se

ENTERPRISES

MILITARY

Emperor found

The

on

peace

OF

himself

far different

II.

compelledto

conclude

from

terms

93

MAXIMILIAN'

those which

he

had

hoped. Spiteof some

advantagegainedby Schwendi,in
the following
year he againhad to purchaseit: he was
forced

stillto

the tribute of 30,000

pay

give up

Szigethand

attached

to

upon

Gyula

And

them.

with

lost courage

resist the

to

an

to

favourable

the

recommence

had

extent

territory
looked

not

was

to

the soldierv

Turks, and confidence in the

fortunes of the Christian cause.*

induced

whole

yet this peace

to such
dishonourable,

as

the

ducats,and

Maximilian

Turkish

could not be

war,

bv

even

so

the league,
between Spain,
as
opportunity
Venice,and the Pope, or so brilliant an achievement as
the victory
of Lepanto.
Moreover, the warlike spirit
by which Germany has
took an entirely
direction in the
new
alwaysbeen inspired
very next

an

year.

of Alba's presence in the Netherlands rently

appawhich prevailed
checked the agitation
there for a

The

Duke

time ; but for that very

of

in the west

and
Scotland,
civil war

it onlyincreased the excitement

reason

Europe.

France

was

Disturbances

desolated

that country had

which

ever

by

broke

the most

out

in

alarming

known.

only chance of safetyfor Germany would have

the reaction which
to guardagainst
been, as far as possible,
these struggles
were
likelyto produce there,and by no
The

Micheli, 1571

"

I Tedeschi

avriliti contra

erano

conciosiacosache da quaranta armi in qua hanno

paese che

Zighetera perduto un
L' imp"
per la riputat'.on.
e

si viene

seco

ad offerte ed

anco,

abraccia
con

sempre

piu.di 60

il nome

perduto ;

le

con

Giula

migliaUngh., e piii

la vitto'ria(del1571)

che
partiti

di Turchi

dubio,se

parinoben assicurati."

non

94

FERDINAND

to act

means

as

littleconcerned
But

the German

which
quarrel

nation.
Zweihriicken

marched

the assistance of the Protestants in

to

army

II.

in
championsand partisans

Wolfgangof

when

MAXIMILIAN

AND

I.

opponents also had

German

troops. At

strong

France,their

Montcontour

a Mansfeldt.
foughtagainst
these campaigns,
the
The disorders which accompanied
in foreignlands, could not fail to
blood spilt
German
the same
of
as
cause
producean effect at home, especially
here as well as
the religious
prevailed
disputes,
quarrel,

Nassau

there.
Maximilian

endeavoured

to

put

stop to this evil.

At

Speyer,in 1570, he proposedto prohibit

of soldiers by foreign
the recruiting
powers, and to establish
arsenals and providespeedyassistance in every circle of
the Empire against
any breach of the publicpeace which
Thus
from the insolence of the soldiery.*
might occur
differed but littlefrom several previous
far his proposal
and thus far he mightreckon upon the general
resolutions,
of the German
consent, if not upon the active co-operation,
held at

the Diet

princes.But
clause

to

Maximilian

went

the effect that

stepfurther

one

they were

not

to

he added

join any

unless with the express sanction of

foreignpotentates,
of the Imperial
the Emperor ; and that a captain-general
to
forces should be at the head of the troops appointed
opposedto
guardthe publicpeace. This was altogether

Hiiberlin,N. D. R., vol. ix.

which

answer

the

Maximilian

gave

in 1568

French, the very arguments

turned

nicam."

againsthimself,e.g.
Sichardius,Rerum

"Ne

I think

were

to

it

worthy of remark, that

an

offer made
which

adduced

arguaturfacere

Germ., vol. iv. p.

contra

107.

to

were

in the

this effect by

subsequently

libertatem Germa-

EKTEEPBISES

MILITARY

the ideas of German

and

freedom

William

John

OF

MAXIMILIAN

entertained

II.

by

the

95

princes
;

of

most
Saxony opposedthe measure
The
vigorously.
projected
appointmentof a permanent
excited considerable dissatisfaction,
and
captain-general
and Zasius,
who
even
Schwcndi, who was to fillthe place,
was
made
to
supposedto have a share in the plan,were
feel the generaldispleasure.
We
told that the Emperor
are
would
have
to have
given a great deal never

broached

any such scheme.*

"\Yc,
too, may
to

ask whether

the nation at

entrusted to

him, and

it would

largethat

whether

he

CHAP.

XL

have

been

sucli a power
was

tageous
advan-

should be

quiteunfettered by

foreignties.

Maximilian's

position.

altered

in the political
duct
conchange was perceptible
of the Emperor
a changemainlyattributable to the
of his religious
opinions.
development
A

GRADUAL

"

Tutte le provision
givesthe peculiarcircumstances:
ed'un
i et ordini proposti
da S. M. e di un publicoarmamento
publico
solo furono
erario e di un
capitano generalecon altri capi inferiori non
colore che venisse impedita1' antiqualiberta di Germania,
sotto
rigettate
S. M. per questo incorso in una
ma
degli
grave et universale indignatione
*

Michaeli

di

Stati contra
ne

Dr

furono

"

alone

onde
lei,

"

S. M.

haveria

pagato assai

grandemente imputaticome

Zasio,questo

vicecancre

suprema

autorita appresso

tamente

per

generalato.

suo

consre

in M.

interesse

non

ne

autori di questo

di Stati di S, M.

S. nelle

per

cose

aver

il Swendi

et

il

Cesarea, e quellodi

di guerra, tenuto

propria ambitione

e
parlato,

che occul-

aspirassea questo

96

asserted that Cardinal

It has been
him

of this I

Catholicism ; but

to

MAXIMILIAN

I. AND

FERDINAND

Hosius

his reportsof his interviews with

in

Emperor he only
that
or
an
impression,
by his arguments.*

proof. In

no

it; and

asserts

the

says that he believed he had made

Maximilian
appearedto be moved
of this there is

reconverted

vinced.
conaltogether

not

am

rather insinuates than

Hosius

Even

II.

one

milian
of his lettersMaxi-

deeply
ing
allowwith Hosius,and that he preferred
upon the subject
him to maintain his opinions
undisputed.It may have
says that he had

this very

been

the

his

favour.

own

pungent observations
Hosius

date.

At any rate, Maximilian's

the Council

on

more

controversialist interpreted

silence which

in
greatly

so

inclination to enter

no

converted him

is said to have

of

are

later

in 1560, but

man
Emperor inquiredof several Protestant Gerwhat assistance he mightexpect from them in
princes
he were
dethroned,for religion's
or
even
case
persecuted,
the
he stillbore himself as
sake.f At this time,at least,
the

in 1561

"

Two

-with

Maximilian,one

to

of the Conferences

us

torn. xx.

word.

the title

as

(Letterof
visa est

"

29th Jan. 1560)

mediocriter

non

visus est illi sermo

meus

; or,

'"

Cum

"

"fFrom

the

of Warnsdcrf

let him

"

ingratusaccidere"
says,

occasion, We, however, would

hut
(Hosius),

audisset

hoc
or,

on

not

tici,
Ecclesias-

identical word
frequently

are

Visas est huic sermoni

commoveri;"

the other hand, Maximilian

LegationeGermanica,"

himself,in Bzovius, Annales

accounts

two

is,
expression

Hosius's

and

torn. xxi. p. 218., the other

Ecclesiastici,

implies,
by

The

p. 411.

of Hosius

Borromeo

in the Letters of Hosius to Cardinals

the title " Relatio Stanislai Hosii de Actis in

composed,

on

down

come

Raynaldus,Annales

in

Morone
under

have

accounts

Audivit

rex

me

assentari,"

serenitas illius

me,

(Letter of

the 31st
enter

meo

for

patienter
neque
31st

July,1560,

on

Oct. 1560):
some

cial
espe-

into any

argument

with him

Hessian

Princes.

The

alone."

Palatinate,
Wiirtemburg,and
in Rommel's

Philipd. G., vol. ii. p. 577.

levy

98

FERDINAXD

Emperor by

I.

all the

AND

adherents

MAXIMILIAN

II.

of Catholicism.

Chytrseus
that nothing

againand again reiterates to the Protestants

strife
injuresthem so much in his eyes as their Cadmean
violence,and
amongst themselves,their dailyincreasing
anarchyof their Church.*
did not have
representations

the utter
These

Maximilian

altogether
go

with
disgust

which

he

resistance

the

to

to

the

other

caused

him

arguments which
consented

to

making

side,but

filled by the constant

was

the Protestants

among

over

the effect of

the

divisions

offer less and

less

their opponents drew

appointas his court preacher

who, althoughonlybelonging
Zitthard,of Aix-la-Chapelle,
them.

from

He

moderate

the very

to

and

party,was

he attended

moreover

to

mass

graduallyawoke

Maximilian

be

supposedto
on

Catholic ;

Sundays.
and
to the necessity

also

and he was
of the first
one
feelingof toleration,
who did so, though he only appliedit to the two
leading
belief. He refused to
sects, not to all forms of religious
that the Protestants should
yieldto the Pope's suggestions
to

the

be

persecuted.But, on

the Jesuits,that it was

It was,

but Turks.

led him

and

the Romish

Doctors

of the

Chytrams

conversation
vol. ii.p. 189.

ad

to

in

make

hand, he

they demanded

Estates,when

Protestant

which

the other

not

the

answered

the

of
expulsion

his business to drive out Jesuits

extension
fact,a slight

of these ideas

the distinction between

the Catholic

the
commanded
expressly
Universityof Vienna no longerto take an
Church.

He

Marbachiuro, 8th July,

with Schwendi.

1568.

Raupach's Lutheran

He

wrote

Austria

this after

(Ev. Oestreich),

Maximilian's

of

oath

Catholic,but

the Roman

conformityto

99

position.

altered

the

to

Catholic Church.*
such views

With

The

evil times.

these Maximilian

as

of blood

scenes

and the Netherlands

France
laments

them

Lazarus

Schwendi.

be

in

decided

which

distressed him
in

terms

sword

and

the love of

Apostleswas

the tongue, wherewith

thing.

good life:

The

but

sword

his

wielded

eyes

by

the

preachChristian

to

alas ! the way

now,

who

man

before

man

is such that there is but littlepeace

world

he

honourable

no

such

deeply,and

an

the

will maintain

doctrine and

in

"

"

has the fear of God

acted

were

eloquentletter to
not
questions,"
Religious
says he, can-

moving

by

fallen upon

had

or

of the

comfort to be

found therein."f
Thus

did Maximilian

advance

towards

son,
moderation,rea-

and tolerance in

which seemed natural to his

religion,
he now
stood alone in the world,
character.
Accordingly,
without decidedly
between Catholics and Protestants,
be-

lonmng
To
to

to

either.
such

maintain
weak

nature

determined and

most

world

The

this would

it would

requirethe
will.
vigorous

admires

tendencies and
very obvious

as
position

and

none

approves

lines of action,because

results ; but

there

can

be

be

impossible

exercise of the

but

exclusive

theyalone
no

doubt

lead to
that far

is required
to support and carry
greaterreal strength
*

See this remarkable

of

certain

the immediate

was

In

in

The promoRaupaeh, vol. ii. p. 161.

tion
Sigmond Cyssler,accordingto Pantaleone and Schelhorn,
cause

decree

out

thereof.

Goldast,Reichsatzungf Decree
h

of the
2

Empire),part

ii.p. 324.

100

I.

FERDINAND

MAXIMILIAN

AND

view in the midst of

any moderate

II.

and
parties
contending

hostile claims.
The

was
question

whether

Maximilian really did possess

this moral energy.

towards
manifestly
the Protestant party. Whoever
was
persecutedfound
and support from him.
He kept up a secret
protection
of Philip
II. who opposed
with those subjects
understanding
the Catholic line of policy
pursuedby that sovereign
; he
first his

At

was

were
political
leanings

the side of

on

useful to him

Orange

Egmont*,and

inasmuch
affairs,

in German

connected
closely

was

and

with

Saxony,and

as

this

was

the former

the latter with

the Palatinate.
sudden and more
changetook placein him more
have been expected;this
completethan could possibly
which would
change was
broughtabout by an occurrence
to belongat all to the series of events
now
seem
scarcely
end of the
I mean
the tragical
consideration.
under
But

Infant Don
The
German

Carlos.

death of the heir to the

of the House

branch

with respectto that power.

of
.of

Spanishthrone placedthe
of Austria in a new
position
PhilipII. conceived the project

marrying a daughterof

givingthe
Micheli,1564

Infanta

"

Riceve

to

one

Maximilian

of his

sons

and
himself,

thus the

che ricercano
et assicura tutti quelli,

crown

la S. M.

So che occultamente
di che natione si siano.
religione,
fuori di Germania da ancora
provisioni
grosse a persone ritirate per questo
molta unione e domesdella religione.S' intertiene studiosam con
rispetto
tutti li sudditi del re di Spagna di altra natione che Spagnoli,
tichezza con
il principe
li piu grandi,come
li Fiamenghi e con
speciabnentecon
e con
d' Oranges,che e il primo e nepote per la mogliedel duca di Sassonia,
il conte d' Aghemont, cognato del elettor Palatino e tuttili altri."
per

causa

della

MAXIMILIAN

"S

101

POSITION.

ALTERED

of

descend to the heirs of the

Spain must necessarily
Emperor throughone or the other of his children.
The advantage
the more
was
temptingto Maximilian,as
of a
he was
of a feeble temperament,by no means
sure
and burthened with a numerous
longlife,
family.
this to him, and at the same
time
Philiprepresented
informed him of his conditions. He pointedout to him
that the kingdomsof Spain never
too well disposed
to
assent
princes would scarcely
accept the rule of foreign
of the Infanta with the son of an heretical
to the marriage
Emperor*, addingthat he himself should scrupleto do
that which might endangerthe souls of a whole people.
In this case
he said that he too should seek in marriagea
French princess
instead of Maximilian's daughter.
I know not how this was
received by Maximilian
his
Protestant friends had alwaysfeared lest he should suffer
himself to be too much
swayedby hopesand fears j-;at all
there is no denyingthat from this time his whole
events
of policy
course
changed.
gradually
I can
trulyaffirm,"
says Micheli in 1571, "that I
have perceived
in his Majesty. Whereas,
a great change
"

"

"

"

in former

times,and

even

until the death of the Prince

dell'Ambasciat ore Venetiano alia Corte di Spagna,9th Nvbre

Dispaceio
1568 (Archivio di Vienna): "II re scrisse all'imperatore
passid' estrema
altri questo della sua
suecessione quando di lui non
; tragli
importantia
ehe queste infante ; perciochequesti
altra posterita,
che mal
restasse
regni,
volontieri admettono
haveriano
principiforastieri,
grande oceasione di
lasciar seguiril matrimonio
di esse
tumult uare
in li figlioli
d' un
per non
imperatoreheretico." He would not help him. he adds, Per non dar
di tante anime."
alia perditione
e damnatione
ansa
hujusmundi," of -which Duke Christopher
f These -were the persuabilia
*

"

"

had

warned

him

some

ten

years

before; 29th

p. 140.
H

Oct. 1559.

Lebret,vol.

ix.

102

FERDINAND

Charles,he

Spain,of

I.

showed

whom

honourable

himself
all

he, on

manner

he

and

different manner,

AND

MAXIMILIAN

II.

be the rival of the

to

did speak in
occasions,

hath

assumed

now

speaksof

never

him

King of
no

very-

a
altogether

with the

save

greatestrespect."
Thus

the bonds

of which the
re-united,
gradually
dissolution had been so advantageous
to Germany.
At the present time," continues Micheli, nothingis
done on the Emperor's part
as
nay, nothingis so much
thought no plan,be it great or small,is formed but what
is forthwith communicated
and discussed
to the Spaniards,
with them ; according
as
theydecide,yes or no, so it is
were

"

"

"

"

carried into execution.*

This

was

in itself

all Catholics

to

and

and

immediate

more

opened

enough to draw the Emperor nearer

another
to the Pope. But there was

to

for himself

Maximilian
or

for

effected with the

one

motive
of

work.

at

the
obtaining

of his

sons

prospect

of Poland

crown

and this could

and support of the

concurrence

was

only be

Pope

and

his

legates.
The politics
of Germany

which
considerations,

Micheli's

words

in 1571

caused

"

"

influenced

were

the

Non

Emperor

che

to

si facia,non

by

these

lean

more

si pensa

new

and

pur dal

imperatorecosa ne piccolane grande,che non sia participata,

che viene di la. Colla
al si o al no
secondo
e poi eseguitao
consigliata
potentiadi Spagna si fortifica e se autoriza in tutte le azioni e con li suoi
Tedeschi
altri." The Spaniardssought to keep him to
medesimi
con
e
this :
E per mettere
della successione,
S. M. in maggior sospetto e gelosia
che il re non
e procuse
avesse
maschi, consigliano
pure avvenisse il caso
vanni
di proraovere
ad ogni sorte di grado e di grandezza questo D. Giorano
d' Austria."
What
and powerful
an
entanglement of conflicting
canto

dell'

"

interests !

Maximilian's

It has Lcen remarked

towards the Catholic Estates.

more

that it was

the

to

German

of a
advantage

for that had he gone

Catholic,
the
the same,
There

in order to

would

would

one

would
prelates

then have

have

had

have
from

escape

no

been
more

103

position.

altered

main
Emperor to retestantis
over
openlyto Probeen compelled
to do
completeoppression.

onlyone

party,or

than the

power

at

least

other,and

the

influence than what

Emperor would, have had no more
he might have owed to the limited resources
of his own
dominions.
essential to be the
To him it was
hereditary
head of a party. To keepthis party in subjection,
milian
Maximade use of the importance
of King Philip,
now
as
on

former occasion he had

made

of that monarch's

use

opponents.
This

nation ; and the

very obvious to the German
did not fulfilthe expectations
he had raised,

was

who
prince,
was
no
longertrusted ; the confidence of the nation was
turned into suspicion
a general
; there was
anxietylest all
the Catholics should secretly
take counsel together,
and
into a dangerous
combination to which the Emperor
enter
would

be

There

party.

is still extant

the government

upon

in
circumstances,

point.

"

The

of the

which

whole

detailed report by Schwendi

Empire under the existing

dwells upon this
especially

he

German

nation

did receive the Emperor

with

from
But
the

because that
joyand gladness,
his youthup traces of a righthonest
now,

since he hath not

and
Netherlands,

acteth

more

put

since it hath

in accordance

with

he had

shown

German

heart.

stopto the misdeeds in

been
the

believed that he

desires of

foreign

than for the good of the Empire,distrust hath

potentates
H

104

FERDINAND

increased

on

I.

the

AND

MAXIMILIAN

side without

one

II.

other.

to pass that
come
Somethingmight easily
the smothering
embers into a ragingflame.'

blow

CONCERNING

THE
OF

This
so

natural
No

compromisehad been
no
generalmeasures

givento

THE

BEGINNING

CATHOLICISM.

to

be fulfilled

stillleft to take their

the

Schwendi.

This

Ferdinando

new

no

did not

been

the two

taken

to

gions;
reli-

prevent

or

from it; the storm

furyover
the

escape

impotentiasua
padre,pero

suo

hora
sequentem rispettata:

di guerra

li

era

tutto

which

agitated

Germany.

Venetian
fosse poco

Micheli

"

temuta

come

S. M.

se

awe-

e conpure, che fusse amata

ogni di va piu raffreddandosi

pareva

assai

mancato

che prima
e
rispetto,
quel amore
dal procederedi S. M. in
ingannati
da lei et in conto

had

its chief

in tutti li tempi per la

a

effected between

direction had
engrossing
of the nation,
had foreign
nor
energies

Europe pouredforth

niva anche

course.

influences been excluded

bene

OF

Germany were

inevitable dissensions ;

AND

not, however, destined

the affairsof

CHURCHES

RESTORATION

THE

would

XII.

PROVINCIAL

was
expectation

soon

been

'

"

CHAP.

the

on
diminishing

portato

perche pare

quelloche aspettavano
della

che restino
e

si promet-

: la tengono
religione
avendola intrinsecamente per papista
duplicita,
per persona che procede con
con
opinioneche hanno, che la S. M. a destruttione della loro religione,
e
abbia
occulta
di
il
fine
sommetterli
Pontifice
e con
con
il
intelligentia
e con
Francia
di
hora
sui
che
di
si
e
e
re
Spagna
generi,
per scoprir aspetti
tempo
lo
che
occasione
credono
veduto per rispetto
anno
et
piu
; e tanto
quanto
solo
ha
abandonati
di
favoriti
del re
di Fiandra e
ma
Spagna non
quelli
dellipaesibassi."

tevano

per conto

106

FERDINAND

Wild, to

I.

exertions

whose

MAXIMILIAN

AND

much

so

the counsellor both of the Duke

after

at

once

and of the Estates.*

Brunswick, when,

a Protestant
princeat lengthcame
long expectation,

the throne,it was

to

owing,was

was

for instance in
other territories,

In

II.

of

not

difficultto imitate the administration

Wirtemberg.

of the same
something
and the
hi countries where the prince
kind took placeeven
point their
peoplewere not united on the most important
in Austria.
It is true
the case
creed; this was
religious
that this could onlyhave happenedunder so moderate a
between
who took up his position
princeas Maximilian II.,
the two parties.
testant
By an agreement not unlike the compromisesin ProIt is stillmore

remarkable

that

"

the

countries,Maximilian,on

one

hand, allowed

to introduce a form of worshipin accordance

nobility
the other,
with the Confession of Augsburg,while they,
on
their part to
bound
themselves by a formal obligation
on

his

doctrine that

tolerate no

of Augsburg, and

not

was

to

contained

suffer

sion
in the Confes-

ceremonies

no

but what

tained
Agenda.f The Emperor enterthat he called
aversion to everything
the strongest
sectarian : he not only gave instructions for the new
itsauthor,Chy traeus, to retain as much
Agenda desiring
but he also revised
of the Catholic ceremonies
as
possible

were

directed

by

the

new

"

"

See among

others

that passage

from

Liehlerus,De Vita

M.

Casparis

Church, of the
Wildii,in Schnurrer, Elucidation
der Wurtemberg.
Reformation,and Learningof Wirtemberg (Erlauterung
of the

Kirchen-Reformations-

Formal

und

der
(Geschichte

gelehrten-Geschichte),
p. 273.

Raupach,Luth. Austria (Ev. 0.)i

Also in "Waldau's History of the Protestants in Austria
Protestanten in Oestreich).

of
Obligation

vol. i. p. 128.

Historyof the

the Estates

in

OF

RESTORATION

and

corrected
into

it himself.

Austria,not

his careful

under

in

107

CATHOLICISM.

The

doctrines

new

duced
intro-

were

but
to the sovereign,
opposition

guidanceand

control.

It is true

that

theywere in some respectsvery favourable to his interests.

which had imbibed
That portion
of the Austrian nobility
of the Reformation at foreign
the principles
universities,
had at the same
time acquired
a far higher
degreeof practical
and experience
than those who had remained
ability
reserved in the expression
of
at home ; and as theywere
their religious
and useful in publicbusiness,
opinions,
they
of all the higher
officesof State,
and
soon
gainedpossession
filled them

with

the adherents

themselves

made

of the

new

faith.

These

the

of the
championsof the rights
State as againstthe Church; they easily
persuadedthe
inclined that way, that he
Emperor Maximilian,already
now

had the

to alienate ecclesiastical property without the

right
vents
consent
or
knowledgeof the Pope or the bishops. Conwere
given away, sold and mortgagedalmost as
freelyas in Protestant countries ; and those that were
the
to pay over
as in Wirtemberg,
sparedwere
compelled,
surplusbeyonda certain income into the Treasury. Here
too the administrative and representative
bodies
namely,
the Estates
the case
in all
were
united,as was
closely
"

"

German

territories.*

This however
old

to have
onlyseems
institutions had already
fallen

taken
to

placewhere the
decay,and left the

field open to Protestantism.

The

to

differences which

very remarkable

be found

in

broke

of
explanation

Annales
Kevenhiiller,

out

in the bosom

these matters

by

Cardinal

Ferdinandei,vol. vi. pp.

of Pro-

Ceesel

3. 152.

is

108

FERDINAND

I.

testantism itself,
were

MAXIMILIAN

at

not

was

Osiander's

in the

overthrown

them.

awaited

course

struowle,

off victorious.

came

death that his followers

of Prussia ;

Duchy

Some

II.

be settled without

to

the stronger party of

in which

It

not

AND

afterwards

time

were

another

destiny
ceeded
they again suc-

obtainingpower both in the Church and in the

Government.
Johann
Funk, a pupilof Osiander's,
was
time court
at the same
preacher,confessor,
councillor,
in

and

treasurer

to

the Duke.

to abolish the
position
a
new
altogether

this. Duke
which

Albrecht

He

Exorcism

in

ritual.

was

very

took

advantageof his
duce
Baptism,and to intro-

Nor

was

he content

of
impatient

with

the restrictions

he had

he
imposedupon himself by the privileges
had formerly
given. He found himself nearlyas much
controlled by his nobles as the Grand
Master
of the
Teutonic Order had formerlybeen by his Chapter. In
these straitsthe Osiandrites
contrived

to

oust

the

placethe government
own

The

friends ;
Duke

he

to

his assistance. Funk

and
powerfulprivy councillors,
of the country in the hands

then

joinedthe

came

levied

taxes

and

raised

and the Duchess

to

of his

troops.

beganto
dress like a citizen'swife instead of a noble lady.
that the nobility
should not
It was
impossible
manifestly
resolved to regain
resist this loss of power.
They were
to take.
it,and theyknew what means
They contrived to have a Polish Commission sent into
referred the pointsin
the country, and this commission
to the judgmentof the Kneiphof
Court,that is,the
dispute
itself.
nobility
Funk
and his friends paidfor their ambition with their
innovations which
lives. His ecclesiasticaland political
commons,

OF

RESTORATION

had

made,
simultaneously

been

abolished
that

the

on

the nobles.*

by

hand

one

It

109

CATHOLICISM.

were

with

was

simultaneously
perfect
consistency

of the nobility
were
privileges
of the rightof
deprivedaltogether
and subjectedto a
own
authority,
control f; while on the other,the
strict Lutheran
form of
a
recalled,
the

confirmed, the Duke

by his
and
strict supervision
were
ejectedpreachers
and
worship established,

taxes
levying

in the year

1567

law

was

passedto the effect that thenceforth no one who did not

ever,
adoptthat form should be suffered to hold any officewhatwhether
ject,
or
temporal: every Prussian subspiritual
and adhere to
of whatever
to embrace
was
degree,
this creed for

ever.J

of Protestantism,
ternal
instronghold
divisions arose.
The opposition
offered to Calvinism
by the Elector Augustus,was no doubt connected with his
I shall hereafter show.
But I do not
as
foreignpolicy,
tration.
deny that it also bore reference to his domestic adminis-

Saxony too, the

In

The

most

Dr.
total changein

very

eminent

concerned

man

in these disturbance

to effect a
George Cracau, endeavoured
the state of the law, and especially,
by the

of which he called himself the fabricator and

constitution,

p. 324

Quis

"

revoeari
aula

in

ComplaintsagainstFunk
:

habere

suae
praeferri,

dari.-'

ferret aulse deliberationes

hominem
.

Funk

pedem

externum

exteros
ignotaestirpis

farinae hominibus
gave

among

Marchia

ejusque

consilia ad

et
unum

unius

reasons,

principumvultis."
Chronieon
Saxoniae,p. 631.
f Chytraeus,
Gesch.
L.
d. p.
J Plank,
(History of the

"

munera

Non

Statu,"

arbitrium

in suggesto, alteram

incolis nobilissimarum

officia atque

other

De

"

Leutinger,

in

familiarum

demanconspectiora
viri Borussi,
prineipes,

sed nomina

p. 441.

Protestant

vol.
Doctrine),

iv.

110

which

he caused

the

to

I.

FERDINAND

to

law

Roman

national

At

cause.

from
The

This

councils into

Cracau

his scheme.

of his

customs.

town

MAXIMILIAN

II.

to "give
proclaimed
by his prince,
decided
the
predominanceover

and

uses

and the
nobility
which
opposition,

many

be

AND

attempt

threw

violent ferment

of

and obstinately
disregarded,
sued
pur-

I think it not

unfair to conclude

disasters may be attributed to

subsequent
Leipsicall the doctors of law had been
the

the

council chamber

that
this
pelled
ex-

during these changes.

Burgomaster Rauscher, who

had

established his

afterwards took a most active

by these very changes,
After his downof their author.
fall
part in the prosecution
suffered quietly
the towns
to revert
to their old
were
power

traditional forms.*

such

decided

evitabl
instruggle
produced different results in different places.
and in Saxony,
the aristocracy
While in the Duchy of Prussia,
and the orthodox creed gainedthe upper hand, in
the popularparty and the Calvinist tendencies
Bremen
victorious. Hardenberghad been persecuted
were
by the
lowers,
his folcouncil ; the majorityof the citizens who were
under the guidanceof their BurgomasterBiiren,
ended by turningout the old town
council,and binding
to interfere at all in religious
the new
down
one
never
matters save
by the advice and sanction of the communityf;
Under

so
circumstances,

Sketch of the Life of Dr.

George Cracau, in

Historyof Saxony, vol. viii.pp.

138, contains

the Collection towards

this

pointall that is
sult
known, and the notices we have given. Concerningthe legalmatters contoral
Weisse, Geschichte der Churslichsischen Staaten (History of Elec1

"

on

Saxony), vol. iv. p. 155.

Narrative of the

Notary in Loscher's Historia Motuum,

vol. ii.p. 261.

Ill

CATHOLICISM.

OF

RESTORATION

Lutheran
and
trulya curious anomaly amid the strictly
highlyaristocraticcitiesof Lower Saxony.
action of poliOne inevitable result of this reciprocal
tics
excited passions
this strife of violently
and religion,
with in

narrow

so

was

compass,

reaction in favour

of

Catholicism.
In

Bavaria,
fitso

seen

1556

earlyas

to

make

allowed

He

his Estates.

to

the sovereign
had
countries,

in other

as

most

them

concessions
important
to

receive the Lord's

Supper under both forms,to eat meat in their own houses

fast days,and held out to them hopesof the appointon
ment
the Word
of God should be
of pastors by whom
doctrines." It was
to the apostolical
according
proclaimed
these that the Reformation
of such promises
under cover
as
had begun and been carried out in other places. When
Eric II.,althoughhimself a Catholic,wanted to
Duke
the continuance
estates of Calenberg
to the provincial
secure
he made use of the words that
he
of the Protestant faith,
"

"

he gave
In

in the

leave them

should

and

other assurance,

no

Bavaria

Ferdinand

thingssoon

Bavaria, nor

stood

matters

Austria under
But

right,
pure,

can

took

it be

at

and

true

;"
religion

this had been sufficient.*

this time

much

as

in

I.

different course
in
totally
asserted that this was
owing;
solely
a

the inclinations of the Duke.

to

In the first placethe Estates

were

not

unanimous

from

held aloof from the claims preprelates

ferred
other two, and by degrees
the representatives

the first. The

by

Remark

vol. i. p. 260.

the

of

Geschichte
Spittler,

von

Hanover

(Historyof Hanover),

112

FERDINAND

of the towns
that at

I.

became

AND

and

more

the Provincial

MAXIMILIAN

Diet

II.

lukewarm.

more

We

find

of 1563, the leaders of the

Joachim
of Ortenburg,
Count
and Pancrace
of
nobility,
Freiberg,
vehementlycomplainedthat the towns had now
let drop the demands
which
they had formerlymade ;
how deeplythey
to the deputies
they not onlyrepresented
interested in the introduction

were

but went

far

so

home

they went

to

as

the matter, which

in

this

at

the towns

periodthe

the
anticipated

nobles

Their

discontent

records

end

to

author,the
who

nobles

the

but

He

names.

him, demanded
from

their

but

it cannot

alarming
in intentional

nobility,
According to this

alreadyraised troops when

a warning from
Saxony,and
discovered
and

reminded

they

every

summoned
them

of the

the

the
took

thing
spirators
con-

dutythey

signet
ringsfrom them, caused

of the provincial
Diet, authentically
Negotiations
and sufficiently
treated in Freyberg, Geschichte
der Baierischen Landstiinde (Historyof the Bavarian Estates),
vol. ii.pp. 313
359.
*

Extracts

in

the Bavarian

rebellion.

returned
He

of very

story,involved

in consequence,

before him.
owed

had

had received

journeythither

in open

theyhad

and
increased,

of a conspiracy
of
obscurity,

Duke,

and in Bavaria

that it led to the formation

projects.Adlzreitter
destined

earnest

throughoutGermany were
They everywherehad to

revocation of the concessions

just obtained.
denied

not

were

dread the rise of the territorialpower;

be

be stoned if

left solely
to the nobles.*

was

of great fermentation.

state

they oughtto

troduce
to inhavingobtained permission
of Augsburg. But all was
in vain ;

held aloof,
and
prelates

Now

doctrines,

new

without

the Confession
the

tell them

of the

the

"

114

FERDINAND

I.

AND

themselves from the Protestant

was

There
down
which

MAXIMILIAN

and
interest,

deprivedof its heads

was
nothingto prevent
form
was

of doctrine which

moreover

II.

and

reduced

the Duke
he

the nobility

now

to

silence.

from

putting
and
disliked,
originally

associated with

formidable

ment
move-

himself.
against
this the onlymotive.
He gainedthe advanNor was
tage
into an alliance with the Pope,which was
of entering
useful to him with respect to the affairs of Europe,and
in his domestic policy.
even
In consequence
of the Reformation,
the German
palities
princihad assumed a peculiar
half-spiritual
half-temporal
as
spiritual
character,and had seized upon as many
No human
temporalprivileges.
power could arrest this
of affairsor prevent the Estates from drawingmore
current
in order to repelthe interference of a
together,
closely
It must
be borne in mind that
foreignspiritual
power.
in Catholic as in Protestliis took placequiteas much
tant
countries;in Bavaria as well as in Saxony. One
taken by
and effective measures
of the most
judicious
In
the givingscope to this movement.
the Curia was
with Gregory XIII. Albrecht
V.
his correspondence
and ruler of his
the representative
as
completely
figures
clergy.*
whose own
titles
that those princes
It is not surprising
and dignities
should have been stillmore
were
spiritual
the same
ambitious of filling
position.
the counterIn 1570 and the ensuingyears, accordingly,
reformation gradually
beganin the ecclesiasticaldominions.
*

Copies of this remarkable

Munich Library.

intercourse exist in

manuscript in the

RESTORATION

The

first to set it on

the least of all the

Fill la.

The

foot was,

so

far

as

discover,

can

Abbot

the
spiritual
; namely,
princes

six successive

abbots

Abbot

Balthazar,though the
educated

the young

in Fulda, when

under

of

flourished unmolested

faith had

Protestant

and
baptized

115

CATHOLICISM.

OF

of Protestant

son

in Ilessen in the

parents,
Protestant faith,

of Catholicism
principles
of Trent; and persuaded
set forth by the Council
as
himself that he had the rightto enforce the practices
and to expel
of the Romish Church
upon all his subjects,
that rejected
them.
from his territory
He
every one
filledwith enthusiasm

was

for the

turned a deaf ear to all

preachers,
of patronage
remonstrances, and took no heed of the rights
he filled the
to the nobility:
to the towns
or
belonging
with young
men
vacant
brought up at the Jesuit
livings
banished

the Protestant

himself established.

school he had

dismiss the Protestants from

1576

who

all other offices:

and

ministrants,
high

had refused to

adoptthe

to

stepwas

the year
clerks,
procurators,and

officialmen,
.all councillors,

church

His next

by

Catholics.

low, were

All

decisions of the Council

of

Trent had been dismissed.*

As

the Abbot

of Fulda

in the teeth of the

Eichsfeld

been

able to effect all this

ImperialDeclaration,there

encouragement for others

At

had

to

make

the Protestant

was

strong

like attempt.

faith

thoroughly
and the Mayence
established as in the surrounding
district,
Protestant preachers
commissaries had themselves appointed
the example of Fulda now
at Duderstadt:
gave the new
*

Extract

from

the Instructions for the

for the Diet of 1576.

Empire),vol.

x.

in Hiiberlin

p. 238.

n,

was

Envoys

d. It. (Modern

as

of the Elector Palatine

Historyof

the German

1 16

FERDINAND

MAXIMILIAN

AND

T.

II.

Leopold of Stralendorf courage to deprivethe

of
and the nobility,
as theyalleged,by main
force,"
and to introduce Jesuits in their
Protestant preachers,

warden

"

town

their

place.*
We

may

remark

the affiliation. The

verius,accompaniedby
Paderborn.t

stadt to
reached

HalfirstJesuit,
from

laybrother,went

In

Heiligenhad already

the Jesuits

1576

Hildesheim.

The

Archbishopof
Wetzlar

refused

Worms

to

have

tried to

Treves

of their

out

itself in all quarters. The

manifested

reaction

onlyparishchurch

the

Bishopof

allow the Protestant gation

congreof the poor littlechurch of Saint

longerto

any
the

drive the Protestants of

use

Magnus.
Nor
the

to

this kind

was

Swabian

hand

"

listof

the Catholics

the adherents

of the

new

thing. In
learn by
we
Romish
so
style,"

doctrine from

the

councilmen.J

common

Though

confined

means

began to attempt the same

the civic oath was
as
altered,

Gmiind

exclude

any

in which

of those aggrieved,to
complaints

to

as

oppression
by

small towns

bishops. The

had the upper

the

of

it

was

never

admitted

by

the

the
Palatinate,

to implythat the
religious
peace would seem
had a stillbetter rightto attempt
temporalprincipalities
similar acts of oppression.
" The first temporalstate that

words

De

of the

Memorial
Pace

of the

KnightlyOrder
vol. ii.pp. 117
Religionis,
"

f Bessen,Geschichte

J
De

Memorial
Pace

of Gmiind

Rel.,vol. ii.p.

von

and

Paderborn

of Eichsfeld and

Fulda, in Lehmann,

119.

(Historyof Paderborn).

others,and the Intercessions

see

Lehmann,

120.

" After 1576, the Palatinate protestedagainstthis readingof the

of the subject.Haberlin,
to the disadvantage
vol. x. p. 247.
Article,

14th

RESTORATION

OF

117

CATHOLICISM.

the counter-reformation,
as far
experienced
really
was
discover,

been removed
educated

Baden.

To this end the young

from the care
of his natural

under the

of
guidance

as

can

Margravehad
and
guardians,

the Jesuits in Bavaria.*

In the year 1574 Schwendi, as we

have already
seen,
dwelt with no littlecomplacency
the irresistibleand,as
on
it seemed,providential
spreadof Protestant
then

appearedto
set
undoubtedly

be true, and the

current

in that direction.

But

opinions.This
of public
opinion

at

this

verv

ment,
mo-

modern Jesuitical
thoughin mockery of his triumph,
Catholicism struck root in the very centre of Germany,
spreadin all directions.
as

and

CHAP.

NEGOTIATIONS

But,

we

their

own

XIII.

1575

OF

AND

1576.

in
may ask, could the Protestants do nothing
defence?
They had the Declaration of the

such a prince
as Maximilian
EmperorFerdinand,and surely
would feel himself bound by it.
that duringall the years
It was
deeplyto be regretted
of peace nothinghad been done towards allaying
religious
animosities.
had ventured
was

At

the assemblies of 1567

and 1570

no

one

touch upon them ; and now

that Maximilian
had to take into consideration
so infirm that he
already
to

the choice of

successor,

Haberljn,vol.
I

and that fresh

viii.p. 42.

rumours

118

of

FERDINAND

and

manifold

MAXIMILIAN

II.

become so
Hungary, the evils were
pressingthat they could no longerbe

arisen in

had

war

AND

I.

so

removed.
firstbroughtforward

was
question

The

had

Diet of 1575, which

been

summoned

at

the Electoral

for the purpose

The temporal
electors
new
a
King of Rome.
electing
had a planfor bindingthe future Emperor to maintain not
onlythe religious
peace, but also the declaration thereof.
The verbal changetheyproposedwas
a
one
:
very slight
tion
theyonly wanted to include the words, and the declaraof

"

of election. Never
thereof,"in the capitulation
four

more

av

eightyAvords : theyAvould

neutralise the counter-reformation

to

were

have been sufficient

in the ecclesiastical

states.

the

But
authors

electors
spiritual

of the counter

readyto

means

They

assent

to

the demands

of their

by no
colleagues.

raised tAVO different objections.*

no

changecould

of election without
capitulation
Estates of the Empire. To this

the

be made

consent

in the

of all the

the Elector of Brandenburg

that the electors alone had

replied
and that they were
capitulation;

deliberate in close committee

the

the chief

and theywere
reformation,

that
First,theyalleged

the

themselves

were

"

upon

or
Empire,AA'ithoutaid,counsel,

the

of making
right
in duty bound
to
of
the Avell-being

consent

of the other

Estates."
The

They

second

was
objection

of

more

of the
denied all kno\Aledge

character.
startling

and
Declaration,

so

did

the Spiritual
between
and the Temporal Electors,in
Disputation
gious
Lehmann, vol. ii.c. 15. :
Summary of what occurred in regardto ReliMatters at the Day of Election,
anno
1575," c. xviii.
*

The

"

119

belongingto their party

lawyerof that time,whom he

writer

their counsellors.

asserted
positively

that

describes with

1575, 1576.

OF

NEGOTIATIONS

great minuteness,and

no

else,had

one

The
truth was
that,as we have
broughtit forward.*
alreadymentioned,the affair was quicklysettled in the
protocolhad been drawn up on the
year 1555, and no
subject.
its existence could

But

I find it

not

mentioned, even
and

that

by

this account

on

writers

be denied.

belongingto

the

without

any

attempt

confuted

the

raised by
objections

deny it.f
of the Imperial
found in the registry
A copy was
chancery,
and the original,
was
broughtby the
signedand sealed,
for doubt.
Elector of Saxony ; this left no room
The temporal
electors were
now
by far the most powerful;
hands, and righton
they had the election in their own
papal court,

their side;

they had

their opponents, and

nothing
own

hinder

to

it seemed

from

them

as

to

though there

settlingthe

could be

matter

their

way.
The

among

was
insuperable
difficulty

the want

of

unanimity

themselves.

Never

the evils of

more
religious
animosity
strongly
arisen in conexhibited ; a violent enmity had gradually
sequence
differences between
of religious
the Elector of
and it was
not
Saxony and the Palatine,
long before this
hatred
showed
itself in political
combinations.
derick
FreIII.,Elector Palatine,a princeof great courage

and

were

was
determination,

closelv allied with

the Protestants

f Pallavicini.

Burgkardus.
I

120

FERDINAND

France

alliances likewise
forth the most

givenby
few

MAXIMILIAN

II.

and in the Netherlands.*

hand, stood well

was

AND

I.

Saxony,on the other

with Spain. Unhappilythese political
included the reigning
and called
families,

bitter

for which
animosities,

the first cause

the Prince of

Orange.
Augustus had

before

years

his

married

niece,

daughterof the Elector Moritz, to William of

Orange, againstthe wishes of her other relations. Her
old Philipof Hessen, had warned
her that
grandfather,
she would find but littlehappinessin the marriage
; but
she would not suffer herself to be deterred by any representations.
Anna,

"

is

He

black-hearted

betrothed, but there is

her

"

love

does not

In

him."f

not

said she of
traitor,"
vein in my

this mood

body that

she went

the

to

where her grandfather's

were
Netherlands,
predictions

quicklyfulfilled;

too

she

with
quarrelled

but

Prince,and

the

he put her from him.

At

House

this time Charlotte de

of Bourbon,

was

of the
a princess
Montpensier,
livingat Heidelberg.Some time

before she had been made

heart,for she and

embraced

one

followed the

means

to

escape

Struvens, Detailed Account

During the

refugein

the

of the Church

luctant
re-

friends had
disturbances

of St. Bartholomew

massacre

and take

France,but with

of her female

the Protestant faith.

which

abbess in

she found

whence
Palatinate,

Historyof the Palatinate

Kirchenhistorie),
p. 267.

Bericht
der Pfiilzischen
von
(Ausfiihrlicher
other things,
himself on
how the Elector comforted
" 70., relates,
among
who
the occasion of the death of his sou Christopher,
perishedin one of
It was
hetter that he should die in a
the campaignsin the Netherlands.
for the good cause, than that he should he spoiled
hy
foreignland, fighting
"

idleness at home."
in Rommel's
f Message to Landgrave Philip,

vol.
Philip,

ii.p. 657.

122

and

FERDINAND

were

very

near

I.

AND

MAXIMILIAN

beingshut

out

of the Pharisees."

synagogue

theycould

not

their head, who

Palatinate,
his

meeting in
policy. One

Samaritans

as

Even

agree ; the electoral

had

II.

among

from the

themselves

princeLudwig

the electoral

to

come

of the

father's

place,disapprovedhis father's
rebuked the
day when the Emperor sharply
councillors of the Palatinate for their foreign
alliances and
manifold intrigues,
theybelieved that he had been led to
do so by the princewho had justlefthim.*
Under

such

unfavourable

that the demands

the other.

While

electors the
had

to
nothing

made

by

such

circumstances

it is no

the Palatinate failed

one

wonder
after

discord

spiritual
ones,

poral
reignedamong the temwho were
united,
perfectly

fear from them.

Moreover, the Emperor

made

of his

fluence
personalinwith the Elector of Saxony. He represented
to
him that such completereligious
libertywould be the
the spiritual
ruin of Germany; he entreated him, as
electors were
immovable,to do his part towards sparing
him the shame and mortification of leavingthe electoral
f
assemblywithout havingeffected any thing.
*

Epilogueof

use

the Protocol.

al C,e di Coino*
(Delfino),
in the Corsini Library at Rome,
Ratisbona, 18th Ottobre, 1575, MSS.
le differenze tra gli elettori
Sabbato mattina s' accommodono
677.:
no.
havendomi
1' imperatore1' istesso giornoparticolarcirca questa elettione,
mente
narrato, con quanta difficultahaveva persuasiglielettori secolari a
della libertiidella religione,
desistere dalla demanda
haver mostrato
con

Lettera

del

Nunzio, Vescovo

di Torcello

"

loro che cio saria la ruiua della

lo permettera mai, e
Germania, e die non
it
e
cosi,parte con mostrarsene
alienissima,
parte con pregarli
particolar"
del quale si loda assai,
Duea di Sassonia,
le fara questa vergogna, di
non
doversi partire
alcuna conclusione,
da qui senza
essendo risoluta lasciar

piu tosto
d'
si parli

1' elettione
altro che

ha
imperfettache acconsentirvi,

dell' elettione."

ottenuto

che

non

NEGOTIATIONS

1575, 157G.

OF

123

HereuponAugustus promisedon this occasion to give

of electors he repreIn the college
sented
up the Declaration.
that this was
a
disputefor which the Emperor
not

was

blame,but

to

he alone would

for which

have

to

suffer.
end

The

of the matter

was

that

nothingobtained. The
and
Declaration left unconfirmed,

election

and

upon

went

on

insisted

was
nothing

made, the

was

reformation

the counter

before.

as

plained
Ostensiblythe consideration of the grievancescomuntil the next Diet;
of had onlybeen postponed
but there could be no hope of effecting
any thingso long
as such discord prevailed.

It

again the Elector Palatine who,

was

1576,

at

the various

of
grievances,

the Diet

of

advised that

Ratisbon,opened the question.He

into consideration until

other business should be taken

no

at

which

enumerated

he

long
should have been redressed ; he dwelt strongly
list,
upon
of openingthe spiritual
the question
to both
principalities
from the Emperor a plaindeclaraand demanded
tion,
religions,
in black and
one

of the

time many

white,of

electors
spiritual

what

he

meant

should turn

to

do in

Protestant.

case

This

of the Protestant

his side.*
were
on
princes
of Saxony was
The jealousy
aroused
at seeingthe
Estates drawn up in
presentedby the protesting
petitions
the words of the instructions emanating
from the Palatinate.
The theological
The
disputesran higherthan ever.
Elector Augustus had justbegun his opposition
to Cal*

Instruction

Haberlin

for the

is well informed

Wolfenbiittel

Library.

Palatine

Envoy,

in all that

concerns

in

Haberlin,vol. x.
this Diet,from

pp. 20. 283.

in the
MSS.

124

FERDINAND

vinism.

The

I.

AND

questionwas

Elector Palatine

could

MAXIMILIAN

II.

again raised,whether

stillbe

reckoned

the

the adherents

among

of the Confession of Augsburg,and be admitted to

in the advantages
of the religious
participation
peace. The
Theologianswho had drawn up the terms of concord
decided againsthim,
At the very moment
when
the
Palatinate

for the preservation

and
pressing

was

extension of

the

of the Protestants,
effort was
made
an
rights
by them
that State of any share in those rights.
to deprive
never
Moreover, Saxony was
very favourable to the
both religions
to the spiritual
plan of admitting
palities.
princiFor some
time past Augustus had feared the
outbreak

of

hidden

some

of Catholicism

remnants

in his

dominions.*

own

all events

At

he declared

the grants without

his readiness to

proceedwith

further

delay. Even before the Diet

he had advised the LandgraveWilliam
of Hessen to do
the same
he wrote to the Dukes
; and while it was
sitting
of Weimar
and Coburg, urgingthem no longer
to refuse
the supplies
for the Turkish war
he said,
be
must
; they,
gious
should the Emperor put an end to the religrantedeven
peace.f
obtained had been by
All that the Protestants had ever
making the grants conditional upon the redress of their
about to follow the same
and theywere
now
grievances,
There was
time to be lost; the Emperor still
no
course.
and was
not yet altogether
opposedto them ; but
hesitated,
*

made

As

earlyas

by Saxony.

temberg),vol. iv. p.

| Declaration

of the

opposition
WurtembergischeGeschichte (Historyof WirSattler,

1556

this was

mentioned

as

the

cause

105.

of Dr. Lukas

vol. x.
Thangel,in Hiiberlin,

p. 331.

OF

NEGOTIATIONS

1575, 157G.

125

pute
diswith its unluckypolitico-theological
Saxony,occupied
refused to joinit,and to pursue
with the Palatinate,
the former

No

course.

doubted

one

that but for this the

would this time have been made

principalities
spiritual
to both religions.*
common
in another quarter,
At this moment
arose
a fresh dispute
all hopefor the future.
which seemed likely
to destroy
We have seen
the demand for throwing
how intimately
the

open

to both religions
was
spiritual
principalities

with the endeavour

national

more

to

The

cause.

make

the Turkish

counts

and

nected
con-

into

war

lords hastened to

They suggested
siastical
in the enjoymentof ecclethat
all Protestants who were
benefices should be bound by a formal decree of
service to the Emperor
the Empire to render military
the Turks."
internal peace and against
both in maintaining
the
honourable to earn
Was
it not,"theyasked, more

bringforward

schemes

for this purpose.

"

"

"

revenues

of benefices wherewith

by

honest

no

exertions for the

cure

of souls

wras

nected
con-

publicgood than

to

"

enjoythem without workingfor them at all?

the Emperor
This suggestion
discussed on all sides,
was
tion
for the instituand Estates entered into elaborate projects
with a
order of knighthood
of an
to be endowed
of its own, perhapsat Canischa,and which was
territory
to have all it mightconquer as its own
propertyafter the
deduction of the Regalia.f
*

Memorial

of

Prince

of Nassau

to Frederick

IV.,Elector Palatine,

Lunig, Staats Consilia,p. 454.: "It is "well knewn that in the

-would
to both
principalities
religions
year 76 the opening the spiritual
have
been obtained,had not Saxony separatedherself from the other
Lutheran
electors and princes."
Memorial of the Emperor and
| Petition of the Counts and Nobles.
in Haberlin,
the Estates,
vol x. pp. 270. 398. 403.
1594, in

126

FERDINAND

Nothingwas
than

AND

I.

should
majority,

II.

the

wanting to

that the whole

MAXIMILIAN

of the scheme
completion
the
at any rate
or
nobility,

of the

unite in it.

this class
Unluckily,

offered

unexpectedresistance to it.
The rapidprogress of the Reformation
in the beginning
had been mainlyowing to the German
grees,
nobility.By denot so
however,theydiscovered that itsresults were
a

very

to
advantageous

them

territorial power

of the

nobles
the

as

their libertiesand their influence in

perceivedthat

Empire would

they had at firstexpected. The

and the
princesincreased daily,

be lost unless

gious
theymaintained the relifoundations ; by degreesthey became
convinced
of
owing to the violent and arbitrary
partly
proceedings
of the Protestant princes
with regardto ecclesiastical
some
that this could onlybe done in case
mained
property
theyre"

"

Catholic.
the

This
of

measure

was

sufficient reason

for opposing

to
principalities
openingthe spiritual

this subjectboth Protestants and

On
religions.*
Catholics were
agreed. I know not how it happenedthat
this opinion
and so completely
in the
so suddenly
prevailed

both

The

Papal Nuncio, Minuccio

to he of the

the

importancefor

utmost

chaptersshould

Minucci, conceived it,and with justice,

he in the hands

the Bibliot. Barberina

at Rome

"

the

maintenance

of the nohles.
Chi

of Catholicism

Discorso,1588, MSS.

pensasse, di darle tutte

in potere di

that
in

(lechiese)
(proofsof

levare quel instituto di provanze

e
gentiignohili
saria cosa
la qual porteiiain consequenza
la
nobility)
perniciosissima
ruina manifesta delle chiese,poicheove
in presente sono
difese da nobili,
come
propriopatrimonioloro,sariano allora oppugnate e lacerate senza
bene lo stato delle cose
d' Alemagna,
rimedio,ne glihuomini che conoscono
che quelantico instituto,
d' haver i canonici
se non
potranno mai dir altro,
e di far i vescovi
sia
nobili,
per elettione,

il solo sostegno delle

uinana"'
e forse unica causa,
piedi,
perireaffattoil Catolicisimo in Alemagna."

die restauo
lasciar

stato

ancora

in

chiese,

di
parlando,

non

NEGOTIATIONS

1575, 1576.

OF

127

be denied that such was

the case.
year 1576 ; but it cannot
When, in the month of March of that year, the Elector

the nobility of the Empire to support

requested
for the opening
of the spiritual
petition
principalitie
Tvhenish nobles first replied
that theyscrupled
to bear

Palatine
his
the
a

hand

in

innovation

an

the established order

upon

of

things.Hereupon the nobles of Franconia,Swabia, and

the Wetterau,held their meetings,
and came
to stillmore
With
decisive conclusions.
one
accord,they petitioned
the

do

nothingcontraryto ancient custom ;

foundations,
religious
theysaid,had been
thrown
to the irreparable
injury
open and temporalised,
of the nobility.They imploredhim not to ruin them
altogether.*
Emperor
onlytoo many

Here

was

to

of affairs!

strange turn

of which

religious
party the members
common
interest,
upon which

There
were

the progress of

existed

bound

by a
their opinions

and the welfare of their country depended.

certain

theysplitupon
Unluckily,
either section embraced

extreme

and
pointsof belief,

views.

The

one

gled
got entan-

which inevitably
envenomed
the
quarrels,
foreign
Whatever
was
disputeat home.
proposedby the head of
one
party was defeated by the leader of the other.
They also quarrelledupon
questionsof interest.
Hitherto both princesand nobles had had a share in the
undoubtedly
property of the Church; the majoritywas
their interest to keep
and it was
Protestant,
manifestly
in

that share,togetherwith the

measures

taken

faith.

new

by the princesfilled the

*

Haberlin,vol.

x.

p. 360.

But

some

nobles of

strono-

Upper

128

I.

FERDINAND

Germany

with

AND

MAXIMILIAN

II.

apprehension.They preferred
seeingthe

ecclesiastical dominions

remain

Catholic out

of the power

them become Protestant,

and fall
to seeing
princes,
their hands.
Hereupon theytoo forsook the cause,

of the
into

and the whole

party broke up.

united
closely
which they had formerly
lukewarmness
The
than ever.
succeeded by Dhe most
of
was
vigorouscourse
displayed
action. In 1575, the Elector of Colognedeclared that he
of the religious
would, if necessary, upholdthe Catholicity
foundations even
with the sword.
Pope Gregorysent his
able cardinal,Morone, to the Diet of 1575, amply
most
of the
with money.* The Protestants complained
supplied
and the papalhistorians
influence which he managed to obtain,
commend
the
him for the same
f By degrees
thing,
Catholics gainedthe upper hand.
left unreThe supplies
dressed.
were
voted,and the grievances
putes,
Nothing was done towards adjustingthe disincensed
than ever
and the hostile parties
were
more
The

the contrary,
were

on
Catholics,

In this condition did Maximilian

against each other.

the

Empire to

He
and

had

his

leave

son.

hopes; he had wished

and to prevent
end to the divisions,
rightview of the situation of affairs,

cherished far different

striven to put

bloodshed.

more

He

an

took

DispaccioP. Tiepolo,Roma, 26 Aprile,1576, Archivio di Vienna.

Seppe
f Maffei, Annali di GregorioXIII.,Roma, 1742, " i. p. 228.:
si fatti legami annodare tra se glianimi di Cattolici,o laici o di chiesa,
con
Tanto
Minucci :
fossero,etc. etc." Minuccio
o sostitutiche
o principali
il valore del C Morone, ch' era
legato. Siccome tenne saldo 1' imp"
era
tutto che si vedeva
Massimiliano nella negativa,
con
piu volte vicino alia
dalla quale si crede,
necessita e forse alia determinatione di consentirvi,
*

"

"

dall' autorita del Duca

che fosse ritirato principalmente

Alberto di Baviera."

]30

FERDINAND

I.

AND

II.

MAXIMILIAN

united the heads of the nation,both those having

spirit
and those possessing
high intellectual gifts
; it
authority
that all remainingdifferences would be
seemed probable
the defects in law and government amended, the
settled,
and that
dangerousenemy repulsedand conquered,
instead of
Germany would givethe law to her neighbours
it from them.
receiving
of the communitywhich forms
That intelligent
portion
in all its actions
of a nation displayed
the real strength
and ideas a strong tendencyin favour of generaland

most

simultaneous
and

takings,
progress, of the execution of great underthe construction of vigorousand permanent

the course
alreadyentered
By following
and
all this might have been attained. Prudence
upon
absolute devotion to the public
good would have led to no

institutions.

other results ; but there existed

which

could not

the upper

fail to

some

the
destroy

elements
antagonistic
whole if theygained

hand.
very influences

prevailed.
of extreme
Whether
it was
owing to the repression
to passion,
or
or
both,a violent disputeupon
speculation,
the Protestants themselves.
doctrinal pointsarose
among
embraced
views in opposite
hostile parties
The
extreme
Unhappilythese

and declared open

directions,
or

the

other

according

as

war

upon

gaineda footingin
some

the

each

other.

several

One

districts,

subordinate interest with which

it had

succumbed.
or
leagueditselfprevailed
liberal sovereigns
For a time the principal
strove
to
resist this turn of affairs; but by degrees
theythemselves
which was
in every case
felt an
influence,
strengthened
considerations.
by political

131

CONCLUSION.

Saxon

houses

selves.
themagainquarrelled
among
A fend broke out between
them, in which the
side was
in opposition
to the Empire and the other
one
undertook to execute
the Imperial
sary.
decree upon its adverit was
In reality
onlya revival of the old dispute,
the
First,

under another form.

The

Palatinate

and
neighbours,
next

and

which
"Wirtemberg,

the two

even

close

were

lines of the Palatine

house,

fellout.

Electoral Saxony
but
Protestant,

the Electoral

and

divided

systems,became

both
Palatinate,

extension of the

by the

logical
theo-

new

bitter enemies.

most

interests
of these quarrels
all larger
prosecution
desired objectof a new
: the much
stitution
conforgotten
of the Empire was
attained ; the intellectual
never

In the
were

of the nation

movement

took

direction unfavourable

enterprise
; and the Emperor,a man
than vigour,was
wearied
greater intelligence
and abandoned
by the conflictof opinions,
any

to

of much

common

and
the

gusted
disecution
ex-

of his

projects.
The
influence of foreignnations,in whose
disputes
Germany was mixed up, once more gainedthe ascendancy.
in Germany espousedthe French
The different parties
their own,
and Spain once
differences as if they were
found partisans
more
foughtin all their battles.
; Germans
between the
effectof the violent quarrels
The principal
of their adherents ;
to disgust
Protestant sects was
many
the
which had at first been conqueredon
Catholicism,
field of

opinionbut

itself into

which

in the

mean

time

had

formed

now
faith,
system like that of the opposing

it had
the footing
regained

lost.
K

132

FERDINAND

While

I.

the two

for the exclusive

Protestant

MAXIMILIAN

were
parties

of the
possession

domain

II.

each
fighting,
theyhad gained

Catholicism re-established itsinfluence in those

in common,
countries

AND

which

it had

in great measure,

but

wholly,

not

lost.

At
joinedthe Catholic cause.
very considerable ally
first the nobles of Southern Germany were
testant,
Proentirely
A

but

theywere alarmed at the rapidgrowthof the

of the princes,
caused by the Reformation; for a
power
time they endeavoured
it by joining
the
to counteract
Protestant faction : and it is worthy of remark,
extreme
that it was
this that induced Bavaria whollyto espouse
had shown
the Catholic system. But the Protestant princes
of the
themselves no less dangerous
to the independence
and that body found that its sole safety
lay in
nobility,
principalities.
upholdingthe spiritual
During the years
1563 to 1567 the nobles kept up a Protestant agitation,
hostile to the power of the princes
although
; to the latter
they stilladhered,but for that very
part of their agitation
reason
theyespousedthe interests of Catholicism.
From

that time

forward

the counter-reformation

made

dominions.
The
in the spiritual
steadyprogress, especially
is very important,
but almost
historyof this movement
that it beganin Fulda, and was
have seen
unknown.
We
continued in the Eichsfeld ; the innovations made by Julius
had a great effect,
and
Hechter, Bishop of Wiirtzburg,
of Bamberg.
imitated in the neighbouring
were
soon
bishopric
After the fall of the Elector Truchsess

at

Cologne,

was
reformed,and Mayence underwent
archbishopric
the same
changesat the hands of the Elector Schweickard.
of the seventeenth century
It was
tillthe beginning
not

that

133

CONCLUSION.

that Protestants

were

and Catholicism
excluded from offices,

restored at Treves.
completely
the Pope had found
Meanwhile

allyhimself
of the German
and more
closely with some
more
princes.
followed by BadenBavaria was
the first,
and was
soon
and the Palatine of
Charles of Styria,
Baden, Archduke
Neuburg. Even such petty princesas the Duke of
Teschen contrived to make
themselves conspicuous
at the
tions.
of the seventeenth century by counter-reformabeginning
means

to

by force alone,but quiteas much

fluence
the change was
mainly owing to the inby teaching:
who contrived to get public
of the Jesuits,
opinion
This

was

not

effected

in their side.*
the
was
Catholicity
Calvinism,thoughonlyin
spreadof its extreme
opposite,
countries already
Protestant ; this put an end to all hopes
of reconciliation. During this strifeof religious
all
parties
interests were
the
of: Sweden
lost sight
general
destroyed
trade on the Belt by incessant hostilities;
Denmark
peded
imthe passage throughthe Sound by arbitrary
and
heavy increase of the tolls; the first use made by the
Dutch of a freedom which they owed in part to the assistance
of Upper Germany,was
to shut up the Rhine,which
has never
been reopeneduntil this very day; England
not
of the Guilds,but
only annihilated the privileges
Simultaneous

with

this revival of

Rele dello Stato infelicedella Germania, mandata

Ycscovo

di

alcuni auni

MSS.
Yercelli,
in qua si

("

in the Bib.

Barberina,shortlyafter

conrertito alia nostra

etc.

Ferrero,

1 600

"

Da

una
religione
grandm*
di regolari
molte religioni

santa

d' anime, ristorate le chiese,rivocate

quantita
aliiloro antichi monasteri."

dal nunzio

134

FERDINAND

capturedGerman
their voyage

went
monopolists

to

Emhden

between

Germany

and

onlyto

the latter.

The

resistance

was

Germany

was

MAXIMILIAN

it

England

advance

unchecked

effectual

disunited to

too

do

that the German

put the trade

to

footingfavourable
England advanced step

on

of

power

suffered to

was

order

in

attempted,no

this very time

II.

shipsas theysailed alongthe Channel on

time English
Spain, and at the same

to

by step,and

AND

I.

any

States

no

taken;

measures

at
thing. It was
began to be separated

duties. For a
by custom-house
for appointing
short time there was
a project
an
Imperial
Admiral
to protect the interests of the Empire in the
from

and

Mediterranean
as

soon

other

each

the

but
Atlantic,

abandoned

it was

as

conceived.
the intestine divisions became

Meanwhile

and

more

more

formidable.
In 1608, the
the presence

of Catholics

the power

had

only,all

In the year

Diet in anger.
declared

Imperialdecree

of the

to

proclaimedin

be

had

the rest

left the

1613, the constituent princes

majorityto

be

an

intolerable

yoke; theyrefused to take part in any deliberation until

This cut the
all their grievances
should be redressed.
Emperor to the heart,"says the protocolof this Diet;
at this day,to
to a German, even
and,indeed,it is painful
dwell upon such a state of things.
The League and the Union were
quiteready for war :
"

the

events

in Bohemia

were

sufficient to make

it break

out.

This

was

thirtyyears'war : from it Germany

devastated,
deprivedof its trade.
entirely

the

emerged poor,

135

CONCLUSION.

and
on

at

tlu"

nations

other
What

of

mercy
for

sacrifices,
the

it cost

German

effected
Shall
under
similar

nay,
and

mighty

at

to

It

powers.

culture,

what

until
the

and

aroused,

its

people

externally,

even

foreign

emerge

length

the

for

its

very

enduring
from

spirit

this
of
of

deliverance

internal

was

the

dependent
existence.
efforts

did

subjection,
nation

Germany

was

was

we

hence

not

circumstances,

similar

perils

read

lesson
from

THE

END.

which

exposing

may

hinder
ourselves

us,

to