Over Head Power Line

OVERHEAD POWER LINES
MODULE 5 CONDUCTORS, NETWORK & ENVIRONMENTAL

CONSTRAINTS - CONTENTS
Section
No
Description
Figure or Table
Page
No.
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Environmental Conditions
5.3 Conductor Selection
5.3.1 General
5.3.2 Types of Conductor
Table 5.1 Characteristics of Different Conductor
Materials
Fig. 5.1 Conductor Arrangements for Different ACSR
Combinations
Table 5.2 Typical Properties of some ACSR Conductors
5.3.3 Aerial Bundled Conductor
Table 5.3 Comparison between Aerial Bundled Conductor
and Open-wire
5.3.4 Conductor Breaking Strengths
Table 5.4 Calculated Conductor Breaking Strengths
According to some Different Standards
5.3.5 Bi-metal Connectors
Fig.5.2 Bi-metal Connector
5.3.6 Corrosion
5.4 Calculated Electrical Ratings
5.4.1 Heat Balance Equation
5.4.2 Power Carrying Capacity
Fig. 5.3 (a) Approximate Conductor Sizes (ACSR) for Power
Transfer Capabilities
Fig. 5.3 (b) Economic Power Transfer Capacities
Fig. 5.4 Typical Conductor Configurations
Fig. 5.5 Power Transfer Curves
Table 5.5 Typical Load Carrying Capacity of Overhead
Distribution Lines
5.4.3 Corona Discharge
5.4.3.1 Worked Example for Corona Discharge
Fig. 5.6 Corona Discharge Calculation Example 132 kV
Zebra Conductor Spacing
5.4.3.2 Radio Frequency Interference
Table 4.6 Effect of Various Levels of Signal-to-noise Ratio
5.4.4 Worked Example for an Overhead Line Calculation
Fig. 5.7 Calculation Example 132 kV Lynx Conductor
Spacing
5.4.5 Available kVA km Neglecting Capacitance
Proprietary Document
Overhead Power Lines
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints - Contents
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Section
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Description
Figure or Table
Page
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Table 5.7 ACSR Conductors Inductive Reactance, /km

(equivalent spacings given) (IEE Proceedings, Vol. 133, Pt.C,
No.7, November 1986)
5.5 Design Spans, Clearances and Loadings
5.5.1 Design Spans
5.5.1.1 Basic Span
Fig. 5.7 Overall Tower Height
Table 5.8 Relative Supply and Installation Costs for
Overhead Line
5.5.1.2 Wind Span
Fig.5.8 (a) and (b) Cost v span, Wind and Weight Span
Fig.5.8 (c) Illustrating Equivalent Span
5.5.1.3 Weight Span
5.5.1.4 Equivalent Span
5.5.1.5 Creep
Table 5.9a Creep coefficients for ACSR conductors
(Equation 5.4)
Table 5.9b Creep coefficients for AAAC conductors
(Equation 5.5)
Table 5.9c Creep coefficients for AAC conductors
(Equation 5.5)
Table 5.9d Creep coefficients for ACAR conductors
(Equation 5.5)
Table 5.10 Typical Creep Conditions
Fig.5.9 Creep Assessment Procedure
Table 5.11 The period for which creep compensation is
required
5.5.1.6 Catenary Equations for Sloping Spans
5.5.2 Conductor and Earth Wire Spacing and Clearances
5.5.2.1 Earth Wires
Fig.5.10 Overhead Line Earth Wire Lightning Screen
Fig.5.11a Earth Wire Lightning Screen Protection (Vertical
Formation)
Fig.5.11b Earth Wire Lightning Screen Protection
(Horizontal Formation)
5.5.2.2 Earthing Counterpoise
Fig.5.12 Wave Propagation Along Electric Lines
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Section
No
Description
Figure or Table
Page
No.
Fig.5.13 Cable and Transformer Characteristic Impedances

Fig. 5.14 MV Overhead Feeder with Downstream Reclosers
and Sectionalisers
5.6 Load Flow Constraints in Transmission and Distribution Networks
5.6.1 Security Standards
5.6.2 Load Flow Constraints
Fig 5.15 Simple Network
Fig.5.16 Simple Network (Economic Generation Level)
Fig. 5.17 Minimum acceptable Generation Level at C
Fig.5.18 Additional Circuit added between A and C
5.6.3 Overhead Line Short-term Overload Ratings
Fig.5.19(a) An Isolated 132kV Network
Fig.5.19(b) Real Power Flows in the neighbourhood of 8019
- Base Case Study
Fig. 5.19 (c) Showing Real and Reactive Power Flows
Fig. 5.19(d) Post Fault Real and Reactive Power Flows
5.7 Summary
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52

MODULE 5 CONDUCTORS, NETWORK AND ENVIRONMENTAL
CONSTRAINTS - PROPRIETARY DOCUMENT
5.1 Introduction
Overhead lines are, in essence air-insulated cables suspended from insulated supports
with a power transfer capacity approximately proportional to the square of the line
voltage.
As was stated in Module 1 overhead line are mire economic than underground cables and
their use is avoided as much as possible at the higher transmission voltages.
Here are some approximate cost comparisons which should be treated in more depth
since they do not take into account the additional costs of either solution imposed by
the wayleave/consent/clearance procedures, addressed in module 3, and which are an
unfortunate part of transmission/distribution development.
For the transmission of equivalent power
At 11 kV a cable feeder costs about 5 times that of a transmission line

5.2 Environmental Conditions
It is necessary to match the mechanical and electrical characteristics of the overhead
line conductor to the environmental conditions that pertain. These environmental
conditions must, therefore, be obtained and appropriately analysed. The parameters
required were addressed in Module 4, Section 4.2.1
Condition
Comments
Temperature
The maximum, minimum and average ambient temperature

influences conductor current rating and sag. For temperature
conditions in many countries typically 20OC with 55O rise. For
tropical conditions 35OC or 40OC with 40OC or 35OC temperature
rise.
Maximum conductor operating temperature should not exceed
75OC to prevent annealing of aluminium
Wind
Velocity
Required for structure and conductor design. Electrical

conductor ratings may be based on cross-wind speeds of 0.5 m/s
or longitudinal wind speeds of 1 m/s
Solar
Radiation
Required for conductor ratings but also for fittings such as

composite insulators which may be affected by exposure to high
thermal and ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Typical values of 850
W/mm2 and 1200 W/m2 may be assumed for temperature and
tropical conditions respectively
Module 5 Conductors, Network & Environmental Constraints
Page 1 of 52

Condition
Comments
Rainfall
Important in relation to flooding (necessity for extension legs

on towers), corona discharge and associated electromagnetic
interference, natural washing and insulator performance
Humidity
Effect on insulator design
Altitude
Effect on insulation and conductor voltage gradient
Ice and Snow
Required for design of conductor sags and tensions. Build-up

can also affect insulation as well as aerodynamic stability
Atmospheric
Pollution
Effect on insulation and choice of conductor material (IEC 815

Guide for the selection of insulators in respect of polluted
conditions
Soil
Electrically affecting grounding requirements (soil resistivity)
Characteristics and structurally the foundation design (weights, cohesion and
angle of repose)
Lightning
Effect on insulation levels and also earth wire screening

arrangements necessary to provide satisfactory circuit
availability.
Seismic Factor
Effect on tower and foundation design
General
Loadings
Refer also to IEC 826 and BS8100 (Loading and strength of

overhead transmission lines)
5.3 Conductor Selection

5.3.1 General
The selection of the most appropriate conductor size at a particular voltage level must
take into account both technical and economic criteria as follows:1. The maximum power transfer capability must be in accordance with the system
requirements
2. The conductor cross-sectional area should be such as to minimise the initial capital
cost and the capitalised cost of the losses.
3. The conductor should conform to the standard sizes already employed on the
network in order to minimise spares holdings and introduce a level of
standardisation.
Page 2 of 52

4. The conductor thermal capacity must be adequate.
5. The conductor diameter or bundle size must meet the recognised international
standards for radio interference and corona discharge.
6. The conductor must be suitable for the environmental conditions and conform to
constructional methods understood in the country involved (such as IEC, BS, etc)
5.3.2 Types of Conductor
For 36 kV transmission and above both aluminium conductor steel reinforced (ACSR to
IEC 209) and all aluminium alloy conductor (AAAC to IEC 208) may also be appropriate.
Aluminium conductor alloy reinforced (ACAR) and all alloy conductors steel reinforced
(AACSR to IEC 210) are less common than AAAC and all such conductors may be more
expensive than ACSR. Historically ACSR has been widely used because of its mechanical
strength, the widespread manufacturing capacity and cost effectiveness. For all but
local distribution, copper-based overhead lines are more costly because of the copper
conductor material costs. Copper has a very high corrosion resistance and is able to
withstand desert conditions under sand blasting. All aluminium conductors (AAC to IEC
207) are also employed at local distribution levels.
From a materials point of view the choice between ACSR and AAAC is not so obvious
and at larger conductor sizes the AAAC option becomes more attractive. AAAC can
achieve significant strength/weight ratios and for some constructions gives smaller sag
and lower tower heights. With regard to long-term creep or relaxation, ACSR with its
steel core is considerably less likely to be affected. Jointing does not impose
insurmountable difficulties for either ACSR or AAAC types of conductor as long as
normal conductor cleaning and general preparation are observed. AAAC is slightly
easier to joint than ACSR. The characteristics of different conductor materials are
given in Table 5.1
Figure 5.1 illustrates typical strandings of ACSR. The conductor, with an outer layer of
segmented strands, has a smooth surface and a slightly reduced diameter for the same
electrical area
Page 3 of 52

MODULE 5 CONDUCTORS, NETWORK AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSTRAINTS - PROPRIETARY DOCUMENT
Property
Unit
Annealed
copper
Hard-drawn
copper
Cadmium
copper
Hard-drawn
aluminium
Aluminium
Alloy
(BS3242)
Galvanised
steel
Relative conductivity
Volumetric resisitivity@20OC
Mass resisitivity@20OC
Resistance@20OC
Density
Mass
Resistance temperature coefficient @20OC
Coefficient of linear expansion
Ultimate tensile strength(approx BS values)
Modulus of elasticity
(%)
( mm2/m)
( kg/m)
( mm2/km)
(kg/mm3)
(kg/mm2/km)
(per OC)
(per OC)
(MN/m2)
(MN/m2)
100
0.01724 (std)(a)
0.15328
17.241
8890
8.89
0.00393
17 x 10-6
255
100 x 103
97 (average)
0.01771 (avg) )(b)
0.15741
17.71
8890
8.89
0.00381
17 x 10-6
420
125 x 103
79.2 (min)
0.02177 (max)
0.19472
21.77
8945
8.945
0.00310
17 x 10-6
635
125 x 103
61 (min)
0.02826 (max)
0.07640
28.26
2703
2.703
0.00403
23 x 10-6
165
70 x 103
53.5
0.0322 (std)
0.08694
32.2
2703
2.703
0.0036
23 x 10-6
300
70 x 103
7780
7.78
11.5 x 10-6
1350
200 x 103
Note:
(a) For calculation this figure may be taken as 0.017241379

(b) Value at assumed UTS of 420 MN/m2
Table 5.1 Characteristics of Different Conductor Materials
Page 4 of 52

6 AL./1St
26 AL./19St
54 AL./19St
7 AL./1St
AL./1St
88AL./1St
6 AL./1St
18 AL./1St
42 AL./19St
18 AL./19St
4 AL./3St
30 AL./7St
76 AL./7St
12 AL./7St
30 AL./19St
24 AL./7St
26 AL./7St
54 AL./19St
42 Seg/30 AL./7St
nAL= no. of aluminium strands

nSt = no. of steel strands
Fig. 5.1 Conductor Arrangements for Different ACSR Combinations

Page 5 of 52

There is no standard nomenclature for overhead line conductors. Code names are based
on animals (Refer to Table 5.2).
Aluminium-based conductors are referred to by their nominal aluminium area. Thus
ACSR with 54 Al strands surrounding seven steel strands, all strands of diameter d =
3.18 mm. is designated 54/7/3.18; aluminium area = 428.9 mm2, steel area = 55.6 mm2,
and described as having a nominal aluminium area of 400 mm2.
In France the total area of 485 mm2 is quoted and in Germany the aluminium and steel
area 429/56 are quoted. In North America, the area is quoted in circular mils (1000
circular mils = 0.507 mm2)
Stranding
Code
name
Horse
Lynx
Zebra
Dove
12/7/2.79
30/7/2.79
54/7/3.18
26/3.72 +
7/2.89
Alu area
(mm2)
Steel
area
(mm2)
Diameter
(mm)
Mass
(kg/km)
Breaking
Load
(kN)
Resistance
(/km)
73.4
183.4
428.9
42.8
42.8
55.6
13.95
19.53
28.62
538
942
1621
61.2
79.8
131.9
0.3936
0.1441
0.0674
282
45.9
23.56
1137
99.88
0.1024
Table 5.2 Typical Properties of some ACSR Conductors

5.3.3 Aerial Bundled Conductor
Research onto excessive power failures occurring on open wire distribution systems
under storm conditions has lead to the development of the Aerial Bundled Conductor
(ABC). Their employment on distribution networks is now extremely popular in various
parts of the world as a means of improving consumer supply reliability.
The cost of ABC quite naturally exceeds that of the bare, air-insulated traditional
approach. For short lines up to 24 kV, employment of ABC is about 160% of the cost of
bare wires in terms of system losses (revenue). The limiting factor is volt drop, this
being determined by the line reactance. For longer lines and higher currents the
running cost differential diminishes. However, the capital costs per unit length for
ABC are approximately twice that for bare-wire. It could be argued that the ABC end
product is a more pleasing overhead line.
Delegates Notes
Page 6 of 52

There are two distinct ABC systems in use. One system uses a self-supporting bundle
of insulated conductors where all conductors are laid helically and where tension is
taken on all conductors which are of hard-drawn aluminium. An alternative system is
where all conductors are insulated and the hard-drawn aluminium phase conductors are
laid up around an aluminium alloy neutral which ahs a greater tensile strength and acts
as a catenary wire to support the whole bundle. The insulation material is either
polyvinylchloride (PVC), linear polyethylene (PE) or cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE).
A comparison of the advantages and disadvantages between ABC and conventional openwire distribution construction is given in Table 5.3
With ABC construction core identification and the need to distinguish between neutral
and phase conductors is essential and in practice such overhead line emergency work is
often carried out in poor light. One, two or three prominent ribs are introduced along
the length of the core insulation to identify the phases, and multiple low profile ribs
along the neutral conductors may be identified by touch irrespective of the position of
the neutral in the bundle.
Delegates Notes
Page 7 of 52

Property
Pros (ABC vs openwire
Cons (ABC vs openwire
1. Ultimate tensile strength
Higher for neutral

catenary wire support
Simple fittings
Less stock/stores
holdings
Possible
support/fittings failure
prior to bundle failure
2. Current ratings
Lower however note

that the design of
distribution
voltage
level is usually based on
voltage drop rather
than current carrying
capacity
3. Voltage regulation
Lower AC reactance
(typically 25%)
Higher DC resistance
(typically +15%)
4. Earth loop impedance
Line lengths will be less

(typically
15%)
because of higher DC
resistance. This is an
important issue in PME
systems
5. Short-circuit ratings
Thermal limits on both

conductor
and
insulation means more
attention to speed of
protection is required
Same
-10%
Same
1.6 to 2 times
6.
Costs
(a) Fittings
(b) Conductor
(c) Poles and stays
(d) Labour
(e) Maintenance
refurbishment
new works
under eaves
refurbishment
new works
-36%
-25%
-17%
-22%
lower costs
Table 5.3 Comparison between Aerial Bundled Conductor and Open-wire
Page 8 of 52

5.3.4 Conductor Breaking Strengths
The declaration of breaking strength in conductors does not have a unique value. The
value depends upon the method of calculation employed as stipulated in the appropriate
National or IEC standards to which the material is supplied. Differences quoted in
breaking strengths for a given conductor configuration are not due to the material
itself but to the calculation methodologies.
The IEC and BS values listed in Table 5.4 are fairly close for the two types of
conductor displayed.
Calculation Standard
ACSE conductor 50/8

Breaking
(kg)
strength
ACSE
380/50
Breaking strength (kg)
BS 215, Pt 2, 1970
1714
12330
ASTM B232-74 (Class A)
1779
12398
ASTM B232-74 (Class B)
1724
12059
ASTM B232-74 (Class C)
1669
11720
NF C34 120 1968 (R)
14700
NF C34 120 1968 (N)
12105
DIN 48 204 (declared)
1742
12552
DIN 48 204 (theoretical area)
1716
12314
DIN 48 204 (calculated area)
conductor
12306
CSA C49 1-75
1752
12579
IEC 209 (now IEC 1089)
1720
12305
Table 5.4 Calculated Conductor Breaking Strengths According to some Different

Standards
Such anomalies have presented a dilemma to manufacturers of conductors and fittings
as to how to decide whether test results were applicable to the conductor or to the
fittings. The calculation of conductor behaviour under changing loading conditions
(wind, ice) and temperature is related to breaking strengths, and the design of fittings
(tension clamps, repair sleeves etc) must also be related to these values. Hence it is
necessary in any overhead line specification to state clearly which standard calculated
breaking strengths are to be based on in order to avoid inevitable disputes at a later
date. If in doubt use the IEC standards.
Page 9 of 52

5.3.5 Bi-metal Connectors
Special copper/aluminium joints are required when terminating an aluminium conductor
on to a copper terminal in order to prevent corrosion. A termination of this type usually
comprises an aluminium sleeve compressed onto a copper stalk with an insulating disc
separating the two surfaces which are exposed to the atmosphere (refer to figure 5.2).
The two dissimilar materials are generally welded together by friction welding as this
process ensures a better corrosion resistance at the interface. An additional
protection is afforded by the use of an anticorrosion varnish. When using such fittings
it is always recommended that the aluminium component is above the copper one. Even
slight traces of copper on the aluminium have a drastic effect on the aluminium
material.
Copper Pin
This area around the

Aluminium /copper weld
Is protected by an
Anti corrosive varnish to
Prevent galvanic action
Aluminium
Ferrule
Fig.5.2 Bi-metal Connector

5.3.6 Corrosion
Overhead lines are built in widely different climatic conditions all around the world.
Over the years a great deal of experience has been acquired on their performance.
Aluminium conductors have a good corrosion behaviour due to an oxide layer which
forms on the outside. This provides a protective layer which remains undisturbed
throughout the life-cycle protecting the conductor from any further corrosion.
However ACSR conductor is known to suffer from bulge corrosion. This is an increase
in conductor diameter resulting from bimetallic corrosion.
Page 10 of 52

Early problems associated with deterioration of the steel cores of ACSR conductors
have been resolved over the years by the use of high temperature greases. These
greases prevent the onset of galvanic corrosion between the galvanised steel core and
the outer aluminium wires. They have a high drop point which allows continuous
operation of the conductor at 75OC and full service life protection. AAAC will obviously
offer superior corrosion resistance than un-greased ACSR. Conductors that are not
fully greased are not recommended for corrosive areas. The resistance properties of
ACSR also depend upon the number of layers of aluminium surrounding the steel core.
The conclusions of research carried out in the late 1960s showed that:
Pure aluminium had the best corrosion resistance under the majority of
environmental conditions
Smooth body conductors were the most corrosion resistant, especially if the
inner layers were greased.
Small diameter wires were most susceptible to corrosion damage and to failure.
Thus for a given conductor area it is preferable to have a fewer larger diameter
strands
The overall corrosion performance of aluminium alloy conductors depends upon

the type of alloy used.
For very aggressive environments the following order of preference is suggested: Aluminium conductor fully greased
Aluminium conductor with alumoweld core fully greased
ACSR fully greased
Aluminium conductor with alumoweld un-greased
ACSR with greased core.
Delegates Notes
Page 11 of 52

5.4 Calculated Electrical Ratings

5.4.1 Heat Balance Equation
The conductor thermal current rating in wind, ignoring any voltage regulation
considerations, is given by the following simplified heat balance equation as valid for
stranded conductors:
Heat generated (I2R conductor losses) = heat lost by convection(watts/km)
+heat lost by radiation (watts/km)
-heat gained by solar radiation (watts/km)
= H C + H R - HS
I 2 R 20 [1 = (t + ) + ) = 387(V x d )
0.448
+ x E c x s x d (t + + 273 ) - (t + 273 )
4
- S x S x d (watts/km) .(5.1)
where I = current rating, amps
R20 = resistance of conductor at 20OC

= temperature coefficient of resistance per
0.00403)
C (for ACSR at 20OC, =
t = ambient temperature in OC
= temperature rise, OC (t1 = initial temperature and t2 = final temperature)

S = solar absorption coefficient depends upon outward condition of the
conductor and varies between 0.6 for new bright and shiny conductor to 0.9 for
black conditions or old conductor. Average value of 0.8, say, may be taken for
initial design purposes.
S = intensity of solar radiation, watts/m2

D = conductor diameter, mm
V = wind velocity normal to conductor, m/s
EC = emissivity of conductor differs with conductor surface brightness.
Typical values are 0.3 for new bright and 0.9 for black aluminium, ACSR or
AAAC conductor. Average value = 0.6
s = Stefan-Boltzmanns constant = 5.7 x 10-8 watts/m2

= pi, constant (22/7) = 3.141592654..
For design purposes 0.5 or 0.6 m/s wind speeds are usually taken. Higher wind speeds
would of course lead to higher ratings. In practice, the heat balance is a highly complex
process bit the above equation is adequate for calculation purposes. Further research
is on going using the following: Proprietary Document
Page 12 of 52

Deterministic models with values based on experience without attempting to correlate
wind speed with air temperature or solar radiation.
Probabilistic models based on availability of statistical data since practical
measurements have shown that in almost all cases the conductor temperature is lower
than that predicted by other methods.
5.4.2 Power Carrying Capacity
Approximate economic power transfer capacity trends for different line voltages
based on power transfer being proportional to the square of the line voltage are given
in figures 5.3a and 5.3b for transmission voltage up to 500 kV. In practice, the capacity
will be limited over long distances by the conductor natural impedance (voltage
regulation) as well as by conductor thermal capacity. Note also that transient stability
limits on longish inter-ties between large networks may also limit the power transfer
capability to a value lower than the thermal limit.
Depending upon the required electrical load transfer, the number of overhead line
conductors of a particular type (used per phase) will vary. Conductor configurations are
given in figure 5.4
Therefore, under the following specific tropical conditions (40OC ambient temperature,
0.894 m/s wind speed, 100 mW/cm2 solar radiation and 35OC temperature rise), the
calculated ratings for typical ACSR twin conductors at 230 kV would be: Type (Nominal)
2
2
2
2
2
x
x
x
x
x
200
300
400
500
600
mm2
mm2
mm2
mm2
mm2
230 kV
1052 A (419 MVA)
1296 A (516 MVA)
1558 A (620 MVA)
1742 A (694 MVA)
1890 A (753 MVA)
Delegates Notes
Page 13 of 52

Voltage/ Power
11kV
33kV
100- DOG
25 - GOPHER
(b)
100 - GOAT
25 - GOPHER
(b)
300-GOAT
INADEQUATE
50 -RABBIT
50 -RABBIT
200 -PANTHER
200 -PANTHER
5MVA (a)
10MVA (a)
25MVA (a)
(b)
50 MVA
100 MVA
200 MVA
200 MVA
300 MVA
400 MVA
500 MVA
600 MVA
66kV
132kV
220kV
275kV
250-BEAR
2 x 175 LYNX
400 - ZEBRA
Notes
200 -PANTHER
1. Numbers refer to nominal aluminium area e.g. 100m2
2 x 150-WOLF
2. For voltages up to and including 66 kV, conductor size is governed
by thermal rating and/or voltage drop surface gradients are
normally acceptable
3. (a) is thermal rating b) is rating for 10% voltage drop - a power factor of 0.9
over a distance of 10 kM. Other
(ratings for other assumptions
2 x 250-BEAR
2 x 400 ZEBRA
800 MVA
1000 MVA
5. Typically minimum conductor sizes would be:

132 kV 1 x 14.2 mm
275 kV 2 x 19.3 mm
2000 MVA
2x 400 - ZEBRA
3x250-BEAR or
DOVE
400 kV 4 x 18 mm
3x 400 - ZEBRA
6. This Table is prepared for tropical conditions. For lower temperature conditions ratings would be 20-30% higher
7. This is really a very complex subject so readers should use this chart only as a guide
Fig. 5.3 (a) Approximate Conductor Sizes (ACSR) for Power Transfer Capabilities
2 x 350
ANTELOPE
or BISON
3 x 300 GOAT
500kV
2 x 175 LYNX
2 x 250-BEAR
(2 x BATANG)
2 x 350ANTELOPE
or BISON
4. For voltages 132kV and above conductor size is also governed by surface gradient and electrical stability of systems. Ratings of
lines are affected by equipment in substations
1800 MVA
400kV
25 - GOPHER
25 - GOPHER
75 - RACOON
75 - RACOON
200 -PANTHER
700 MVA
1200 MVA
330kV
Page 14 of 52
4x 400 ZEBRA
or 4xCROW
3x450-ELK
4x(282)
DOVE
4X300GOAT

Line Voltages from 66 kV to 600 kV

600
Line Voltage kV
500
400
300
200
100
100,000
200,000
Power Transfers MW-Kilometers
70
300,000
Line Voltages from 11 kV to 66 kV
60
Line Voltage kV
50
40
30
20
10
100
200
300
500
400
Power Transfers MW-Kilometers
600
Fig 5.3 (b) Economic Power Transfer Capacities

Page 15 of 52

A typical set of power transfer curves for the 2 x 400 mm2 conductor case are given in
figure 5.5. The optimum rating for a particular line length is given by the intersection
of the regulation curves for, say, 0.9 power factor (pf) with either the thermal limit or
the voltage regulation lines, whichever does not infringe the voltage or current limit
specified for the line. It should be noted that adequate technical performance is
usually judged upon the load flow under single circuit outage conditions (n-1). On the
other hand economic loadings do not consider contingencies and are based on normal
operating conditions.
Calculated ratings for typical ACSR conductors at lower voltage levels of 11, 33 and 66
kV overhead lines using different conductors over different distances are given in
Table 5.5.
Single
Flat twin
or
Triple
or
Vertical twin
Quad
Multiple bundle
Fig. 5.4 Typical Conductor Configurations
Page 16 of 52

230 kV Transmission line (2 x 400 mm2)
Line length 45 kM Sending end busbar voltage 105%
Max. current rating of line 1812 amps
Line parameters on 100 MVA base: resistance 0.000077 p.u./km
Reactance 0.000592 p.u./km
Susceptance 0.001830 p.u./km
Voltage regulation limit
Voltage at receiving end (%)
Thermal
Limit
Power Factor Key

(a) 1.00
(b) 0.98
(c) 0.95
(d) 0.90
(e) 0.85
Power transfer (MW)

Fig.5.5 Power Transfer Curves
Line
Voltage
(kV)
Conductor
Equivalent
Configuration
(mm)
11
1400
33
1500
66
3000
ACSR
Conductor
code
AAC
Conductor
code
Sparrow
Raven
Linnet
Iris
Poppy
Tulip
Quail
Penguin
Linnet
Hen
Aster
Oxlip
Tulip
Cosmos
Quail
Linnet
Hen
Aster
Tulip
Cosmos
MW
capacity
Based upon
5%
Regulation
0.95
1.4
3.00
16 (km)
5.00
6.70
8.35
11.50
32 (km)
12.50
16.00
18.40
0.49
0.7
1.5
32 (km)
2.50
3.35
4.18
5.75
64 (km)
6.25
8.00
9.18
0.33
0.47
1.00
48 (km)
1.70
2.20
2.80
3.80
96 (km)
4.18
5.32
6.12
0.25
0.35
0.75
64 (km)
1.25
1.70
2.10
2.90
128 (km)
3.14
3.99
4.59
Table 5.5 Typical Load Carrying Capacity of Overhead Distribution Lines

Page 17 of 52

5.4.3 Corona Discharge
High voltage gradients surrounding conductors (above about 18 kV / cm) will lead to
breakdown of the air in the vicinity of the conductor surface known as corona
discharge. The effect is more pronounced at high altitudes. Generally the breakdown
strength of air is approximately 31 kV peak/cm or 22 kV rms/cm. This is a useful guide
for the selection of conductor diameter or conductor bundle arrangement equivalent
diameter. Corona discharge and radio frequency interference generated cause
problems with the reception of radio communication equipment and adversely affect
the performance of power line carrier signals.
At higher voltage levels, and certainly at voltages of 400 kV and above, interferences
due to corona effect can be the dominant factor in determining the physical size of the
conductor rather than the thermal rating characteristic. Increasing the conductor
diameter may be necessary in order to reduce the practical size, strength and handling
capability for conductors. The bundling of conductors as described in section 5.4.2
assists in the effective increase in overall conductor diameter and hence leads to lower
stress levels.
The surface voltage gradient may be determined from Gausss theorem showing that an
increase in radius or equivalent radius leads to a reduction in surface voltage gradient.
Vg =
Q
where Vg = voltage surface gradient (volts/cm)
2 x x 0 x r
Q = surface charge per unit length (coulomb/m)
r = equivalent radius of smooth conductor (cm)
1
= permittivity of free space =
F/m
36 x x 10 9
In practical terms this may also be expressed as follows: -
Vg =
Up
d
2D
loge
2
d
kV/cm (5.2)
where Vg = voltage surface gradient (kV/cm)
Up = phase voltage (kV)

d = diameter of single conductor (cm)
D = distance between phases for single phase line or
equivalent spacing for three phase lines (cm)
For the three phase line configuration D = 3 Dry x D yb x D br where Dry, Dyb and Dbr are
the spacings between the different phases r, y, and b
Page 18 of 52

5.4.3.1 Worked Example for Corona Discharge
Consider a 132 kV single circuit Zebra ACSR line with conductor diameter of 28.62 mm
and spacings as shown on figure 5.6
D ry = 2 6 2 + 1.8 2 = 6.26
D yb = 2 72 + 1.8 2 = 7.23
D br = 2 12 + 3.6 2 = 3.74
D = 3 Dry x D yb x D br = 5.53m = 553 cm

Earth Wire
2.8 m
r
3m
y
3m
1.8 m
1.8 m
Fig. 5.6 Corona Discharge Calculation Example 132 kV Zebra Conductor

Spacing
Vg =
Up
d
2D
loge
d
2
kV/cm =
132/ 3
76.2
= =
[(2.86/2 )loge (2 x 553/2.86 )]
1.43 x loge (386.71)
76.2
1.43 x 5.96
= 8.94 kV/cm which is within the 18 kV/cm criteria
Page 19 of 52

5.4.3.2 Radio Frequency Interference
Radio frequency interference (RFI) noise is measured in decibels above 1 microvolt per
metre (dB > 1V/m) from comparative equations of the form: -
RFI - RFI 0 = 3.8( E mean + E 0 mean ) + 40log10
d
n
+ 10log10
d0
n0
1 + f0 n
D
+ 30log10 0 + 20log10
(1 + f 2 )
D
where RFI = calculated radio noise (dB > 1V/m)
Emean = calculated mean voltage gradient (kV/cm)

d = conductor diameter (cm)
n = number of sub-conductors in bundle
d = distance between phase and measuring antenna (m)
f = frequency (Hz)
The suffix 0 refers to the same quantities obtained from measurements. Acceptable
noise levels depend upon the quality of service required and is described in terms of an
acceptable signal-to-noise or signal plus noise-to-noise ratio. Some reception
classifications are given in Table 4.6
Signal-to-noise ration (dB)
Subjective impression of reception quality
32
27
22
16
Entirely satisfactory
Very good, background not intrusive
Fairly satisfactory, background evident
Background very evident, speech easily understood
Difficulty in understanding speech
Noise swamps speech
6
0
Table 4.6 Effect of Various Levels of Signal-to-noise Ratio

Thus if a signal has a field strength of, say, 60 dB > 1V/m and a fairly satisfactory
reception is required then the noise from the adjacent overhead line should not exceed
60 22 = 38 dB > 1V/m. Audible noise is presently not considered to be a controlling
factor at voltage levels below 500 kV. However, further research is on-going.
Page 20 of 52

5.4.4 Worked Example for an Overhead Line Calculation
A simple hand calculation can be used as a check against the computer solutions to
calculate the conductor and tower size normally employed.
Consider the need to transfer 40 MVA over a distance of 70 km on a Lynx ACSR under
the following tropical conditions: Maximum operating temperature
Maximum ambient air temperature
Lynx conductor max. resistance
Lynx conductor diameter
Emissivity
Solar radiation coefficient
Solar radiation intensity
Wind velocity
75OC
40OC (temperature rise = 35OC)
0.1441 /km
19.53 mm
0.6
0.8
1000 w/m2
1 mph = 0.447 m/s
Effective wind velocity = actual wind velocity x p/760 x 293/(273 + t)

= 0.447 x 760/760 x 293/313 = 0.418 m/s = 41.8 cm/s
(assuming normal atmospheric pressure)
Load Current at 132 kV for 40 MVA power transfer =
40 x 10 6
= 175 MVA
3 x 132 x 10 3
The conductor thermal rating capability is first determined, ignoring any voltage drop
considerations, by comparing the 175 A load current requirement and the rating of the
conductor derived from the heat balance equation detailed in section 5.4.1 (Equation
No. 5.1)
I 2 R = 12.8(t 2 - t 1 ) x 10 -4 x (V x d )
S x S x d (watts/km)
0.448
+ x E c x s x d x T2 - T1
4
I 2 x 0.1441 x 10 -5 = 13.8(75 - 40 ) x 10 -4 x (41.8 x 1.953 )
)-
0.448
) (
+ x 0.6 x 5.7 x 10 -12 x 1.953 x [273 + 75] - [273 + 40]

4
0.8 x 1000 x 10 -4 x 1.953

= 0.347 + 20.99 x 10 -12 x (348 4 - 318 4 ) - 0.156
0.347 + 0.106 - 0.156 = 0.297
I2 =
0.297
0.1441 x 10 3
I = 206.107 x 10 3
The conductor type is therefore more than adequate on thermal considerations for the
load required.
Page 21 of 52

A check is then made for any corona discharge limitations. Assume a conductor
configuration as shown in figure 5.7 and calculate for only one circuit r1, y1 and b1
Earth Wire
3.5 m
r2
r1
3.6 m
4.5 m
y1
y2
4.6 m
4.5 m
b2
b1
3.6 m
Fig. 5.7 Calculation Example 132 kV Lynx Conductor Spacing
D ry = 2 4.5 2 + 12 = 4.61 m
D yb = 2 4.5 2 + 12 = 4.61 m
Dbr = 9m
D = 3 Dry x D yb x D br = D = 3 4.61 x 4.61 x 9 = 5.76 m
Vg =
Up
2D
d
log e
2
d
132/ 3
76.2
76.2
=
= =
[(1.9533/2 )loge (2 x 576/1.953 )] 0.977 x loge (589.86 )
0.977 x 6.38
= 12.22 kV/cm which is within the 18 kV/cm criteria and Lynx conductor is therefore
acceptable from both a corona and current carrying capacity aspect.
5.4.5 Available kVA km Neglecting Capacitance
If capacitive reactance is ignored the voltage drop, Vd, for a line length, l, is calculated
from the usual formula: -
Vd = I (R cos + X sin )
If the load at the receiving end is given in kVA, then for a three phase system the load
current I =
kVA
3 xU
where U is the line voltage in kV
The main practical problem is now to obtain accurate values for the line reactance.
Some typical reactance values are given in Table 5.7
Page 22 of 52

Equivalent Al area
(mm2)
Stranding
25
6/1/2.36
30
6/1/3/35
75
6/1/4.1
100
125
150
175
6/2.72+7/1.57
30/7/2.36
30/7/2.59
30/7/2.79
200
30/7/3.0
250
300
30/7/3.35
30/7/3.71
Current (temperate) A
157
242
311
371
429
482
528
579
665
755
Current (tropical) A
130
198
253
299
343
384
419
457
521
587
R /km (20 C)
1.093
0.5426
0.3622
0.2733
0.2203
0.1826
0.1576
0.1362
0.1093
0.08911
R /km (75OC)
1.317
0.6539
0.4365
0.3294
0.2655
0.2203
0.1899
0.1641
0.1317
0.1074
0.3m spacing (415V)
0.298
0.276
0.263
0.253
0.239
0.233
0.229
0.224
0.217
0.211
1.4m spacing (11kV)
0.395
0.373
0.360
0.350
0.336
0.330
0.326
0.321
0.314
0.308
1.5m spacing (33kV)
0.399
0.377
0.364
0.355
0.340
0.335
0.330
0.325
0.318
0.312
3.0m spacing (66kV)
0.442
0.420
0.408
0.398
0.384
0.378
0.373
0.369
0.362
0.356
3.6m spacing (110kV)
0.454
0.432
0.419
0.410
0.395
0.390
0.385
0.380
4.9m spacing (132kV)
0.473
0.451
0.439
0.429
0.415
0.409
0.402
0.400
0.373
0.393
0.367
0.396
Table 5.7 ACSR Conductors Inductive Reactance, /km (equivalent spacings given) (IEE Proceedings, Vol. 133, Pt.C, No.7, November 1986)
Page 23 of 52

The value of (R cos + X sin ) is approximately constant for overhead line
configurations with conductor sizes above 150 to 200 mm2. Therefore very large
conductors are necessary to improve any voltage drop problems if such conductor sizes
prove to be inadequate. In such circumstances consideration has to be given to
raising the transmission voltage level.
It is useful to introduce the concept of kVA km for a given voltage drop for a variety
of overhead line configurations and different conductors. For a 10% voltage drop the.
0.1 U =
3 x kVA
kVA x l =
100 x U 2
with the length, l in km.(5.3)
(R cos + sin )
3xU
x l x (R cos + X sin ) x 10
-3
Tables may thus be prepared based on this equation for different conductors at
different power factors giving the available kVA km for a given % voltage drop.
5.5 Design Spans, Clearances and Loadings
5.5.1 Design Spans
The general parabolic sag/tension equation is addressed in module 4, section 4.2.3. In
order to design suitable tower dimensions for an overhead line it is necessary to
calculate the sags and tensions. The maximum conductor tension (occurring at minimum
temperature) is evaluated in order to ensure a sufficient mechanical strength margin
for a particular conductor. The sag is calculated in order to fix the tower height. The
ruling condition for the conductor has to be determined based on either the maximum
working tension (MWT) or the everyday stress (EDS). The conductor has to be
designed such that the maximum anticipated loads do not exceed 50% of the breaking
load at 6OC (MWT condition) and about 20% about at an everyday temperature of 16OC
(EDS condition)
Delegates Notes
Page 24 of 52

5.5.1.1 Basic Span
The optimum spacing of towers and their height becomes an economic (financial)
exercise. With short spans and low towers the total number of towers and associated
fittings will be large to cover a certain route length but less steel for each tower will
be needed. If long spans are used then the conductor sag between tower points
becomes greater and fewer, stronger, higher towers and fittings, but with
correspondingly more steel, are necessary to ensure correct clearances. The extent of
labour associated with a variable number of towers for a given route length will also be
important. Refer to figure 5.7: the overall height of the tower is: -
H = C + SO + 3 S A + SB + SC + SE
Where C = statutory clearance to ground
SA = length of insulator suspension set

SB, SC and SE = vertical distances between cross-arms and conductor above or to earth
wire
SO = sag of conductor (proportional to the square of the span)

Given the mechanical loading condition and phase to earth wire conductor types an
evaluation of the basic span may be made as follows. Assume as arbitrary length in a
flat area over say, 100 km. Inevitably there will be some angle/section towers whose
positions will be fixed beforehand (Refer to Module 4). From experience let this
number be NO. If L is the basic span and l the span length then the number of
suspension towers will be the next integer from
100 x L
+ l - NO
l
1. Conductors and earth wire costs for supply and installation

2. Insulators selection depending upon mechanical loading and pollution levels such
that SA, may be defined
3. SR, SC, SE a function of the still air clearance coordinated with insulation level
4. Tower weight (W) lengthy designs may be omitted at this stage by using a
formula such as that by P.J.Ryle: Approximate weight of tower W = K1 x H x
Approximate base width K 2 x
M1
M1
Page 25 of 52

Where H = overall tower height

M1 = ultimate overturning moment (OTM) at the base of the tower. This must be
the largest OTM corresponding to the highest loading conditions affecting
one leg of the tower and taken as the sum of the transverse and
longitudinal moments due to the conductor tension, tower and conductor
wind loadings. For convenience the OTM due to the wind on the structure
as a proportion of all other loads may be accepted as :-
25 % (20 to 30%) for intermediate towers

10% (7 to 15%) for small angle (10O to 30O) towers
8% (5 to 10%) for 60O towers
K1 and K2 are constants (See below)

x
x
SE
SA
SC
SA
SB
HO
SA
SO = sag
C = clearance
Foundations
H O = C + S O+ 3SA + SB +S C + SE
Fig. 5.7 Overall Tower Height
Tower Type
K1
K2
Conventional mild steel
0.008
0.30
5. Foundations depends upon soil properties and a site visit is necessary to assess
the situation. However and assessment of uplift and compression loads may be made
since an approximate base width can be calculated.
With knowledge of suspension and tension tower weights, supply and installation costs
can be assessed.
Page 26 of 52

The summation of the costs involved will then give an indication of the approximate
total cost. By varying the span length l (with its influence on SO and associated
quantities), cost versus span may be evaluated and plotted. Such curves as illustrated in
figure 5.8 are in practice normally very flat at the bottom. Experience shows that a
span selected slightly greater than the minimum derived from such an initial analysis
gives an overall optimum choice. From a recent international survey the supply costs of
overhead lines may be broken down as in Table 5.8.
Description
Conductors
Earth wires
Insulators
Towers
Foundations
Up to 150 kV
31.6
4.1
8.8
36
19.5
150 300 kV
31.5
3.5
9.3
36.0
19.7
> 300 kV
34.1
3.9
6.9
36.4
18.7
Table 5.8. Relative Supply and Installation Costs for Overhead Lines
The breakdown given in Table 5.8 is only an approximation. It gives average values for
many lines and practices encountered by Balfour Beatty throughout the world and
caries according to line voltage, conductor configuration and the design of the
supporting structure. In addition, an allowance has to be made for the routing survey,
land clearance, erection and similar items. Basic spans might be approximately 365 m at
230 kV and 330 m at 132 kV. The minimum allowable ground clearance between phase
conductors and earth is derived from specified conductor clearances for the country
involved, in still air at maximum conductor temperature. Survey figures for the
proportion of tower costs compared to the overall line costs ranged from 8% to 53%
with ACSR, but from 25% to 45% with AAAC.
5.5.1.2 Wind Span
The wind span is half the sum of the adjacent span lengths as shown in figure 5.8b. At
230 kV this might be 400m under normal conditions and 300m under broken wire
conditions. Correspondingly, at 132kV typical values are 365m and 274m respectively
Delegates Notes
Page 27 of 52

Cost
(a)
Cost v Span Plot
Span
Basic
span
Cost/span plot to determine most economic basic span.

The basic span is the horizontal distance between centres
of adjacent supports on Level Ground
(b)
Wind and Weight Span
Cold sag template

curve
Weight Span
Wind Span
= L1 + L2
L1
L2
L3
The wind span is half the sum of adjacent horizontal span lengths
supported on any one tower.
The weight span is the equivalent length of conductor supported
at any one tower at minimum temperature
Fig.5.8 (a) and (b) Cost v span, Wind and Weight Span
Page 28 of 52

(c)
Tension
Tower
Equivalent Span
Suspension
Tower
Suspension
Tower
L2
L1
EQUIVALENT SPAN =
Tension
Tower
Suspension
Tower
L3
L4
L31 +L32 +L33 +L34 +.......L3n

L1 +L2 +L3 +L4 +......Ln
The equivalent span is used for determination of sag in spans for which the tension in any
section length is that which would apply to a single span equal to the equivalent span.
Fig.5.8 (c) Illustrating Equivalent Span

5.5.1.3 Weight Span
The weight span is the distance between the lowest points on adjacent sag curves on
either side of the tower as shown in figure 5.8b. It represents the equivalent length or
weight of conductor supported at any one tower at any time. For design purposes, it is
the value under worst loading conditions (minimum temperature in still air) which gives
the greatest value. A tower at the top of a hill may be heavily loaded and it is usual to
assume a weight span which can reach up to twice the value of the basic span. In fairly
level terrain a value of 1.6 to 1.8 will be adopted.
The ratio of weight span to wind span is also important since insulators on lightly loaded
towers may be deflected excessively thus encroaching electrical clearances. A ratio of
weight span to wind span of approximately 0.7 is usually considered acceptable. This
ratio is easily computed with the use of a cold template. When plotting tower
positions, the engineer must be aware of the maximum weight span and of such ratios.
Typical weight span values at 230 kV and 132kV are included overleaf.
Page 29 of 52

230 kV
Suspension towers
132 kV
Suspension towers
750m Normal conditions

565m Broken wire conditions

Tension Towers
Tension Towers
5.5.1.4 Equivalent Span

The equivalent span is defined as a fictitious single span in which tension variations due
to load or temperature changes are nearly the same as in the actual spans of the
section. The mathematical treatment to obtain the equivalent span is based on parabolic
theory and there is no similar concept using full catenary equations. For sagging the
overhead line conductors the tension appropriate to the equivalent span and the
erection temperature as shown in figure 5.8c is used. Erection tensions are calculated
from final tension tensions making al allowance for creep. This is equated to a
temperature shift which is applied to final tensions.
5.5.1.5 Creep
Creep is a phenomenon that affects most materials subjected to stress. It manifests
itself by an inelastic stretch (or permanent elongation) of the material in the direction
of the stress. Certain materials such as aluminium are more susceptible than others.
For example steel suffers only a limited amount of creep. The increase in conductor
length resulting from inelastic stretch produces increased sags which must be taken
into account in the overhead line design and installation process so as not in infringe
clearances.
Some mathematical models have been evolved to help the engineer assess the effect of
creep and those used in the UK are included here as equations 5.4 and 5.5:
= K e t mm/km ...(5.4)
for all types of conductors, and.
= K t mm/km .(5.5)
for AAC, AAAC and ACAR where
= permanent inelastic elongation (creep)
K = constant
= average stress in conductor
, , , = creep indices obtained by test
e = natural logarithm base = 2.7182818, t = time in hours, = temperature in OC
Page 30 of 52

Since the total inelastic strain can be considered as the result of geometric settlement
of the strands and of the metallurgical creep thereafter, the derivation of the
constants and of the indices (, , , ) is of prime importance. In the UK it has been
decided that tests should be carried out in such a way that the geometric settlement
would be taken into account in the constants and indices and that the formulae
(equations 5.4 and 5.5) would give the total creep. Typical values for the constants
involved in these equations are given in Tables 5.9a through 5.9d.
Conductor
Stranding
Al Steel
Al/steel
Area
ratio
54
7.71
Process
HR
1.1
0.0175
2.155
0.342
0.2127
EP
1.6
0.0171
1.418
0.377
0.1876
48
11.4
HR
3.0
0.01000
1.887
0.165
0.0116
30
4.28
EP
2.2
0.0107
1.375
0.183
0.0365
26
6.16
HR
1.9
0.0235
1.830
0.229
0.0365
24
7.74
HR
1.6
0.0235
1.882
0.186
0.00771
18
18.0
EP
1.2
0.0230
1.502
0.332
0.1331
12
1.71
HR
0.66
0.0115
1.884
0.273
0.1474
Note: Industrial processing of aluminium rod: HR = hot rolled; EP extruded or Properzi
Table 5.9a Creep coefficients for ACSR conductors (Equation 5.4)
Process
Hot rolled
Extruded
0.15
Not available
1.4
Not available
1.3
Not available
0.16
Not available
Table 5.9b Creep coefficients for AAAC conductors (Equation 5.5)
Process
Number of make up wires

7
19
37
61
Hot Rolled
0.27
0.28
0.26
0.25
Extruded or
Properzi
0.18
0.18
0.16
0.15
1.4
1.4
1.3
1.3
0.16
0.16
Table 5.9c Creep coefficients for AAC conductors (Equation 5.5)
Page 31 of 52

Process
Extruded
Properzi
or
0.04 + (0.24m/m + 1)
1.4
1.3
0.16
Table 5.9d Creep coefficients for ACAR conductors (Equation 5.5)

When applying the technique of creep evaluation the designer must forecast reasonable
conductor history. Typical conditions might be shown in Table 5.10 where tm and tIV
represent the periods for which compensation should be made.
Stage
Stress
Temperature
Time
1.
Running out
Average ambient
Time for running

out as decided by
design office
2.
Pretension
(If provided
Average ambient
As decided by
design office
3.
Stress at given
Temperature
Mean yearly
temperature + 5OC
tm
4.
Stress at given
Temperature
tIV
Maximum stress
tIV
Table 5.10 Typical Creep Conditions
Delegates Notes
Page 32 of 52

Virgin conductor on drum

Allowance to be made
for this creep only
Calculate creep strain
Is there a
pretension period?
Yes
Change the tension to the

pretension value and
ignore creep
during this change
No
Change tension to stringing
tension and ignore creep
during this change

during pretension period

since loading
Answer
Fig.5.9 Creep Assessment Procedure

Figure 5.9 illustrates an acceptable procedure for creep assessment. As an illustration
of the steps to be followed consider the following example: 1. The EDS is to be 20% of the UTS of the conductor at 20OC
2. The maximum stress occurs when the conductor is subjected to a wind of
50kg/m2, no ice
3. The maximum operating temperature is 70OC
4. Accept a span length of 400m (In practice, three values should be taken: a
maximum and a minimum span both deduced from the profile, and a basic span.
The span which gives the highest value of creep strain is selected as a basis for
creep compensation)
5. Creep strain is to be calculated for a period of 30 years
6. Conductor is manufactured from aluminium rod obtained by the Properzi method
Some decisions based on experience are the necessary regarding the duration of the
maximum and minimum stresses, and values may then be inserted in a tabular format as
shown in Table 5.11
Page 33 of 52

Stage
Stress
Temperature
Time
1.
20% UTS
20OC
1 hour
2.
Nil
(no pretension)
Not applicable
(no pretension)
Not applicable
(no pretension)
3.
Calculate by program
25OC
257544 hours(a)
4.
70OC
2628 hours(a)
0OC
2628 hours(a)
Table 5.11 Note (a) is the period for which compensation is required
If we consider the general change-of-state sag/tension equation the influence of creep
strain and temperature are both linear (Refer to section 5.5.2.5)
W 2 x L2
1
=
-6
1
1 EA(T2 T1 ) + ( 2 - 1 ) + ( 2 - 1 ) x 10
24 2 - 2
T2 T1
It is possible, therefore to express creep strain, , by an equivalent temperature
change, i.e.
= e x 10 6 .(5.6)
where
is the coefficient of thermal expansion per OC
This is a widely employed concept when creep compensation is carried out with the help
of sag and tension charts. For example with Zebra conductor it has been assessed that
creep strain at the end of 10 years (t = 87,600 hours) is
= 616 mm/km giving e = 32OC approximately, then:
Maximum design temperature of conductor = 50OC, say

Equivalent temperature corresponding to creep, e = 32OC
Temperature for evaluating sag time, t, and corresponding to the maximum design
temperature of the conductor when no pretension or over-tension regime are
O
applicable, + e = 82 C
This will clearly lead to a penalty in the height of all towers. An alternative would be to
reduce the sag at sagging time resulting in a temporary over-tension in the conductor.
However, this results in an over-design penalty on the angle towers. By applying several
combinations of temperature correction or pretension the designer is able to aim for
the least onerous solution.
Page 34 of 52

5.5.1.6 Catenary Equations for Sloping Spans
Basic catenary equations are useful. These can be found in most higher mathematics
textbooks.
5.5.2 Conductor and Earth Wire Spacing and Clearances
5.5.2.1 Earth Wires
Where there is a risk of direct lightning strike to the phase conductors, transmission
lines are provided with overhead earth (or ground) wires to shield them and also to
provide a low impedance earth return path. Note that todays earth wires on new
circuits are more often than not constructed with an optical fiber in the center of the
bundle. This is known as optical fibre ground wire (OPGW) and is used for end-to-end
data communications for protection relaying, Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
(SCADA), other utility data transmission requirements and voice etc as a wideband
alternative to power line carrier (PLC).
The degree of shielding of the overhead line phase conductors from lightning strikes is
determined by the shielding angle afforded by the earth wire(s) running over the line.
A single earth wire is considered to proffer a 30O shielding angle as illustrated in
figure 5.10a. Where lines are erected in areas of high lightning activity (refer also
module 6), or with supporting structures with wide horizontal spacing configurations
e.g. low height 400 kV towers in some networks, two earth wires are often provided to
permit a lower shielding angle and, therefore, better protection. Figure 5.10b shows a
0O angle protection employing two earth wires.
Delegates Notes
Page 35 of 52

EARTH WIRE
Phase -conductor
Cross -arm
30 O
(a) TYPICAL 132kV DOUBLE CIRCUIT TOWER

WITH 30O SHIELD ANGLE
EARTH WIRES
0O
(b) TYPICAL 230kV DOUBLE CIRCUIT TOWER

WITH 0O SHIELD ANGLE
Fig.5.10 Overhead Line Earth Wire Lightning Screen
Page 36 of 52

The vertical spacing between the earth and phase conductors must be such as to
ensure sufficient clearance to prevent mid-span flashovers under transient conditions.
The sagging should be arranged so as to ensure that the vertical mid-span clearance
between the phase and earth conductors is about 20% greater than the supports.
Galvanised stranded steel presents a low cost earth wire material (refer to comment on
PGW above). Where severe pollution exists or where relay protection schemes demand
a low impedance path, ACSR or other materials are employed.
In the UK the early 132 kV lines were designed with a 45O angle of protection and gave
satisfactory cover. When this angle was applied to the 275 kV and 400 kV lines it was
found advantageous to reduce the angle to 30O
The calculation of lightning behaviour of overhead lines is very complex. The
electromagnetic model is, however, a convenient way of visualizing the process. Assume
a cloud at height H above the ground with a stepped leader originating from point O
as shown in figure 5.11a. If the distance OE to the earth wire is less than the distance
OC, the strike is more likely to hit the earth wire than the phase conductors.
Cloud
O
A
C
Overhead
line
Ground
Fig.5.11a Earth Wire Lightning Screen Protection (Vertical Formation)
Page 37 of 52

If a line EB is drawn at a tangent to the circle center, O, then by construction:
sin =
DB OA H h
=
=
EB OE
H
If it is assumed that H = 2h then sin =
2 H h
= 0.5 and = 30 O . This angle of
2H
protection is often adopted on the basis that the cloud height is likely to be twice the
height of the earth wire (top of the tower). If, however , H = 1.5h then
sin =
1.5 H h
= 0.333 and 20 O
1.5 H
Cloud
E
2h
h
1.5h
Ground
Fig.5.11b Earth Wire Lightning Screen Protection (Horizontal Formation)
When considering conductors arranged in horizontal formation (e.g. low 400 kV towers
mid-cross-arm in DEWA) it is customary to assume a cloud level at 1.5h to 2h. Figure
5.11b shows a single-circuit line with all three phases on horizontal formation.
5.5.2.2 Earthing Counterpoise
A lightning strike on the earth wire will be dissipated into the ground after passing
through the transmission structure and foundations. Wave propagation along electrical
lines obeys classical wave propagation theory. Wave reflections will occur at points of
discontinuity such as points of changing impedance. Consider the arrangement in figure
5.12. The voltage and current along the line at any time, t, are the vector sums of the
forward and reflected waves.
Page 38 of 52

Electrical line
Reflected
wave
Forward
wave
Positive direction
for all voltage, v and
Current, i, vectors
vr
vf
ir
if
ZL = characteristic
impedance of the line
f = forward
r = reflected
Fig.5.12 Wave Propagation Along Electric Lines

The basic equations are as follows: _
v = v f + v r (5.7)
_
i = if + ir (5.8)
_
v f = Z L ir , v r = Z L ir ..(5.9)
therefore
_
Z L i = v f v r , Z L i + v = 2 v f ..(5.10)
For a line terminated on an impedance, ZT, the relationships between voltage v. and
_
current, i, at the receiving end is v = Z T i
Combining with the equations 5.7 through 5.10 allows resolution in terms of the incident
wave
_
v = 2 ZT x
vf
_
_
ZL + ZT
(5.11)
Page 39 of 52

_
_
_
Z
Z
x vr
T
L
_
vf =
_
_
Z L + ZT
.(5.12)
_
v = instantane ous voltage

_
v f = forward voltage
_
vr = reflected voltage
_
For a line with open circuit at the receiving end ( ZT = infinity) then v f = v r and
_
v = 2 v f This illustrates possible voltage doubling effects.

Consider the example shown in figure 5.13
At the interface, A, between_ the overhead line and the cable there is an
_ impedance
mismatch. The
incident
wave
v
will
be
transmitted
through
the
cable
v
incident
Transmitte d and
_
reflected v Reflected in accordance with the equations 5.11 and 5.12
v Transmitte d =
2 ZC x v incident
_
ZOHL + ZC
v reflected
_
_
_
ZC - ZOHL x v reflected
=
_
ZOHL + ZC
Fig.5.13 Cable and Transformer Characteristic Impedances
Page 40 of 52

_
The transmitted voltage v Transmitte d is fully reflected at the interface, B, between the
cable and the effectively open circuit transformer impedance. This process continues
between points A and B in the circuit with multiple reflections and wave distortion. The
Basic Insulation Level (BIL) of all the equipments (cables, terminations, transformer
bushings etc.,) has to be specified to match the maximum anticipated voltages. For the
above example, consider a 132 kV overhead line, cable and transformer with
_
v incident = 830 kV
ZC = 10
ZOHL = 220
The surge voltage entering the cable is given by substituting in equation 5.11
_
v Transmitte d = 2 ZC x
v incident
_
_
ZOHL + ZC
2 x 10 x 830
= 72 kV
220 + 10
If the equipment BIL is specified as 650 kV (A standard IEC value for 145 kV rated
equipment) then the maximum voltage magnification allowed is 650/72 = 9 times. This
value will assist in the determination of protection equipment (Refer to Module 6).
Structures having a high impedance (or surge impedance) will cause the development of
extremely high potentials during the lightning strike conditions. This may in turn be
greater than the phase-to-neutral insulation of the line and cause a back flashover to
the phase conductor. In order to minimize this effect the tower footing impedance is
specified to a low value. Typically this is less than 10
This is achieved by connecting the tower footing to bare counterpoise conductors laid
in the ground. A test is required to measure the tower to ground impedance by driving
an additional test rod at an appropriate distance from the tower footing and measuring
the resistance across the tower to this electrode.
The counterpoise conductors may radially project from the base of the tower. If
necessary, however, a continuous counterpoise is directly buried and connected to each
tower along the line length. Earth rods may also be used at the tower base to try to
reduce the footing impedance. National and international regulations require touch
potentials to be kept within defined limits. Since all transmission lines have slight
leakage from phase conductors to earth it is essential to ensure proper tower earthing.
Page 41 of 52

Supporting steelwork (cross-arms) on wooden pole lines may not be connected to earth
thus saving the cost of earth conductors and electrodes. The pole itself acts as the
insulator. This poses a problem when low current earth faults continue to pass through
the high resistance of the pole to ground, the protection relaying being insufficiently
sensitive to cause a circuit trip. This can result in a complete burning of the pole and a
collapse of the circuit (Refer also to Appendix 4).
Auto reclose on the sending end breaker and downstream reclosers are usually provided
in distribution overhead line circuits to cover for transient faults such as lightning and
foreign objects. This is illustrated in figure 5.14
Sectionaliser
Sending end circuit breaker
fitted with auto-reclose
11kV OR 13.8kV
Downstream
recloser
Primary Busbar
Fig. 5.14 MV Overhead Feeder with Downstream Reclosers and Sectionalisers
Delegates Notes
Page 42 of 52

5.6 Load Flow Constraints in Transmission and Distribution Networks

5.6.1 Security Standards
Most utilities that generate and transmit electricity in bulk and hence are responsible
for supply to a large number of consumers design their networks to fixed or
deterministic standards of security. The criteria for what is acceptable as a
consequence following any specific fault occurrence is most clearly dictated in these
standards. Operational standards of security for networks already constructed and
thus performing the day to day function of supplying electricity, stem from these
design standards and are essentially deterministic. I.e. they are not permitted to be
varied in accordance with the level of probability. There is, however, a tendency,
worldwide to vary the standards for economic gain in accordance with the fault
probability, this being largely weather dependent.
Unless very strong economic reasons exist, networks are thus operated so that at all
times a loss of any single generating unit or Transmission Element does not cause
(1) A Loss of supply to consumers
(2) An unacceptable change in system frequency or voltage
(3) Damage to other generating or transmission plant
Note that System Stability must be maintained since one or more of the above
consequences could otherwise result.
This is known as the single contingency and means
(1) Loss of Generation attributable to the failure of any single component (this is
normally one unit but could be more during abnormal station running)
(2) Loss of a double circuit overhead line
(3) Loss of a single circuit overhead line
(4) Loss of a single-circuit underground cable
(5) Loss of a single transformer
(6) Loss of a section of busbars
Where the loss is due to a short-circuit it is normally assumed that a single set of main
protection will also fail to operate.
Main transmission networks are designed to fulfil these standards at the anticipated
peak demand. One would imagine that this is the most stressful condition. In fact this
is seldom the case, because at times other than peak demand, circuits and generators
are our of service for a variety of reasons.
Page 43 of 52

When a circuit is out of service for a planned outage, the network must be operated so
that it can withstand the various forced outages above (often referred to as credible
faults)
The operation of power networks to the above standards of security can cost vast sums
of money in non-economic generation dispatch. This is one price that is paid for
security in the operational phase. SCADA/EMS systems play a very significant role in
this exercise
5.6.2 Load Flow Constraints
The current carrying capacity of any circuit is limited by the lowest rated element in
the series path.
Normally the substation terminal equipment such as cables, sealing ends, circuit
breakers, disconnectors and current transformers are arranged to have a continuous
rating at least equal to the main component of the circuit. Care is required however, in
the application of seasonal or short-term circuit ratings. The terminal equipment often
has quite different time related thermal characteristics.
The power flows in interconnected networks depend upon the respective levels of
generation, position and levels of demand and the network characteristics. (Refer to
figure 5.15)
20 MW
80 MW
80MW
(1)
A
20MW
120 MW
100 MW
120MW
20 MW
60MW
80 MW
(2)
20MW
40MW
120 MW
C
100 MW
120MW
20 MW
A
100 MW
52MW
80 MW
28MW
(3)
28MW
C
120 MW
120MW
Fig 5.15 Simple Network

Page 44 of 52

Power flows in interconnected networks must be adjusted at all times to ensure that
circuits are within their continuous ratings. Furthermore, credible 'forced outages'
either of generating units or transmission circuits must also lead to unacceptable or
uncontrollable overload conditions (see Section 5.6.1 - Security Standards). Total
system demand and hence the demand taken at each transformer substation varies
enormously. Furthermore, the generation to feed this demand varies not only in total
output terms (i.e. matching demand) but also in its relative location. It is often
necessary therefore, to adjust generation output levels uneconomically because of
load-flow constraints.
Figure 5.16 continues with the very simple example introduced in Figure 5.15. The
Power Station at Junction 'A' (or node) has an available capacity of 220 MW and is
cheaper to run than the Power Station at node 'B' which has an available capacity of
100 MW. Economics dictate that the Power Station at node 'A' supplies all the
network demand of 220 MW. Each of the three feeders A-B, B-C and A-C has a rating
of 120 MW.
Figure 5.16.1 represents the 'Steady Status or 'Basic' load-flow at this ideal economic
generation dispatch. Circuits A-B and A-C are heavily loaded at 100 MW each but
within their continuous rating.
20 MW
A
220 MW
100MW
80 MW
B
20MW
(1)
100MW
C
120 MW
20 MW
A
220 MW
80MW
80 MW
(2)
120MW
C
120 MW
20 MW
80MW
A
220 MW
(3)
200MW
C
120 MW
20 MW
200MW
B
120MW
(4)
220 MW
C
120 MW
Fig.5.16 Simple Network (Economic Generation Level)
Page 45 of 52

However, if the security standards (refer to Section 5.6.1) are applicable to this
network dictate that it must be able to withstand a loss of any one of the three
feeders, then the ideal economic dispatch scenario is unacceptable. Loss of either A-B
or A-C feeder results in an overload condition (see Figures 5.16.3 and 5.16.4).
The minimum level of generation at point 'C' is 80 MW as shown in Figure 5.17. If an
additional circuit A-C exists with the same rating, then the economic dispatch scenario
is permissible (refer to Figure 5.18). This demonstrates the interrelation between
System Design and Operation Economics.
20 MW
A
140 MW
70MW
80 MW
B
10MW
50MW
(1)
80MW
C
120 MW
20 MW
A
140 MW
80MW
80 MW
(2)
40MW
80MW
C
120 MW
A
140 MW
80 MW
20 MW
80MW
120MW
(3)
80MW
C
120 MW
20 MW
120MW
80 MW
B
40MW
A
140 MW
(4)
80MW
120 MW
Fig. 5.17 Minimum acceptable Generation Level at C
Delegates Notes
Page 46 of 52

20 MW
A
220 MW
60MW
20MW
C
120 MW
20 MW
220 MW
(1)
80MW
60MW
80 MW
80 MW
80MW
(2)
115MW
C
85MW
120 MW
Fig.5.18 Additional Circuit added between A and C

For the network in Figure 5.18 a planned outage on one of the feeders A-C changes the
dispatch from economic to non-economic. The simple example also demonstrates how
transmission outages can affect the cost of production.
It should be noted that outage cases for items of generation must also be considered
when constraints of load flow are being examined.
The solution of the power flows in the outage cases of Figures 5.15 - 5.18, if real power
is the only consideration, is possible without any complex analogue or mathematical
(digital) modelling. In normal networks this is not of course true and such modelling
techniques are required in order to ensure security of the network at optimum cost.
The rating of circuits is in any event current dependent and hence the load-flow
constraints depend upon examination of both real and reactive power flows.
5.6.3 Overhead Line Short-term Overload Ratings
As stated earlier the current carrying capacity is dependent upon the maximum
operating temperature of the conductors. The rise in conductor temperature is due to
the heating effect of the current flowing through them (I2R). The cooling of the
conductors is affected by the air surrounding the conductors, which also supplies the
insulation between the conductors. The larger the cross-sectional area of the
conductor the lower its resistance (R) to the flow of current and at the same time the
lower is the heating effect. It is clear that the size of conductors strung on overhead
lines is restricted by the strength of the supporting structure, the most common being
the wooden pole.
Page 47 of 52

Since the power transfer is proportional to the product of line voltage and current
3 VL IL it is important to maintain system voltage levels at nominal or above, the limit
for power transfer of the overhead line being governed by the conductor carrying
ability as described.
The heating effect after a sudden change in current is carried, takes its time to
affect the rise in conductor temperature. Overhead lines thus have some time
dependent overload capacity, typically a line carrying 50% or less than its full load will
be able to carry about 30% more than its continuous rating following a sudden change
for approximately 5 minutes. The flow must then be reduced to a level less than the
continuous rating.
Short-term overload ratings of overhead lines can often be used to reduce or defer
capital expenditure in both Generation/Transmission Networks and in automated
distribution networks.
Worked Example
Figure 5.19 (a) represents an isolated 132kV network. The total peak demand of this
network is 2100MW, the MW demands at each 132kV substation are shown in the
bottom right hand corner of the box representing the substation. Any generation at
these substations is shown as a circle with a G in the middle and an arrow pointing at
the substation into which it feeds. The most recently added power plant to this
network Power Plant 17 (PP17) has the lowest cost of production and is switched at
substation 8019.
Definition of the problem

The network designer needs to establish that no load flow constraints are violated with
maximum output at PP17 and the remainder of the system demand being supplied from
the remaining plants having a higher cost of production. Note that spinning reserve is
to be carried out on the remaining plant for this design exercise. Plant on bars (POB)
means the maximum output of the plant synchronised to the system.
Actions
A three-phase balanced load flow study is carried out revealing the MW flows in the
neighbourhood of 8019 as in figure 5.19(b). Figure 2.19 (c) is a closer look at the
problem area showing the reactive power flows (MVAR) and the voltage level at
substation 8019.
Page 48 of 52

PP10 G POB 150 MW
100 MW
POB 150 MW
8012
G
100 MW
50
PP11
POB 400 MW
G
400 MW
PP15
8011
POB 400 MW
PP16
8017
G
300 350 MW
8013
50
150
8018
POB 150 MW
PP12
8016
G
150 100 MW
250
8010
100
8009
8008
50
100
POB 800 MW
8019
G
800 MW
140
PP17
8007
50
8014
8005
8003
8015
210
POB 200 MW
150 MW G PP14
8004
8006
10
40
100
POB 150 MW
PP13
G
140 100 MW
100
8001
60
Fig.5.19(a) An Isolated 132kV Network
POB 800 MW
G
PP17
80
80
150
8019
800 MW
140
100
99
150
100
148
50
79
78
40 79
78
8006
8007
87
50 87
148
99
50
14
14
14
14
8004
10
30
29
29
30
Fig.5.19(b) Real Power Flows in the neighbourhood of 8019 - Base Case Study
Page 49 of 52

The 132kV circuits which form the basic ring of this layout are double-circuits and
have conductor ratings at designed ambient temperature and wind speed of 200 MVA
(875A at rated voltage 132kV). The following high loads can be observed on the two
outgoing circuits 8019 - 8017. They are carrying approximately 622A each which is just
over 70% of the continuous rating.
(20)80
80 (20)
(35)
150
8019
G
PP17
143kV
800
(160)
140
20
(35)
150
Key
100 (15)
(15) 100
622
MW
(MVAR)
AMP
Fig.5.19 (c) Showing Real and Reactive Power Flows

Figure 5.19(d) shows the results of the next study with one of the circuits between
8019 and 8007 out of service.
(25)90
G
PP17
90 (25)
8019
143kV
800
(160)
140
20
(20)135
135 (20)
(80)
210
961
Key
MW
(MVAR)
AMP
Fig. 5.19(d) Post Fault Real and Reactive Power Flows

Page 50 of 52

The flow on the remaining circuit is seen to exceed the continuous rating (110%
approximately) but is within the 3 minute rating which is around 125% for a pre
disturbance flow. This can be deemed a satisfactory design situation for the n-1
criteria. Full output can be realised from PP17, since at the operational phase
generation output at PP17 can be immediately lowered to an appropriate level. The
ensuing deficit in generation versus demand will be made up with the spinning reserve
at the remaining plants. The amount of drop required should not exceed the normal
spinning reserve requirements; otherwise the additional capital expenditure for
additional circuits may well be outweighed in the operational phase by the need for
additional spinning reserve. In the example above the total spinning reserve is 300MW.
Actually in the peak demand example all generation is in fact connected. The drop
required cannot exceed 300MW without load disconnection. This would most likely
violate the security standards of the utility.
The precise analysis for the above condition would be carried out by the network
designer employing a further load flow study to derive the precise drop in generation
required.
A useful approximation can however be made by taking the ratio of the post-fault MW
flows on the remaining circuits connected to 8019.
Worked Example
Criteria :The initial drop in generation required must reduce the post fault loading on
8019 to 8007 to about 70% of the continuous rating which is 0.7 x 200 MW i.e.
140 MW.
Post Fault Conditions

Net Export from 8009 (Generation minus demand) = 800 -140 = 660MW
Flow on circuit to 8009 to 8007 = 210MW. See figure 5.19(d). The ratio of
this flow to the total export is thus 210/660 or 32%.
Approximate Calculation
Let x be required export in MW from 8009 that meets the criteria above i.e.
the flow on 8019 to 8007 is to be 140 MW
Then x = 140/0.32 = 440 MW
The approximate drop in generation required = 660 - 440 = 200MW
Page 51 of 52

5.7 Summary
This module has addressed conductor selection for overhead line including the
environmental constraints. Types of aluminium based conductors and aerial bundled
conductors were described. The principles of conductor breaking strength calculations
were introduced and the relation to both conductor and structure design.
The heat balance equations and the effect of corona discharge were addressed in
detail. The design of spans for adequate clearance was introduced and the effect of
creep on sag design was addressed.
Screening of overhead lines for lightning protection was addressed together with the
calculation of angle of protection. The need for adequately low impedance from tower
to ground and the solution employing counterpoises was covered.
Finally, load-flow constraints on network design and operations were addressed
including the use of short-term overload ratings.
Delegates Notes
Page 52 of 52

MODULE 6 CLEARANCES, FITTINGS & MAINTENANCE
CONTENTS
Section
No
Description
Figure or Table
Page
No.
6.1 Distribution Voltage Level Clearances

Table 6,1 Typical Overhead Line Clearances
Fig. 6,1 Typical Wood Pole and Steel Lattice Tower
Conductor Arrangements and Spacings
6.2 Transmission Voltage Level Clearances
6.3 Worked Example Line Calculation Sag and Tension
6.3.1 Broken Wire Conditions
6.3.2 Conductor Tests and Inspections
Table 6.2 Overhead Line Conductor Test Requirements
6.4 Overhead Line Fittings
6.4.1 Fittings Related to Aerodynamic Phenomena
6.4.1.1 Dampers and Aeolian Vibrations
Fig.6.2 Stocksbridge Damper Quantity and Positioning
Principles
6.4.1.2 Aeorodynamic Dampers and Galloping
6.4.1.3 Sub-span Oscillations and Spacers or Spacer-dampers
6.4.1.4 Armour Rods and Armour Grip Suspensions
6.4.1.5 Joints and Repair Sleeves
6.4.2 Suspension Clamps
6.4.3 Sag Adjusters
6.4.4 Miscellaneous Fittings
6.5 Insulation Coordination
6.5.1 Introduction
Table 6.3 IEC Standard 71 Insulation Coordination
6.5.2.1 Polymeric and Resin Insulation Materials
6.5.2.2 Glass and Porcelain Insulation Materials
6.5.3 Internal Overvoltages
6.5.4 Switching Surges
6.5.5 External Overvoltages/lightning Surges
Table 6.4 Relationship between Thunderstorm Days per
Year and Lightning Flashes per km2 per year
6.5.5.1 Substation Lightning Shield Protection
Fig.6.3a Lightning Protection Using Shielding Towers
Fig.6.3b Lightning Protection using Aerial Earth Wires
Fig.6.4 Electrogeometric Model for Lightning Screen
6.5.6 Surges in Transformers
Fig.6.5 Representation of a Transformer Winding with
Distributed Capacitance Undergoing a Voltage
Surge
Module 6 Clearances, Fittings, & Maintenance - Contents
1
1
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
5
6
6
6
7
7
7
7
8
8
8
9
9
10
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
17
Page 1 of 3

CONTENTS
Section
No
Description
Figure or Table
Page
No
Fig.6.6 Peaks of Natural Frequency Oscillations

6.5.7 Transferred Surges
Fig.6.7 Equivalent pi circuit for a transformer to a steep
fronted wave
6.5.7.1 Worked Example
6.5.7.2 Multiple Reflections and Attenuation
6.6 Clearances
6.6.1 Air
Fig.6.8 IEC Insulation Levels for Standard System Rated
Voltages
6.6.2 SF6
6.7 Procedures for Coordination
6.7.1 Statistical Approach
6.7.2 Non-statistical Approach
6.8 Surge Protection
6.8.1 Rod or Spark Gaps
Fig.6.9 400 kV Lydd-Bolney (UK) Overhead Line Quad
Conductor Glass Insulators Showing Arcing Horns
and Stocksbridge Dampers
Table 6.5 Typical Spark Gap Settings
Fig.6.10 Flashover voltage of inch square( 12.7 mm2)
rod gaps
6.8.2 Surge Arresters
Fig.6.11 Illustrating the Principles of a Silicon Carbide
Arrester with Spark Gap
6.8.2.1 Surge Arrester Selection Procedures
Fig.6.12 Typical ZnO Surge Arrester Characteristics
Fig.6.13 Individual ZnO Elements
Fig.6.14 Plant Breakdown Insulation Level and Surge
Arrester Protection Capability
Fig. 6.15 Withstand Voltages as a Function of Operating
Voltage for Insulating Categories A, B and C
Table 6.6 Surge Arrester Ratings and Protective
Characteristics
6.8.2.1.1 Rated Voltage
6.8.2.1.2 Rated Current
6.8.2.2 Location
6.8.2.3 Worked Example for Insulation Co-ordination
Fig.6.16 132 kV System Insulation Coordination
6.8.2.4 Monitoring
18
18
19
19
20
21
21
22
22
23
23
24
24
24
25
26
27
27
28
28
29
29
30
32
33
33
33
34
34
35
36
Page 2 of 3

CONTENTS
Section
No
Description
Figure or Table
Page
No.
6.8.2.5 Testing
6.9 Overhead Line Maintenance
6.9.1 General Introduction to Utility Maintenance Methodology
6.9.2 Reactive Maintenance
Fig 6.17 The Cost of Maintenance
6.9.3 Maintenance Stocks (Spares)
6.9.4 Proactive Maintenance
Fig. 6.18 Failure Rate against Life of Equipment
6.9.5 In House versus Third Party
6.9.6 Predictive and Preventive Maintenance
6.9.6.1 Introduction
Table 6.7 Top causes of Electrical Distribution System
Failures
36
38
38
39
40
40
410
42
43
43
43
44
6.9.6,2 Qualified Personnel

6.9.6.3 Regularly Scheduled Inspection, Testing and Servicing
of Equipment
6.9.6.4 Prior to Outage
Table 6.8 Thermal Problem Classification Chart
Table 6.9 Correction for Wind Speeds
6.9.6.5 Example - (Thermographic Report)
6.9.6.6 UV Technology
6.9.6.7 Fault Repairs
6.9.6.8. Live line Insulator Washing
6.10 Summary
45
45
(Based on Insurance claims- North America)
45
47
36
48
50
52
53
53
Page 3 of 3

PROPRIETARY DOCUMENT
6.1 Distribution Voltage Level Clearances

For open wire construction at distribution voltage levels (380V 24 kV) the earth or
neutral wire is normally placed at the bottom (nearest the ground) of the conductor set
so as to minimise the danger caused by poles, ladders etc touching the wires from
underneath. In most countries, clearances for conductors are the subject of statutory
regulations. Ground clearances are often reduced in the case of ABC, because of their
insulation. Typical minimum clearances employed in the UK and Europe are given in Table
6.1.
33k V
66 kV
132 kV
275 kV
400 kV
Minimum
Phase-to-phase
Conductor
clearance
(m)
0.63
1.1 to 1.4
2.4 to 3.2
3.5 to 4.1
Minimum phase
conductor-to-earth
Wire clearance (m)
-up to 10m sag
1.1 to 1.3
1.8
3.3
4.3
0.63
1.15 to 1.4
2.2
2.8 to 3.5
Minimum phase
conductor-to-earth
Wire clearance (m)
-up to 10m sag
0.27 to 0.32
Over Roadways
5.8m
Along line of hedgerows, fences, boundary walls etc
4.0m
Over domestic drives, only accessible to light vehicles
4.0m
Other situations
5.2m
Horizontal clearances under deflected conditions to buildings or

other structures which are normally accessible
1.0m
Vertical clearances under deflected conditions to buildings or

other structures which are normally accessible
3.0m
Horizontal and vertical clearances buildings or other structures

which are not normally accessible
0.5m
Table 6.1 Typical Overhead Line Clearances

Overhead Power Lines - Proprietary Document
Module 6 Clearances, Fittings and Maintenance
Page 1 of 53

6.2 Transmission Voltage Level Clearances

E
0.76
0.76
1.1
0.9
0.85
11kV Wood Poles
1.0
1.6
1.6
2.1
11kV Wood Poles
33kV Single circuit
E
1.0
1.8
1.8
2.3
2.3
1.8
1.9
1.9
0.9
1.8
1.8
3.1
4.6
1.8
4.9
8.3
E2
3.7
7.3
E1
220 kV Single circuit
3.72
7.3
9.9
E2
9.9
6.4
9.8
9.8
8.3
7.9
9.5
6.7
6.1
6.1
B
C
275 kV Double circuit
A
B
6.1
6.1

Twin conductors
6.1
6.1
E1
7.9
E2
5.0
6.1
E1
6.4
2.5
9.5
B
12.2
E2
8.3
12.2
2.1
3.5
2.5
5.0
E1
E1
2.0
2.1
E1
6.7
8.3
8.3
6.4
8.3
2.6
66kV Double circuit
4.6
3.72
4.9
3.72
4.1
3.4
3.72
132kV Single circuit
3.1
E1
2.1
2.0
2.6
66kV Wood Poles
2.8
1.3
2.1
4.0
0.9
1.6
33kV Double circuit
B
C
6.4
9.9
9.8
E1
6.4
10.4
9.9
8.5
8.3
8.3
B
C

Quad conductors
Fig. 6,1 Typical Wood Pole and Steel Lattice Tower Conductor
Arrangements and Spacings
Page 2 of 53

There are no universally agreed clearances as they depend upon insulation level,
pollution, span, type of overhead line construction etc. In Table 6.1 clearances for
overhead transmission lines in the voltage range 33 kV to 400 kV are given. This is for
still air with no wind and no ice. Refer to IEC 71, Parts 1, 2 and 3 for more details on
this subject.
Figure 6.1 details typical wood pole and steel lattice tower conductor arrangements and
spacings from 11 kV to 380 kV. Module 4, section 4.4.2 addressed physical clearances
around insulator sets
6.3 Worked Example Line Calculation Sag and Tension
Please refer to appendix 5
6.3.1 Broken Wire Conditions
It is essential that the structures supporting the overhead line are capable of
withstanding unequal loads. Suspension and tension structures must be designed for the
vertical and transverse loadings plus the unbalanced longitudinal forces due to the
simultaneous breakage if up to two complete phase conductors or one earth wire,
whichever is the most onerous. The towers themselves are usually designed such that
no failure or permanent distortion occurs when loaded with forces equivalent to 2 times
the maximum simultaneous vertical transverse or longitudinal working loadings for
suspension towers and 2.5 times for tension towers. Under broken wire conditions the
towers must be capable of withstanding typically 1.25 times the maximum simultaneous
resulting loadings.
Delegates Notes

Page 3 of 53

6.3.2 Conductor Tests and Inspections
Conductors from a reputable manufacturers standard product range should already
have full type test certification for electrical and mechanical properties (for example,
to IEC 209 for ACSR and BS183 for galvanized earth wire). Tests at the
manufacturers works, in addition to any routine requirements in these standards, may
typically include those shown in Table 6.2.
Appearance and finish

Diameter
Resistivity
Tensile test
Wrapping test
Lay ratio
Weight per metre
Grease weight per metre
Breaking strength and
resistance
Stress determination at
1% elongation
Torsion test
Thickness of galvanising
Hard drawn
aluminium wire
Complete ACSR
or AAAC
Steel wires
Earth wires
(galvanized steel)
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Table 6.2 Overhead Line Conductor Test Requirements
6.4 Overhead Line Fittings

6.4.1 Fittings Related to Aerodynamic Phenomena
6.4.1.1 Dampers and Aeolian Vibrations
Aeolian vibrations are characterized by their high frequency (50 to 30 or even up to 60
Hz) and low amplitude (one to two conductor diameters). The occur most frequently in
winds of laminar flow in the range 0.5 to 10 m/s. Techniques have been developed for
the estimation of the amplitudes by the energy balance principle in which the wind and
input energy is equated to the energy dissipated by the conductor and fittings. In
addition an estimation of conductor lifetime based on their endurance capability is
possible to allow design, selection and installation of vibration dampers.
The most common type of damper is the Stocksbridge type which comprises of two
hollow masses attached together by means of a flexible connection. The whole assembly
is clamped to the conductor close to the suspension point. The fixing distance between
the suspension point and the damper is a function of the diameter and tension of the
protected conductor. Typical arrangements are illustrated in figure 6.2. Other types of
dampers such as buckles and festoons have also proved successful.

Page 4 of 53

Span length
Number of dampers
Up to 500 m
1 damper/span end
Over 500 m
2 dampers/span end
Clamp mouth
S1
S2
Calculation for positioning of dampers

T
metres
M
T
S2 = 0.242d
metres
M
S1 = 0.282d
where d = conductor diameter mm

T = tension kN
M = mass kg/km
Applicable to conductor and earth wire tension and suspension positions. If armour rods are used at
suspension clamps then dampers must be placed 100 mm from the ends of the armour rods
Fig.6.2 Stocksbridge Damper Quantity and Positioning Principles

Page 5 of 53

6.4.1.2 Aeorodynamic Dampers and Galloping
Galloping is a low frequency (0.1 to Hz) high amplitude ( several metres) motional
phenomena which can affect both single and bundled conductors. Galloping occurs
mostly in the vertical plane with oscillations of 1,2, or 3 half wavelengths per span. It
may involve two different mechanisms: 1. In the absence of ice it can arise with large diameter conductors (> 40mm).
Using smooth body conductors may control the phenomena.
2. Ice-initiated oscillations which occur at near freezing temperatures associated
with freezing rain, wet snow or hoar frost. The deposits modify the shape of
the conductors into unstable aerodynamic profiles at moderate wind speeds. The
ice deposits necessary to initiate such oscillations may vary from very small and
difficult to detect by eye.
Some of the solutions which have given success in limiting galloping include: Removing spacers from twin conductor configurations
Addition of pendulum de-tuners, perforated cylinders, aerodynamic dampers,
interface spacers and air flow spoilers.
Another form of galloping (of short duration) which can cause flashovers arises from
ice shedding. The sudden fall of ice from conductors releases stored potential energy
and the conductors violently rebound. A provisional solution to this problem has been to
modify the lengths of the cross-arms so that no two or three phases are in the same
vertical plane.
6.4.1.3 Sub-span Oscillations and Spacers or Spacer-dampers
Sub-conductor oscillations are restricted to bundles when pairs of sub-conductors lie in
almost the same horizontal plane. The oscillations usually take the form of lateral, antiphase motions (0.5 to 3 Hz) although other modes such as twisting or snaking of the
bundle occur. Horizontal motion causes stress reversals or at near to the suspension
points or spacer clamps. This type of oscillation is initiated by low turbulent wind flow
normal to the conductor bundle with velocities in the range 5 to 24 m/s. Early
experience indicated that there was a reduced likelihood of sub-span oscillation when
the ratio of bundled conductor spacing to conductor diameter exceeded 15. In addition,
the installation of conductor spaces with rubber inserts in the clamps or of spacerdampers with rubber or elastomeric damping materials in the clamping arm hinges at
suitable locations helped to reduce the problem.
6.4.1.4 Armour Rods and Armour Grip Suspensions
Reinforcement of conductors to prevent fatigue occurring at suspension points is
achieved by galvanized steel rods. The rods are preformed into a helix approximately 1
to 1.5m long and wrapped round the conductor at the most vulnerable suspension points.
The effective increase in conductor diameter caused by the addition of the rods also
tends to reduce the amplitude of vibrations and increase conductor fatigue life.
Page 6 of 53

A further development based on armour rod protection has been the design of armour
grip suspension (AGS) units which use rubber inserts. AGS units are specified for
attachment of conductors involving fibre optic cables.
6.4.1.5 Joints and Repair Sleeves
Compression type joints are normally specified to have an initial tensile strength (UTS)
of at least 95% of that of the conductor for spans under tension. Many new
specifications now require joints with a strength equal to 100% of the declared
conductor-breaking load. All joints must have the same current carrying capacity as the
conductor in order to avoid hot spots.
Repair sleeves are special fittings which can be installed over a damaged portion of a
conductor. The maximum number of broken strands for such a repair must be closely
defined. The sleeves may be of the performed or compression type and designed to
restore the mechanical and electrical properties of the conductor.
6.4.2 Suspension Clamps
These are shaped to form a fully articulated support for the conductors. They are
curved at the ends in the vertical plane to allow the conductor to take up the maximum
angle of inclination as it leaves the clamp as caused by sag. Clamps must be made of
materials to suit the duty and avoid galvanic corrosion forming between dissimilar
metals.
6.4.3 Sag Adjusters
These consist of pivoted clamping plates with adjustment holes to allow the sag of the
conductor to be regulated after the initial erection in steps of, say, 10mm over a
300mm range.
6.4.4 Miscellaneous Fittings
These include: Tower or pole anti-climbing guards
Climbing steps
Danger plates
Tower or pole number plates
Phase plates
Line circuit identifications
Aircraft warning spheres.

Page 7 of 53

6.5 Insulation Coordination

6.5.1 Introduction
Insulation co-ordination is the technique used to ensure that the electrical strengths
of the various items of plant making up the transmission and distribution system and
their associated protective devices are correlated to match the system characteristics
and expected range of voltages. The objective of the analysis and application of its
conclusions are to reduce the probability of plant failure and supply interruptions
caused by insulation breakdown to an acceptable level both operationally and
economically.
IEC 71 covers the subject of insulation coordination as indicated in Table 6.3
Details
IEC Reference
No.
71-1 Part 1
Terms, definitions, principles and rules

Specifies the insulation for the various items of plant used in a given
installation. Applies to plant for AC systems having a higher voltage for plant
above 1 kV, and covers phase-to-earth insulation
71-2 Part 2
Application guide
Provides guidance on the selection of the electric strength of plant, of surge
arresters or protective spark gaps, and on the extent for which it will be useful
to control switching over-voltages. Indicates the lines to be followed to obtain
rational and economic solutions
71-3 Part 3
Phase-to-phase insulation coordination, Principles, rules and application guide

Deals with phase-to-phase insulation coordination, completing the principles and
rules laid down in IEC 71-1 as well as the application guide proposed in IEC 71-2.
Having specified the general principles, it gives the standard phase-to-phase
insulation levels in ranges A (1kV to 52 kV), B (52 kV to 300 kV) and C (above
300 kV). An application guide deals with voltage stresses in service and
clearances in air.
Table 6.3 IEC Standard 71 Insulation Coordination

The IEC standard recognizes that insulation may occasionally fail since it is not
economically feasible to eliminate failure completely. A proposed order of priorities for
an insulation coordination policy might be: Ensure safety to the public and to utility operating personnel
Avoid permanent damage to equipment
Minimise interruption of supplies to consumers
Minimise circuit interruptions
Page 8 of 53

6.5.2 Power Frequency Voltage

The IEC standard 38 gives details of standard transmission and distribution voltages
(Refer to Module 1). However, it should be noted that it is the highest operational
voltage and not the nominal voltage. Thus for 132kV this is 132 + 10% = 145 kV. Plant
may be subjected to the normal power frequency voltages which do not exceed the
highest rated voltage for which the equipment has been designed. Obviously the
insulation must be able to withstand these steady state power frequency voltages and
plant must be specified accordingly. Breakdown does, however, occur due to pollution,
heavy rain, etc. Insulators should be specified to minimise this risk. Insulator creepage
distances need to be determined to match the environmental conditions.
6.5.2.1 Polymeric and Resin Insulation Materials
Overhead line polymeric insulators date from the 1960s. They have the advantage of
reduced weight, high creepage offset and resistance to the effects of vandalism since
the sheds do not shatter on impact. Epoxy resin cast insulators are extensively
employed in door substation equipment up to 66 kV and metal clad switchgear. Cap and
pin insulators used on low voltage distribution lines and long rods at transmission
voltage levels may employ composite insulators based on a high tensile strength core of
glass fibre and resin. The insulator sheds are bonded to this core and made from
silicone and ethylene propylene flexible elastomers. Considerable satisfactory
experience using these materials under various climatic conditions has been collected
around the world over the past 40 years. However, there is still some reluctance to
specify polymeric insulators due more probably to the conservative nature of the
electricity supply industry. There are doubts about the long-term resistance to
ultraviolet exposure and weathering in general. They certainly have a good pollution
withstand and their lighter weight can lead to considerable savings, particularly on
substation outdoor structures.
6.5.2.2 Glass and Porcelain Insulation Materials
Both glass and porcelain are still the most commonly employed materials on overhead
lines. There is little difference in the cost or performance between glass and porcelain.
Toughened glass has the advantage for overhead lines that broken insulators tend to
shatter completely upon impact and are therefore more easily spotted during
maintenance inspections. In practice, the type to be used on overhead lines will depend
partly upon the existing spares holdings and spares rationalization policies by the
particular utility.
(Refer also to the section in this module on maintenance.)

Page 9 of 53

6.5.3 Internal Overvoltages
In addition to power frequency voltages it is also necessary to ensure that the plant is
able to withstand short duration power frequency voltages or other types of weakly
damped oscillatory voltages with harmonic content which may last in the worst cases
for tens of seconds. Such phenomena can occur during transformer saturation.
Distribution networks with lightly loaded large cable networks (high capacitance) when
fed from a source rich in harmonics can greatly magnify the voltage during switching
operations. In general, the principal causes of temporary power frequency overvoltages
are : Phase-to-earth faults (on normal systems it may be assumed that the temporary
overvoltages will not exceed:
1.4 p.u. for solidly earthed networks

1.7 p.u. for resistance earthed networks
2.0 p.u. for reactance earthed networks.
Load rejection (supplying capacitive current through a large inductive reactance,

e.g. a small generator connected to a long cable or overhead line)
Ferro-resonance (interchange of stored energy for series or parallel combinations
of inductive and capacitive reactance)
Ferranti effect (receiving-end voltage greater than sending-end voltage under no
load or for lightly loaded lines)
Sustained overvoltages involving resonance and arcing ground faults are normally
eliminated by careful system design and correct neutral earthing. At distribution levels
(below 145 kV) the method of earthing will normally determine the level of temporary
overvoltage.
6.5.4 Switching Surges
Switching surges are of short duration, of irregular or impulse form and highly damped.
A typical switching impulse standard form is the 250/2500 microsecond time-tocrest/time-to-half value wave. Overvoltages due to switching phenomena become
important at the higher transmission voltage levels (above 300 kV). The magnitude of
internally generated overvoltages is now well understood. On a system where circuit
breakers are not subject to restriking, the switching surges will rarely exceed about 3
p.u. However, 2.5 p.u is a typical maximum upon which the discharge duty for surge
arresters is assessed. On installations above 300 kV (Class C) it is usual to suppress
maximum switching surges to 2 p.u or less by the installation of shunt reactors
(required anyway for reactive power balance in most generation/transmission networks
and/or by employing closing resistors on the circuit breakers.

Page 10 of 53

At voltage levels below 300 kV some practical aspects of switching surges found on the
networks are as follows: a. Resonance effects can occur when switching transformer feeders or
combinations of cable and overhead line. This resonance occurs between the
lumped reactive and capacitive elements of the cable and the overhead line. If
the frequency of the traveling waves along the line approximates to the natural
frequency of the lumped elements, very high voltages can be generated.
b. Ferro-resonance encountered on transformer feeder circuits greater than
about 5 to 10 km in length when one transformer feeder is switched out but the
remaining transformer is left energized. The dead circuit draws energy by
capacitive coupling from the parallel circuit which resonates with the
transformer impedance at a sub-harmonic frequency. The usual operational
procedure is to always open the line disconnector at the transformer end after
switching out. This action eliminates the problem.
c. In addition to the transformer feeder energisation cases (a) and (b) above, line
energisation can also create large switching surges particularly at the remote
end of the line being energized. Such circumstances include: Very long lines, particularly if there is no shunt reactor compensation
Lines already energized with a standing charge such as might occur with
auto-reclose
Current chopping during shunt reactor, transformer and motor switching.
6.5.5 External Overvoltages/lightning Surges
Overvoltages due to lightning predominate over those generated internally on networks
at 145 kV and below. Lightning discharges are usually of very short duration,
unidirectional and of a form similar to the standard impulse wave shape i.e. 1.2/50
microsecond from time/time-to-half value wave.
The point of insulation flashover in the system depends upon a number of independent
variable: The geographical position of the stroke
The magnitude of the stroke
The rise time of the voltage wave
The system insulation levels
The system electrical characteristics
The local atmospheric or ambient conditions

Page 11 of 53

The damaging part of the lightning flash is the return stroke where a charged cell in a
thundercloud is discharged to earth. The current in the return stroke varies from
about 2 kA to 200 kA in accordance with a log-normal distribution: 1%
> 200 kA
10% > 80 kA
50% > 28 kA
90% >
8 kA
99% >
3 kA
Impulse rise times are of the order of 10 microseconds for the more common negative
flow from cloud to ground (and considerably longer for strikes from a positive part of
the cloud) together with a relatively slow decay time of approximately 100
microseconds or less. For design purposes the most severe peak lightning current and
rate of rise of 200 kA and 200 kA/microsecond may be considered.
The cloud potential is of the order of 100 MV and therefore high enough to ensure
that the potential of the object struck is controlled by the current flow and impedance
to ground. When a lightning strike takes place on an overhead line support structure
the potentials along the current path will rise to very high values due even the smallest
inductive and resistive impedance to true earth. If the effective impedance to true
earth is high enough to break down the insulation then a flashover will take place either
from the earth wire or tower to the phase conductor(s) usually across the insulator
strings. This type of lightning fault is known as back flashover. A reduction is
lightning outage requires adequate overhead line shielding angles and low tower footing
resistances of less than 10 to 20 ohms. An unearthed wood-pole structure offers
superior lightning performance and hence higher reliability through the risk of back
flashover because of the inherent insulating properties of wood.
Thunderstorm days per year
Flashes per km2 per year

(mean)
Flashes per km2 per year

(limits)
5
10
20
30
40
50
60
80
100
0.2
0.5
1.1
1.9
2.8
3.7
4.7
6.9
9.2
0.1 to 0.5
0.15 to 1
0.3 to 3
0.6 to 5
0.8 to 8
1.2 to 10
1.8 to 12
3 to 17
4 to 20
Table 6.4 Relationship between Thunderstorm Days per Year and Lightning Flashes
per km2 per year
(Lightning parameters for engineering application, Electra, 1980,69. 65-102)

Page 12 of 53

The short duration of a lightning strike is usually insufficient to present temperature
rise problems due to the earthing and shielding conductors. A minimum cross-sectional
area of 50mm2 is recommended in order to reduce impedance and temperature rise. In
contrast, the conductivity of an arc path through air is high and with the large currents
involved the air adjacent to the flash will experience a rapid temperature rise with a
resulting explosive expansion. Large mechanical forces will also be present for parallel
conductors or conductors with sharp bends.
The lightning flash density, Ng is the number of flashes to ground per year per km2 and
maps are available with this or the number of thunderstorm days per year data. The
relationship between such data is given in Table 6.4.
The effective collection area AC is a function of a structures dimensions. The
probability, P, of the number of strikes to a structure per year is given by
P = AC x Ng x 10-6
to which weighting factors based on experience are applied to cover different types of
structure, construction, contents, degree of local isolation and profile of the
surrounding country. For building risks less than 10-5 do not generally require lightning
protection.
6.5.5.1 Substation Lightning Shield Protection
Outdoor substations may be shielded by overhead earthwire strung across the
substation site or by the use of shielding towers. The zone of protection provided by an
earthed structure is the volume within which it gives protection against a direct and/or
attracted strike. Standards between countries differ as to the extent covered, (refer
to figures 6.3). The function of the overhead earthwire shield or shielding towers is to
divert to itself a lightning discharge which might otherwise strike the phase
conductors or substation plant. The use of shielding towers alone tends to require high
structures in order to give adequate coverage. The shielding wire system allows lower
height structures for a given coverage and the lightning current will be attenuated by
increasing the number of paths to earth and thereby reducing the risk of back
flashover. Often substation overhead line termination towers act as suitable support
points for the shielding wire earth screen. Some utilities operating in areas with low
lightning activity believe that the risk of an overhead earth screen falling on to the
substation and causing a major outage is greater than an outage due to a lightning
strike.

Page 13 of 53

Electromagnetic lightning theory considers that the stroke distance, rSC, is a function
of the lightning stroke leader current: -
rSC
= 8.51IC2/3
where IC is the critical stroke current which is the peak value of impulse current which
will cause failure of the insulation. Then: -
IC = Vi/0.5Z
where Vi = impulse voltage withstand for the insulation.
Z = surge impedance of the conductor
GL
VC
VC
VC
45O 45O
45O 60O
60O 45O
ZP
ZP
GL
ZP
Plan view
of zone of
protection
at ground
level
VC
VC
VC
VC
Plan view
of zone of
protection
at ground
level
VC
ZP
ZP
ZP
One vertical conductor
M
Four vertical conductors showing protective
angles and associated zones of protection
B
3H
H
ZP
3H
42O
5 H
M
R
B
H
3H
3H
42O
42O
C/2
C/2
Fig.6.3a Lightning Protection Using Shielding Towers
Top Zones of protection from vertical conductor (VC) shielding towers according to British Standards.
Bottom German research association for high voltage and current technology (FGH) equivalent
Page 14 of 53

ZP at mast
ZP at conductor
maximum sag
30O
GL
B
H
2H
2H
30O
3 H
M2
M1
M
R
2H
2H
H
2H
30O
30O
3H
Fig.6.3b Lightning Protection Using Aerial Earth Wires
Top Zone of protection (ZP) from aerial earth wire according to British Standards.
Bottom German (FGH) equivalent
By knowing Vi and Z then IC may be determined and hence the strike distance, rSC
A series of arcs is drawn around the substation phase conductors with radius rSC and
around the earth wire screen with radius rSe. Similarly a line is drawn at a height rSg
parallel to the ground with:-
rSC = rSe rSg

Page 15 of 53

If the lightning arc stroke distance cuts either the line above the earth or one of the
earth wire radius arcs before it cuts an arc whose center is the phase conductor,
perfect shielding will be achieved. Examples are shown in figure 6.4. In practice
utilities tend to adopt specific shield designs similar to those illustrated in figures 6.3.
rse
rse
Internal shield
angle = 45O
rSC
External shield
angle = 0O
rSC
rsg
h
Ground
rsg = strike distance to ground

rsc = strike distance to phase conductor
rse = strike distance to earth shield wire
h
= maximum height of phase conductor

= overhead phase conductor
= overhead earth shield wire
Fig.6.4 Electrogeometric Model for Lightning Screen

Page 16 of 53

6.5.6 Surges in Transformers
The winding of a transformer can be represented as a distributed capacitance to steep
fronted waves as shown in figure 6.5.
As the steep fronted surge Up travels down the winding it can be shown that the
voltage U at any point in the winding is given by:
U=
U p sinh
CO
x
C
(1) for an earthed winding
C
sinh O D
C
C
U p sinh O x
C
U=
(2) for an open circuited winding
CO
sinh
D
C
where CO = capacitance to earth
C = interturn capacitance
up
Interturn Capacitance
C0
Capacitance to earth
Fig.6.5 Representation of a Transformer Winding with Distributed Capacitance

Undergoing a Voltage Surge

Page 17 of 53

The presence of capacitance to earth causes a non-uniform distribution of voltage in
the winding and the greater the value of
CO
C
(= ), the greater will be the
concentration of voltage at the line end of the winding and the larger the inter-turn
insulation stress on the first few turns of the transformer winding.
Such a phenomenon has been responsible for many unprotected distribution
transformer failures
120
Peaks of natural frequency oscillations
Voltage to earth
(% of applied voltage)
100
=0
80
60
=5
40
= 10
20
20
40
60
80
100
Percentage of winding from line end
Fig.6.6 Peaks of Natural Frequency Oscillations

After the surge has traveled down the winding the picture becomes complicated by
multiple reflections and natural frequency oscillations in the winding (refer to figure
6.6). In high voltage transformers design, the value of the inter-turn capacitance can
be artificially increased by screening and by winding interconnection. These measures
improve the transformer surge response and reduce the stress of the line end turns,
Another factor is the near voltage doubling effect that occurs when a surge traveling
down a line encounters the high impedance of a transformer. This can be virtually
eliminated by the presence of a short length of cable of low surge impedance between
the transformer and overhead line.
6.5.7 Transferred Surges
Waves in one part of a circuit can be transferred to other circuits by inductive and
capacitive coupling. As indicated in the previous section, a transformer appears to a
steep fronted wave as a distributed capacitance which can be crudely represented by a
simple pi network (figure 6.7). From the figure Cp and Cs are the lumped capacitances
to earth and Ct is the lumped inter-turn capacitance so that the transferred wave, US
is given by: -
US = U p x
Ct
C t + Cs

Page 18 of 53

Up
Us
t
Ct
Cp
Cs
Fig.6.7 Equivalent pi circuit for a transformer to a steep fronted wave

The values of these capacitances are not easily obtainable so BS5622 Part 2 and IEC
71-2 Appendix A give various formulae for transferred waves. It is considered that the
initial voltage on the secondary side of the transformer is given by:-
U S = spU p
where s can range from 0 to 0.4 and is typically about 0.2 and p for a star/delta or
delta/star is about 1.15 and for a star/star or delta/delta is 1.05
6.5.7.1 Worked Example
Consider an 800 kV steep fronted lightning surge impinging on the high voltage winding
of a 295/11 kV star/delta transformer. The transferred surge is: -
US = 800 x 0.2 x 1.15 = 184 kV which will appear on the 11 kV side.

Alternatively if one has the capacitances (here are some manufacturer measured values
for the same transformer)
Cp = 0.0029 F
Cs = 0.0029 F
Ct = 0.0029 F
Transferred surge US = 800 x 0.0032/(0.0032 + 0.0102) = 191 kV

Page 19 of 53

6.5.7.2 Multiple Reflections and Attenuation
In reality the transferred wave is complicated by multiple reflections inside the
transformer and is attenuated by the transformer and connected load. Nevertheless
the problem of wave transference has to be recognised and low voltage equipment
should be protected by surge arresters, if such an event is likely to occur. The
presence of external cables and loads further modifies the voltage wave appearing at
the transformer terminals
Slow surges such as switching surges that have rise times of the order of a few tens of
microseconds or with an effective frequency of the order of 5-10 kHz will transfer
through the transformers electromagnetically. IEC 71-2 gives an equation
US = p x q x r x Up/N
Where again p depends upon the winding configuration and is 1.15 for a star/delta
transformer, q is a response factor for the lower voltage circuit with a value between
0.9 and 1,3, r is a correction factor and N is the transformer phase-to-phase voltage
ratio.
Consider a star/delta 295/11 kV transformer with an 800 kV incident wave on the HV
side:
US = 1.15 x 0.9 x 0.866 x 800 x 11/295 = 26.7 kV

The magnitude of this surge will be modified (up or down) by whatever is connected to
the 11 kV side of the transformer
6.6 Clearances
6.6.1 Air
IEC 71-3 proffers recommendations for phase-to-phase insulation clearances. For
system voltage up to 245 kV it implies the use of the same levels as phase-to-earth
cases although it warns against use of the lowest levels without great caution and very
careful study. Historically utilities developed their own individual policies in this regard.
In the UK, for example, it was assumed that the phase-to-phase insulation should be
able to withstand a full lightning impulse on one phase simultaneously with a peak power
frequency voltage of opposite polarity on the adjacent phase. This gave a reliable but
possibly somewhat conservative design with phase-to-phase insulation levels some 15
20% higher than the phase-to-earth level.
Delegates Notes

Page 20 of 53

For the higher voltages, including 500 kV, when air clearances are determined by the
level of switching surges, IEC 71-3 recommends withstand voltages between 1.5 and 1.8
per unit greater than the phase-to-earth level. The recommendations in the standard
give a choice of two clearances depending on the conductor-to-conductor symmetrical
or unsymmetrical configuration. Therefore, for a 525 kV system with a rated switching
withstand level of 1172 kV, the IEC document recommends the adoption of a phase-tophase switching withstand of 1800 kV, and clearances of either 4.3 metres or 5.2
metres depending on the gap configuration. It should be possible to avoid the use of
unsymmetrical gaps between phases and therefore permit the use of reduced
clearances. In the UK, for example, where the main transmission nominal voltage level is
400 kV, the reduced phase clearance of 3.56 metres has been used without any
significant reliability problems. The IEC document recommends for such a system
clearances of either 3.5 or 4.1 metres. Figure 6.8 shows the choice of impulse insulation
strengths for systems operating at some typical voltages in accordance with the
recommendations of IEC-71
6.6 Clearances
6.6.1 Air
IEC 71-3 proffers recommendations for phase-to-phase insulation clearances. For
system voltage up to 245 kV it implies the use of the same levels as phase-to-earth
cases although it warns against use of the lowest levels without great caution and very
careful study. Historically utilities developed their own individual policies in this regard.
In the UK, for example, it was assumed that the phase-to-phase insulation should be
able to withstand a full lightning impulse on one phase simultaneously with a peak power
frequency voltage of opposite polarity on the adjacent phase. This gave a reliable but
possibly somewhat conservative design with phase-to-phase insulation levels some 15
20% higher than the phase-to-earth level.
For the higher voltages, including 500 kV, when air clearances are determined by the
level of switching surges, IEC 71-3 recommends withstand voltages between 1.5 and 1.8
per unit greater than the phase-to-earth level. The recommendations in the standard
give a choice of two clearances depending on the conductor-to-conductor symmetrical
or unsymmetrical configuration. Therefore, for a 525 kV system with a rated switching
withstand level of 1172 kV, the IEC document recommends the adoption of a phase-tophase switching withstand of 1800 kV, and clearances of either 4.3 metres or 5.2
metres depending on the gap configuration. It should be possible to avoid the use of
unsymmetrical gaps between phases and therefore permit the use of reduced
clearances. In the UK, for example, where the main transmission nominal voltage level is
400 kV, the reduced phase clearance of 3.56 metres has been used without any
significant reliability problems. The IEC document recommends for such a system
clearances of either 3.5 or 4.1 metres. Figure 6.8 shows the choice of impulse insulation
strengths for systems operating at some typical voltages in accordance with the
recommendations of IEC-71

Page 21 of 53
Voltage (per unit of peak phase=earth rated voltage)

Range of test levels

Lightning impulses
8.0
Switching impulses
7.0
Power frequency
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
12
24 36
72.5 145 245
300
420
525
System highest voltage (kV rms) & insulation category
Fig.6.8 IEC Insulation Levels for Standard System Rated Voltages

6.6.2 SF6
The use of SF6 as an insulating medium requires special insulation coordination
attention. Insulation failure in gas insulated switchgear (GIS) is not self-restoring and
long repair times are likely to be involved. The withstand level of SF6 for various
impulse wave fronts and polarity varies significantly from air. As with air for very fast
wave fronts the negative breakdown voltages are higher than the positive. For wave
fronts slower than 1 microsecond the SF6 positive voltage withstand level is greater
than the negative. Also the SF6 voltage withstand level does not reduce so much for
the longer switching surge voltage wave fronts as does air insulation.
GIS disconnectors often have to break small magnitude capacitive charging currents.
This can cause high frequency discharges across the contacts as the disconnector
commences opening. The resulting overvoltages of 3 to 4 p.u. must not be allowed to
cause flashovers from the phase contacts to earth. Considerable design effort has
been involved in reducing this problem since the mid-1970s. Surge arresters must be
located very close to an open-ended busbar if they are to be effective in attenuating
such high frequency surges.

Page 22 of 53

Where possible GIS switchgear should be transported to site in pre-assembled and
pre-impulse tested sections. At transmission voltage levels this may not always be
possible and standards are being formulated for what might be a meaningful site
testing policy.
6.7 Procedures for Coordination

6.7.1 Statistical Approach
The statistical approach is especially valuable where there is an economic incentive for
reducing insulation levels and where switching overvoltages present a problem. The
method is particularly applicable at the higher voltage category C installations above
300 kV.
The risk of insulation failure, R, may be expressed by the formula:
R = fO(U) x PT(U). dU
where fO(U) = the overvoltage probability density
PT(U) = the probability of insulation failure in service at voltage U

Since it is difficult to determine fO(U) and PT(U)in practice IEC 71 recommends a
simplified method of assessment taking a 90% withstand level for a given insulation
system equated with a 20% probability of an overvoltage being reached. Different
safety factors can be derived from and, , may be applied and the risk of failure
determined. Computer modeling of the network may also be employed to determine
possible overvoltage conditions although their accuracy is dependent upon the input
data.
Laboratory tests on insulation will give an assessment of withstand capability. If the
insulation is to be applied in indoor conditions then the effects of rain and pollution on
insulation strength must also be simulated. For a give state of the insulation there is a
statistical spread in the breakdown voltage coupled with time effects and variation
with environmental conditions. This may be expressed as: 2
T = t + n
where t = standard deviation at given instant in time
n = standard deviation due to environmental conditions
IEC 71-2 suggests that t may be assumed as 0.06 for switching surges and 0.03 for
lightning impulses. The 50% breakdown voltage UT50 is related to the withstand
voltage URW by the relationship U T 50 =
k x U RW
1 - 1.3 T
In accordance with IEC 71-1 k is dependent upon weather and may be made equal to 1
and n is associated with pollution levels and may be made equal to 0.6.

Page 23 of 53

6.7.2 Non-statistical Approach
The conventional procedure is based on adopting an adequate margin between produced
overvoltages and the withstand strength of the plant. The margin determines the
safety factor which should not be less than the value found to be adequate from
experience. This method is generally applied to determining fO(U) and PT(U) with any
degree of accuracy. Simulations by computer are recommended for category C system
voltage levels (above 300 kV).
Transient overvoltages are limited to a protective level established by the use of surge
arresters and/or co-ordinating spark gaps. The insulation requirements of the various
items of plant are selected to be above this protective level by a safe margin of about
15 t 25%. Overhead lines are generally regarded as the main collectors of lightning
surges on a system and transformers, cables and switchgear associated with them are
the items that require protection
6.8 Surge Protection

6.8.1 Rod or Spark Gaps
Rod or spark gaps are easy and cheap to install. They are usually installed parallel with
insulators between the live equipment terminal and earth. The gap distance setting is
arranged such that the spark-over occurs at overvoltages well below the breakdown
insulation level of the plant the gaps are protecting.
Gaps have the following disadvantages
When they operate a short-circuit fault is created which will cause protection to
operate and isolate the circuit. However, the alternative of insulation failure of the
plant being protected is much more serious.
Sudden reduction in system voltage during gap operation places high stresses on the
transformer interturn insulation
The breakdown of plant insulation varies with the duration of the overvoltage. A gap
is a relatively slow response to fast rise time overvoltage surges and performance is
influenced by polarity and atmospheric conditions
Short distance gaps applicable to the lower distribution voltages are vulnerable to
maloperation due to wind-borne debris, birds etc.
Notwithstanding these disadvantages the rod gap is widely used for the protection of
small distribution transformers and indeed as a back-up for transformers protected by
surge arresters. In the UK at present the National Grid Company prefers the rod gap
over the surge arrester as the main form of protection. Internationally, however, surge
arresters are used as the principal form of substation plant overvoltage protection.
Refer to figure 6.9 which shows arcing horns on a 400 kV line in the UK. Note also the
Stockbridge dampers (refer also to section 6.4.1.1).

Page 24 of 53

LOOPED
ARCING HORNS
SPARK -GAP SETTING
STOCKSBRIDGE DAMPERS
Fig.6.9 400 kV Lydd-Bolney (UK) Overhead Line Quad Conductor Glass Insulators
Showing Arcing Horns and Stocksbridge Dampers
Air gaps are used across insulators on overhead lines up to several kilometres from
substations in order to protect the substation plant from surges emanating from the
overhead lines. The gap settings (refer to figure 6.9) are reduces as the overhead line
approaches the substation. Gaps may also be used as back-up protection to surge
arrestors at cable sealing ends and transformer bushings. The gaps are so arranged so
that the distance can be easily adjusted. The rods are angles such that the power arc
is directed away from the associated insulator sheds in order to avoid as much as
possible damage during flashover.
Typical back-up transformer gap settings are given in Table 6.5. Normally the rod gap
characteristic should lie just above the surge arrester characteristic by about 20% so
that the rod gap will protect the transformer or other plant against all but the
steepest surges (rise times less than 1 or 2 micro-seconds), if for any reason the surge
arrester fails. This philosophy also applies in the absence of surge arresters when the
minimum gap setting for flashover should be at least 20% above the highest possible
power frequency system voltage. For example, on a 132kV system with a highest phaseto-earth voltage under transient fault conditions of 132 x 110% = 145 kV, the rod gap
setting should be set to operate at 145 x 120% = 174 kV

Page 25 of 53

Transformer basic impulse

Insulation level (BIL), kV
peak)
Spark gap
setting
(mm)
75
170-200
325
550
650
850
1050
1300
1425
1550
2 x 32
2 x 95
400
650
775
1000
1200
1200 1410
1500
1575
Table 6.5 Typical Spark Gap Settings

Under impulse conditions the breakdown characteristics of the equipment to be
protected are not normally known precisely and only a BIL figure is available. In such
circumstances the rod gaps may be set to give a flashover on impulse, with a 1.2/50 s
wave, of 80% of the BIL of the protected equipment with a 50% probability. Thus a
132kV system designed to a BIL of 550 kV might be given a rod gap setting on surge
impulse of 440 kV. The gap setting may be taken from graphs giving both positive and
negative surge impulse and power frequency gaps. In this particular case a minimum gap
setting of 560 mm (22) using square ( 12.7 mm2) rod gaps would be suitable (Refer
to figure 6.10).
At the higher transmission voltage levels rod type gaps are not used because of the
effect of corona discharge associated with high electric fields associated with small
pointed objects. Loops are therefore employed with a radius sufficient to reduce
corona effects
(Refer again to figure 6.9)

Page 26 of 53

Flashover voltage in kV effective or peak
1600
1400
50% Negative
1/50 impulse
1200
50% Positive
1/50 impulse
1000
800
600
50 Cycle/sec.
effective
400
200
50
100
150
200
Gap spacing in cm
250
Fig.6.10 Flashover voltage of inch square( 12.7 mm2) rod gaps

6.8.2 Surge Arresters
Modern surge arresters are of the gapless zinc oxide (ZnO) type. Under nominal
system operating voltages the leakage current is extremely low (order of a few
milliamperes). When a surge reaches the arrester only that current necessary to limit
the overvoltage needs to be conducted to earth. Zinc oxide has a more non-linear
resistance characteristic than its forerunner material i,e, Silicon Carbide (SiC)
employed in earlier surge arresters. This earlier type employed spark gaps between
layers of the material in order to achieve the appropriate non-linear characteristic.
Figure 6.11 illustrates the principles of a SiC surge arrester employing spark gaps.

Page 27 of 53

To line
Line
Arrester
Spark Gap
Carbide Block
Single-line diagram symbol for a

Surge Arrester
Porcelain
housing
To Substation
Ground
To
Equipment
Fig.6.11 Illustrating the Principles of a Silicon Carbide Arrester with Spark

Gap
ZnO having the more ideal characteristic permits these gaps to be removed and
consequently a more reliable surge arrester results.
A change in current by a factor of some 105 will result in a change in voltage across the
ZnO arrester of only about 56% thus yielding a finite energy discharge capability. IEC
99 details the standards applicable to both gapped SiC and ZnO non-spark gapped
surge arresters. Typical ZnO surge arrester characteristics are shown in figure 6.12.
The devices have a particularly good response to fast time overvoltage impulses.
The construction of ZnO surge arresters is relatively simple. However, it is essential
that good quality control is exercised when manufacturing the non-linear resistor
blocks since the characteristics are heavily dependent heavily upon temperature firing
range. Good electrical contact must be maintained between the non-linear resistor
blocks by well-proven clamping techniques. SiC arresters employing series spark gaps
must ensure equal voltage division between the gaps under all operating and
environmental conditions. The power frequency spark-over of such arresters should be
greater than 1.5 times the rated arrester voltage. Figure 6.13 shows a selection of
typical surge arresters together with the individual elements. Pressure relief
diaphragms are fitted to the porcelain housings in order to prevent shattering of the
units should the arrester fail.
6.8.2.1 Surge Arrester Selection Procedures
The principles for the application of surge arresters to allow a sufficient margin
between the plant breakdown insulation level and surge arrester protection capability
are shown in figure 6.14. Withstand voltages as a function of the operating voltage
within the three phase-to-phase insulation level categories are shown in figure 6.15.
Page 28 of 53

Ratio of minimum power frequency withstand voltage/power frequency

Rated voltage Vs time curve for surge arrester type MB MC
Ratio of minimum power frequency

withstand voltage/ rated voltage
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
This curve refers to
tests carried out with
the pro-rated sample at
a temperature of 60OC
0.9
0.8
0.7
10-1
0.5 1
5 101
50 102
5000 103
Time in seconds
MB Series: Voltage ratings from 3 kV to 150 kV
IEC Arrester classification: 37 (co) 38
10,000 amp line discharge class 1 and 2
ANSI Arrester classification
10,000 amp station class
MC Series: Voltage ratings from 3 kV to 288 kV
IEC Arrester classification: 37 (co) 38
10,000 amp and 20,000 amp line discharge class 3
ANSI Arrester classification
10,000 amp station class
Fig.6.12 Typical ZnO Surge Arrester Characteristics
Fig.6.13 Individual ZnO Elements

Page 29 of 53

4.0
1.2/50 s
^
U
Voltage (p.u.)
3.0
C1
250/2500 s
Cs
^
U
2.0
^
U
1.4
Ce
1.0
^
U
le
Network
Parameters
Surge arrester
characteristics
Time
^
Ua = rated voltage of surge arrester
^
U = protection level of surge arrester
p
^
U
le = rated voltage peak value
conductor-earth =
Ce = earthing factor
^
U
Û 2 =^ 1 p.u.
m
3
Û = C Ûle
a
withstand voltages
C1 - Cs = safety margin : withstand voltage/protection level

Fig.6.14 Plant Breakdown Insulation Level and Surge Arrester Protection
Capability

Page 30 of 53

The application process is as follows: Determine the continuous operating arrester voltage normally the system rated
voltage
Select a rated voltage for the arrester (IEC 99)
Determine the nominal lightning discharge current. At distribution voltage levels
below 36 kV when it is necessary to keep costs to a minimum 5 kA ratings are often
specified. However in most circumstances 10 kA surge arresters should be
considered.
Determine the required long duration discharge capability. At system-rated
voltages of 36 kV and below light duty surge arresters may be specified unless the
duty is particularly onerous (i.e. arresters connected adjacent to large capacitor
banks). At rated voltage levels between 36 kV and 245 kV and where there is a risk
of high switching, long duration fault currents (discharge of long lines or cable
circuits) heavy duty surge arresters are normally specified. If any doubt exists the
network parameters should be discussed with the surge arrester manufacturer. At
rated voltages above 245 kV (IEC Category C insulation level) long duration
discharge capabilities are usually important.
Determine the maximum prospective fault current and the protection tripping times
at the location of the surge arresters and match with the surge arrester duty.
Select the surge arrester housing porcelain creepage distance in accordance with
the environmental conditions and state to the manufacturer if live line washing is
your practice
Determine the surge arrester protective level and match with standard IEC 99
recommendations. Typical protective levels are given in Table 6.6
Delegates Notes

Page 31 of 53

14
Withstand voltage
p.u. 12
A Type 1
10
8
A Type 2
^
U
4
2
3.6
7.2
12
17.5
24
35 52
kV
Operating voltage
Category A 1-52 kV
p.u.
12
p.u.
5
10
8
6
^
U
2
1
300
52
72.5 100
123 170
145
Category B 52-300 kV
245
kV
362
420
525
Category C 300 kV
765
kV
A = 1.2/50s lightning surge voltage

B = 250/2500s switching surge voltage
1 p.u. = Um2
Um = voltage
^
U = withstand voltage
Fig. 6.15 Withstand Voltages as a Function of Operating Voltage for Insulating

Categories A, B and C

Page 32 of 53

Arrester Rating, Ur (kV)
Front of Wave (kV)
Lightning/ Discharge voltage

(kV)
12
36
138
240
428
46
145
400
645
1135
40
125
350
550
970
Table 6.6 Surge Arrester Ratings and Protective Characteristics

6.8.2.1.1 Rated Voltage
The power frequency voltage across an arrester must never exceed its rated voltage
otherwise the arrester may not reseal and may catastrophically fail after absorbing
the energy of a surge. As a rule of thumb of the system is effectively earthed the
maximum phase-to-earth voltage is 80% of the maximum line voltage. For noneffectively earthed system the maximum phase-to-earth voltage is equal to the
maximum line voltage. Consider a 132 kV system with a maximum line or phase-to-phase
voltage 110% of the nominal system voltage.
Case 1 Effectively Earthed

Arrester Voltage rating > 0.8 x 132 X 1.1 = 116 kV and 120 kV arresters are
normally employed
Case 2 Not effectively Earthed

Arrester voltage rating > 132 x 1.1 = 145 kV
6.8.2.1.2 Rated Current

Arresters are tested with 8/20 s discharge current waves of varying magnitude 5 kA,
10 kA, and 20 kA yielding increasing values of residual discharge voltage. Maximum
residual discharge voltages are detailed in IEC 99-1 and this parameter is usually taken
care of in the manufacturers design specification. For areas with isokeraunic levels
(e.g. the tropics) or at locations near to generators or for unshielded lines 10 kA
arresters should be specified. Lower-rated arresters can be selected for well screened
systems if it can be demonstrated that the surge discharge current is less than 10 kA.
However, the cost of arresters is small compared to the overall system cost and
therefore if some doubt exists regarding the discharge current it is safer to specify
the higher-rated heavy duty type of arrester.
Although lightning strikes have impressive voltage and current values (typically 100s
and even thousand of kV and 10-100 kA), the energy content of the discharge is
relatively low and most of the damage to power plant is caused by the power followthrough current. The lightning simply provides a suitable ionised discharge path. The
likelihood of power follow-through current after a lightning discharge is statistical in
nature and depends in a complicated way on the point on the wave of lightning discharge
relative to the faulted phase voltage.
Page 33 of 53

6.8.2.2 Location
Surge arrester and spark gap devices are installed in parallel with the plant to be
protected between phase and earth. They should be located as close as possible to the
items of plant they are protecting to avoid back flashovers caused by any surge
impedance between the arrester and the plant. This of course has to consider the
maintenance requirements. The earth terminals should be connected directly and
separately to earth as well as the tank or frame of the plant being protected.
Dedicated earth rods will provide the necessary low inductive path together with
additional connections to the substation earth grid.
Note that generator windings have a low impulse strength, typically 50 kV for the
1.2/50 s wave. Arresters for generators should therefore be heavy duty (10 kA)
station type which may be shunted by 0.1 to 0.25 F capacitors which absorb very fast
surges with rise times less than 1 s. Surge protection of generators becomes
particularly important when they feed directly onto an overhead line without the
benefit of an interposing generator transformer. In such situations the use of shunt
capacitors may well be essential.
The following is an example of insulation co-ordination
6.8.2.3 Worked Example for Insulation Co-ordination
Consider a typical 132 kV substation on an effectively earthed system having
transformers of 550 kV impulse withstand level and the other apparatus having an
impulse level of 650 kV. It is assumed that the altitude is below 1000m and that
pollution level is not unduly heavy. The positive voltage/time breakdown curves for the
various devices are plotted in figure 6.16 to demonstrate the coordination which can be
obtained. Normally it is not necessary to plot curves in this way since a simple
tabulation of the figures usually suffices. The curves could also include breakdown
characteristics for substation post type insulators and overhead line cap and pin
insulator strings with different numbers of units for a complete picture.
For the protection of the transformers and other equipment either a surge arrester or
a rod gap system may be used. Since this is an effectively earthed system an 80%
arrester would be used; that is one rated at 120 kV (refer to section 6.8.2.1.1). If the
particular arrester chosen has a maximum residual impulse discharge voltage of 350 kV
when discharging a 10 kA surge then using the 20% safety margin the capability is 350
x 120% = 420 kV. This is well below the impulse withstand of the transformer (550 kV),
assuming the arrester is located within about 20m of the transformer terminals.

Page 34 of 53

1600
1400
Voltage kV
1200
132 kV wood pole impulse

withstand 650kV pk
800
1120 mm spark gap

990 mm spark gap
600
Transformer impulse withstand 550 kV pk
650 mm spark gap
400
ZnO Surge Arrester
200
Note:
10
Time in s
12
14
16
Transformers
Cables
Switchgear
Overhead Line
Lightning impulse
withstand (kV peak)
550
640
650
650
Power frequency
withstand (kV)
275
275
275
Gap settings (mm)
660
Rod gap OHL and
1120
Cables (mm)
990
Fig.6.16 132 kV System Insulation Coordination

Page 35 of 53

If a rod gap is to be employed for protection, then from figure 6.10 a value of 560 mm
(22) could initially be thought as suitable. This gap also gives protection to the
transformer even for waves with rise times as short as 1 s. However, on longer
duration surges (possible switching surges) that are below the impulse strength of the
transformer such a setting could give the occasional flashover. The gap setting could
therefore be increased to 660 mm (26) in order to reduce such a possibility. This
larger setting does not, however, give adequate transformer protection against very
fast rise time waves.
A degree of judgement and experience is therefore required in order to determine the
final rod setting. Such experience should also take into account whether or not the
substation or incoming lines have overhead earth wire screens.
6.8.2.4 Monitoring
It is recommended that surge counters are specified for plant rated at voltages of 145
kV and above. In such cases the base of the surge arrester is supported on small
insulators and the surge counter fitted at the earth end of the arrester. (in the lead to
the earth as previously described). The counters should be located so that they can be
easily read from ground level.
6.8.2.5 Testing
For all overhead line or substation equipment, type test certificates should be obtained
from the manufacturer. ZnO surge arrester type tests include:
Residual voltage test
Current impulse withstand test
Operating duty tests
Power frequency voltage versus time curve
Pressure relief tests
Tests on arrester disconnectors (if applicable)
Routine tests include: On all arrester sections

Radio interference tests
Test to check sealing or gas leakage from complete housing
On SiC gapped arrester sections
Power frequency spark-over test

Page 36 of 53

On a sample number of surge arresters to be supplied
Lightning voltage impulse spark-over on the complete arrester (SiC types)

or time voltage characteristic (ZnO types)
Residual voltage at nominal discharge current on complete arrester or

section
Leakage current with 40% to 100% of rated voltage supplies
On all gapless arrester sections

Measurement of grading current when energised at maximum continuous
operating voltage
Measurement of power frequency voltage at resistive current level to be
determined between manufacturer and purchaser (1-10 mA peak)
Residual voltage at a discharge current level to be determined between
manufacturer and purchaser
Delegates Notes

Page 37 of 53

6.9 Overhead Line Maintenance

6.9.1 General Introduction to Utility Maintenance Methodology
Electrical Utilities depend very heavily on the availability and correct functioning of all
the various power system elements including overhead Lines. The consequences of
failure may include some or all of the following:
Loss of Consumer Demand

Loss of Consumer Goodwill
Loss of Revenue
Substandard Operation resulting in wastage of materials and capacity
Damage to other Equipment
Injury or death in safety critical environments
All the above consequences carry cost penalties that can in most cases be determined
fairly accurately. The level of the cost penalties will vary with the situation from small
to very high in some cases.
All organisations have a maintenance policy of some kind, since breakdowns of
equipment will always occur and are of course dealt with.
For electrical power transmission and distribution utilities, this de-facto policy of
waiting for something to break down is not considered satisfactory for most
components and systems. On the contrary it is necessary for utilities to address the
risks and costs arising from equipment failures and set up a formal maintenance policy.
This policy is based on preventing or reducing significantly the levels of equipment
failure.
However, Electrical Preventive Maintenance (EPM) in itself costs the utility money. The
aim is to more than off-set this cost by the reduction in the costs of equipment failure
The goal of a Maintenance Policy should be : COST OF FAILURE + COST OF MAINTENANCE = MINIMUM ($)
The two quite distinct approaches can be summarised as:
Reactive Maintenance
Pro-active Maintenance

Page 38 of 53

6.9.2 Reactive Maintenance
This is based on the principle of non-intervention until problems arise.
In other words, it simply addresses breakdowns
For some electrical equipment, particularly those involved in safety critical situations,
or when there are statutory requirements for maintenance/inspection (Government
Legislation/Insurance etc) this policy cannot be reasonably adopted.
However, in the majority of cases the choice between Reactive Maintenance and Proactive Maintenance is based upon the relative costs.
Failure of an overhead line may result in some or all of the following costs:
Cost of uneconomic generation dispatch during the repair period (cannot be

coordinated with appropriate generation overhauls if unplanned).
Cost of Wasted Equipment through possible direct or consequential damage.
Cost of the repair
Cost of Loss of goodwill (where breakdowns directly affect the consumer)
Offset against such costs, the removal of lines from service for maintenance also
carries costs that may include:
Cost of unavoidable uneconomic generation dispatch
Cost of Manpower/Materials etc for the Line Maintenance
Value of the remaining useful life in any replaced components
Assuming that the more frequent the maintenance, the less likely in-service failure is a
graph similar to figure 6.17 can be drawn.
In some cases it may well be more economic to maintain overhead lines very
infrequently, if at all, in which case the reactive approach of responding only to failures
only can be the most cost effective
On a small scale, little planning may be required. If for example an office PC breaks
down, say its hard-disk, the simplest approach is to telephone the nearest dealers and
have a replacement disk delivered. In the long-term this may well be the most
satisfactory arrangement rather than trying to arrange maintenance contracts for
such small items of low-price electrical equipment. On the other hand large and more
complex electrical equipment such as generators, circuit breakers, power transformers,
overhead lines, cables etc will most certainly be managed by a maintenance department
within the utility. For such items, the breakdown costs, itemised above, are relatively
high and will probably require an assured supply of spares for the sub-components

Page 39 of 53

Cost
Total
Maintenance
Repair
Frequency of Maintenance
Fig 6.17 The Cost of Maintenance

6.9.3 Maintenance Stocks (Spares)
Overhead line spares can be held on site. However, a major disadvantage of holding
spares stocks is that they may never be actually used.
The cost of spare stockholding is always much higher than for the stocks of indirect
materials because of this possible obsolescence contributing to the total. A further
difference arises when the cost of stock-out is considered, since this is directly
related to the cost of lost production during the time taken to obtain spares. If
orthodox stock control methods are applied to maintenance spare stocks, then all the
various costs need to be evaluated first.
In many cases, an alternative approach not to carry spares at all, but to arrange with
the manufacturers local distributor to guarantee the supply of critically appropriate
spares within a certain pre-defined time, the time being related to the cost of the
outage against time e.g. .24 hours.
The decision on spares policy is again a matter of balancing costs. Will the costs of say
a 24-hour delay outweigh the cost of holding spares in stock? The cost of holding
spares can be summarised as follows: Cost of Capital tied up in inventory
Cost of Storage, including space equipment, labour, services etc
Cost of Stock Losses

Page 40 of 53

It goes without saying that if stockholding of maintenance spares is adopted, then
overhead line equipment standardisation is an important issue. Purchasing equipment
from one manufacturer rather than several usually means only one set of spares,
instead of many. It also means greater familiarity and skill on the part of maintenance
personnel, and thus faster and cheaper repairs. The down side to this is of course the
element of Competition is removed in the purchasing process, which can itself lead to
increased costs.
6.9.4 Proactive Maintenance
Referring again to figure 6.17. The graph for total cost shows a well or minimum.
Even if the application is not Safety
Critical, this calls for a different
maintenance policy than described in
Section 5.2.
Cost
Total
Maintenance
Proactive maintenance is called for.
Repair
All Safety Critical Applications also

call for such a policy.
Frequency of Maintenance
Reduce the risk of breakdown to as

low a level as is reasonable
attainable.
Fig.6.17 Why Proactive
Maintenance
This can be achieved by:
Regular Overhauls
Diagnostic Monitoring
It is necessary to establish an appropriate frequency and level of overhaul/maintenance

for each item of electrical plant or sub-system. In a number of cases, the frequency is
determined by Government Legislation linked to the provision of insurance.
A regular programme of maintenance activity is usually established so that equipment is
checked at appropriate intervals and the results logged for control purposes. This
preventative maintenance plan must be constructed in such a way as to minimise
disruption to the consumer in distribution networks, and is usually appropriately
scheduled.

Page 41 of 53

Data on the necessary frequency is gathered by:
Observing and recording the condition of line components at each overhaul.
Recording the frequency of line failures attributable to internal failures.
A general indication of likely frequency of overhaul can be gained by study of the

variation of failure rate through the life of any piece of electrical equipment. The socalled bathtub curve is shown overleaf in figure 6.18.
A high initial failure rate is associated with:
Defective Manufacture and Type Faults of line components
Inadequate or poor installation
Poor Commissioning Procedures
Unfamiliarity by Operators
High Inititial
Failure Rate
Defective Manufacture
Inadequate or poor installation
Poor Commissioning Procedures
Unfamiliarity by Operators
Failure
Rate
Failure Rate
Rising
(Ageing)
Low
Failure Rate
Life
Fig. 6.18 Failure Rate against Life of Equipment

After commissioning and the settling in period the failure rate should become relatively
low and then rising to higher levels as the equipment begins to wear out. Electrical
Power Equipment, particularly, rotating equipment such as motors or generators is more
susceptible to the final increase in failure rate due to ageing. On the other hand
static components such as overhead lines are less susceptible.
Usually the initial period when higher levels of failure can be expected, is the period
covered under warranty by the manufacturer, typically 6 to 12 months, depending upon
the category of the component.

Page 42 of 53

Irrespective of such issues, a conclusion from figure 6.18 can be drawn:
The frequency of maintenance should be greater in the early stages than in the
late stages of the life expectancy of the equipment.
6.9.5 In House versus Third Party

An important policy decision for a utility is whether they should carry out their own
maintenance or contract it out to other organisations. Users of small numbers of
specialised electrical plant will invariably sign a maintenance contract either with the
suppliers of the equipment or with an organisation with the necessary expertise. This is
likely to prove more cost effective rather than trying to build up and retain the
necessary expertise, test equipment, repair equipment etc.
If a utility chooses to carry out all or part of its maintenance, it will usually be the
responsibility of some central maintenance unit, but even here there are always a huge
variety of policies adopted. The difficulties with too much centralisation are more
obvious with companies operating across large geographical areas, such as an electrical
distribution utility. Response time to trouble calls can suffer. In some cases a failure
of a system or sub-system can render operators idle and the problem becomes what to
do with them during the outage (downtime). In some cases it becomes economic to
employ operators, capable of carrying out some of the maintenance activities, thus
avoiding delays and idle staff.
The above applies in the main to substation equipment rather than overhead lines and
cables. Most utilities carry a fault repairs and maintenance team (unit) for overhead
lines and indeed cables, calling in contractors only where necessary
6.9.6 Predictive and Preventive Maintenance
6.9.6.1 Introduction
Preventive maintenance is not a new concept. People have been doing precautionary
work on substation equipment for decades. Doing preventive maintenance on purely
electrical systems such as transformers, cables, terminations etc has historically been
looked upon as a waste of money. Statements like Nothing moves what can go wrong
are not uncommon. Actually nothing could be further from the truth!
A great deal can go wrong. It should be stressed in addition that as electrical loads
cycle between high and low demand, thermal expansion and contraction could cause
connections to loosen. Electrical panels that are never cleaned accumulate dust and dirt
that deposit on such connections. Loose and dirty connections that provide a high
resistance path are directly responsible for more than 30% of electrical failures in
most power systems. A further percentage of the failures (circa 17%) can be
attributed to the ingress of moisture into electrical components.

Page 43 of 53

Cause of failure
Ratio
Loose connections/parts
30.3%
Moisture
17.4%
Line
disturbance
lightning
excluding
10.4%
Defective/inadequate insulation
9.9%
Lightning
8.1%
Foreign objects/short-circuits
7.3%
Collision
3.9%
Overloading/inadequate capacity
2.4%
Accumulation of dust, dirt and oil
2.2%
All other causes
8.1%
Table 6.7 Top causes of Electrical Distribution System Failures

(Based on Insurance claims- North America)
With a comprehensive electrical preventive maintenance programme, both the above

conditions can be almost eliminated. Thus almost half of all electrical failures that
could otherwise be expected are likewise eradicated. (Refer to Table 6.7 for typical
figures Distribution Utility in North America).
According to the IEEE, the failure rate of electrical components is three times higher
for systems where preventive maintenance is not performed.
This fits since; most utilities are now realising considerable overall financial benefits
from performing Predictive/Preventive Maintenance (P/PM) on electrical equipment.
COST OF FAILURE + COST OF MAINTENANCE = MINIMUM ($)
The significant components of a P/PM programme are as follows:
Qualified Personnel
Regularly Scheduled Inspection, Testing and Servicing of Equipment
Sound Judgement in Evaluating Results
Perform the necessary work
Concise and Complete Record Keeping

Page 44 of 53

6.9.6.2 Qualified Personnel
It is very important that the people who perform the P/PM program are properly
trained to work on the specific equipment being manufactured or tested. This includes
understanding thoroughly the functionality of the equipment and having a through
understanding of electrical safety practices and procedures.
Specialised training is required for many items of modern electrical equipment and this
should never be overlooked.
6.9.6.3 Regularly Scheduled Inspection, Testing and Servicing of Equipment
The programme should be performed on a regular basis. The period between work will
depend upon a number of factors such as:
The environment in which the equipment operates
The importance of the equipment
The loading of the Equipment
Use of the equipment
All substation components should be subject to the programme at least every three
years. Many network or production critical components should be inspected, tested and
appropriately serviced much more frequently.
6.9.6.4 Prior to Outage
A visual inspection of the complete line route end to end should be made. This is
carried out by land patrol. Observe any of the following: Excessive noise from line (Corona Discharger
A UV camera and associated software can be employed to assist in

identification
Tower or Pole Damage
Interference with anti climbing devices
Signs of Wear and Rear on jumpers at angle and tension structures.
Where possible an aerial survey should be carried out using Infrared Camera (IR) and
Ultra-violet camera (UV) The former requires that the circuit be loaded to at least
50% of its rated current carrying capacity. This should identify any hot spots to be
repaired during the outage. The latest UV cameras can be operated during this survey.
It is imperative that the person reviewing the thermographic inspection or any of the
other test reports should have a thorough understanding of the specific subject
matter. This is very important. Informed and responsible decisions need to be made on
how the undesirable conditions can best be rectified.

Page 45 of 53

Concise and Complete Record Keeping is often the most overlooked aspect of P/PM.
Precise record keeping is, however, an essential component for success. It will ensure
that all the work is getting done when it is planned. In addition, tracking of test results
over time can often identify a potential failure permitting correction before disaster.
The use of IR technology to determine hot spots in electrical equipment is not new.
The author was using IR cameras in the United Kingdom, mounted on helicopters to
locate possible joint problems on overhead transmission lines back in the mid 1960s.
Most electrical problems within industrial facilities are manifested or are accompanied
by temperature changes as an effect prior to failure. For this reason IR thermography
has become an integral part of most predictive / preventative maintenance programs.
Infrared cameras can pick up small variations in temperature not visible to the human
eye. It is a non- contact, non-destructive, and fairly simple method of detecting
impending electrical problems. It is widely known that as temperature in a conductor
rises, so does its resistance. Conversely, as resistance increases (in most conductors)
temperature rises. The majority of thermal electrical problems involve improper torque
specifications or improper installation at the junction points. A loosely tightened
connector effectively reduces the surface area in which current can flow and
consequently an increase in the contact resistance Oxidation build up at the connection
point can also cause a rise in resistance. The origin of most conductor, insulation, and
component problems can be traced to a poor connection using an infrared camera. One
Infrared expert says; "With infrared, you're measuring intangibles-how much downtime
you've eliminated, or how many fires you haven't had.
Many companies are calculating payback from the purchase of IR equipment, or the use
of specialised IR contractors. Electric utilities responsible for supplying many
consumers and owning a lot of capital equipment have little problem getting their
moneys' worth out of infrared equipment. A senior engineering associate for Energy
Transmission & Distribution Systems, New Orleans, LA, argues that he has seen a
return on his company's $300,000 investment in about a year. "We have transformers
that cost between four and five million dollars a piece; if we can find a problem that
will save one transformer, we've paid for our program for years."
This type of scenario is easily referenced after the purchase, but justifying costs to
management beforehand can be tough. Most new thermal imaging cameras are portable,
handheld and will store images for documentation. The newer thermal imagers generally
use the point and shoot method, and are easy to operate.
Training should be considered because while the camera does most of the work, the
user needs to be able to interpret the images that have been acquired. The more time
and usage you get with the infrared camera, the more familiar you get to calling a
problem. The use of infrared thermography is likely to aid in locating potential
problems, therefore reducing downtime.

Page 46 of 53

If properly conducted infrared electrical surveys are safe, fast, and reliable. Infrared
cameras are non-contact so inspections can be performed at any time without taking an
outage of the line.
Tables 6.8 and 6.9 below classifies observed problems and suggested actions)
Problem
Classification
Phase to Phase Temperature

Rise
Recommended Action
1o 10o C
Repair in regular maintenance of physical

damage
Intermediate
10o 30o C
Repair in the near future (2-4 weeks).

Watch load and change accordingly.
Inspect for physical damage. There is
probability of damage in the component,
but not in the
Surrounding components.
Serious
30o 70o C
Repair in immediate future (1-2 days)

Replace component and inspect the
surrounding components for probable
damage.
Critical
Above 70o C
Repair immediately (overtime). Replace

component,
inspect
surrounding
components. Repair while IR camera is
still available to inspect after.
Minor
*With wind speed less than 15mph

**With load conditions greater than 50%
Table 6.8 Thermal Problem Classification Chart

Courtesy of Sierra Pacific Innovations Inc. USA
Wind Speed (Miles per

Hour)
Correction
Factor
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
1.00
1.30
1.60
1.68
1.96
2.10
2.25
2.42
2.60
Table 6.9 Correction for Wind Speeds

Page 47 of 53

6.9.6.5 Examples - (Thermographic Reports)
The following report example is reproduced by courtesy of Stockton, USA

Page 48 of 53


Page 49 of 53

6.9.6.6 UV Technology
In conjunction with IR surveys, the use of UV cameras can also greatly assist the
identification of existing and possible future problems on overhead lines and associated
fittings. Here are some example pictures.
Bad Ground Connections in Substations
Damaged Polymer Insulator
Broken Porcelain Bells

Page 50 of 53

Defective Ceramic Insulator on

400kV Line
Arcing from a 69kV Post
Arching from a cracked 23.4 kV

porcelain insulator
Defective 500kV Porcelain Insulator

String
Broken Strand on a 345 kV Transmission Line

Page 51 of 53

Dirty Glass Insulator 165 kV Line

6.9.6.7 Fault Repairs
In all cases a ground patrol should follow a successful reclosure of an overhead line in
order that any possible permanent damage not resulting in a maintained short-circuit
can be identified.
A line fault without a successful reclosure obviously requires a full ground patrol to
identify the broken conductor or other line component damage. Switching and
associated Safety co-ordination for overhead line repairs is not covered in this manual.
Due to the many and varied types of repair requirements on overhead lines this manual
does not give examples. However, it is anticipated that the subject will be covered
through appropriate discussions during the seminar.
6.9.6.8. Live line Insulator Washing
In areas of moderate to high pollution levels the practice of washing toughened glass
and porcelain insulators is commonplace. Certainly dirty insulators may lead to
excessive discharge and increased system losses. Radio interference levels may also
become unacceptable. Live line washing is also applicable in desert regions where sand
particles tend to build up on the insulators.
Experience shows that the composite insulator is less susceptible to the build up of
pollution particles, particularly sand, and the need for live-line washing of such
insulators is largely obviated.

Page 52 of 53

6.10 Summary
This module addressed transmission and distribution level clearances. On the subject
of line fittings, aerodynamic vibration phenomena were explained and the various
solutions described. Other types of line fittings sag adjusters, suspension clamps were
also introduced.
The module continues on the subject of insulation coordination and the IEC standards
that pertain. Materials used for insulators were addressed. Overvoltage protection
solutions, rod gaps, arcing horns and surge arrestors were described together with a
worked example.
Finally some general issues surrounding maintenance of overhead lines was covered and
the important use of IR and UV technology in the field.
Delegates Notes

Page 53 of 53

APPENDIX 1 ADVICE TO THIRD PARTIES FOR WORKING
SAFELY
HEALTH & SAFETY EXECUTIVE, UK
Working safely near overhead

power lines
Introduction
About five people are killed every year
in accidents involving overhead power
lines (OHPLs) during agricultural work.
Machinery (like combines, tipping
trailers, boom sprayers, loaders);
equipment (such as irrigation pipes and
ladders); and activities (eg stacking) are
often involved. Contact with the lines
does not need to be made. Electricity
can flash over when machinery or
equipment gets close to overhead lines.
Most incidents involve high-voltage lines
supported on wooden poles, but the
dangers of other power lines such as
those supported on steel towers or
steel poles and concrete structures
cannot be ignored. This information
sheet outlines the steps you can take to
reduce the risks when working near
overhead power lines. Remember the
Electricity at Work Regulations 1989
apply to work activities carried out near
power lines.
Appendix 1
Planning precautions
Consult your local electricity company
and /or the National Grid Company
for lines on steel towers operating at
275 and 400 kV.
(The operating voltage will be displayed
on a sign attached to the tower.) They
will provide free information and advice
about precautions and safe working
procedures which can be followed near
power lines.
Find out the maximum height and
maximum vertical reach of your
machines and those used by contractors.
Find out the routes of all overhead
lines on your land or near your
boundaries. Mark them on the farm map.
The electricity company will give you
this information.
Make sure you have information about
all the lines on your land - if not,
contact the owners of those lines.
Page1 of 2

SAFELY
HEALTH & SAFETY EXECUTIVE, UK
Make sure you have details of the
maximum working heights permitted
under each span of overhead line on
your farm and adjacent to each
structure. Mark these on the farm map.
The farm map can be used as a
reference when planning cropping or
other work, instructing machine
operators and contractors, or buying
new equipment. In cases where there is
a significant risk, it is sensible to
discuss the following measures with the
electricity company:
Access: creating alternative access
points and routes - this is often the
cheapest option.
Divert lines: benefits can arise from
burying lines or changing routes - an
option particularly suited to farmyards.
Barriers and goalposts: by erecting
goalposts and barriers, machines which
have to pass beneath lines can be
limited to a safe height an option
especially suited to gateways and
tracks.
Selection of machinery
The risks of contact or flashover can be
greatly reduced by selecting machinery
that will not reach more than 4 m from
the ground. Check the working heights
of your machines and the maximum
heights that folding elements can reach.
Check with the manufacturer or supplier
if necessary.
Appendix 1
Use of machinery
Accidents can be prevented if the
following operations are not carried out
within a horizontal distance of at least
9 m from power lines on wooden poles or
at least 15 m from lines on metal
towers. These distances should be
measured from the line of the nearest
conductor to the work, projected
vertically downwards onto the floor, and
perpendicular to the route of the line.
The operations are:
stacking bales or potato boxes;
folding sprayer booms;
tipping trailers or lorries;
operating materials handlers;
working on top of combines or

other high machinery.
Risks can be reduced by:
Using sprayers with horizontally folding
booms;
Never folding sprayer booms on

the move;
Taking care not to damage poles

and stays;
Making sure machinery can

operate safely near any
overhead lines;
Fitting shorter radio aerials or

repositioning existing ones on
high machines so they cannot
cause danger;
Carrying irrigation pipes

horizontally using two people and
not storing pipes or other
materials and equipment near or
under power lines and their
supports;
Designating safe areas for highrisk operations, eg boom folding,

telescopic handler use, tipping
trailers.
Page2 of 2

SAFELY - CALIFORNIA (OSHA)
TT-1: May 2001
Division of Occupational Safety and Health

California Department of Industrial Relations
P.O. Box 420603, San Francisco,
CA 94142-0603, USA
High Voltage Overhead Lines

Many workers in both construction and
agriculture face a common safety
hazard: electrical contact with high
voltage overhead lines. Every year they
are killed or disabled after accidentally
coming in contact with the lines. What
precautions can you take to avoid this
type of accident? What does the law
California Code of Regulations say
about this hazard?
Safe Work Practices
Several safety orders deal with
requirements for safe work practices
around high voltage overhead lines.
When these orders are followed, almost
all accidents involving high voltage lines
are prevented.
Electrical Safety Order 2946 (b) (4)
prohibits storage of irrigation pipe or
long metal poles near high voltage
overhead lines if they are long enough
to reach the lines. In one year, 80
percent of the electrocution deaths of
California agricultural workers occurred
when the irrigation pipes they were
handling came in contact with overhead
lines.
Electrical Safety Order 2946outlines
the requirements for prevention of
accidents due to nearness of overhead
lines. Workers must be guarded against
the danger of accidental contact with
overhead lines. With certain exceptions,
work done over live (power on) overhead
lines is against the law. Section 2946
also prohibits doing work within 6 feet
of lines carrying between 600 and
50,000 volts. Do not store tools,
machinery, and equipment near live high
voltage overhead lines if it is possible
Appendix 1
for them to come within the minimum

clearance of 6 feet when they are being
moved or used.
When moving boom-type equipment with
boom lowered and no load attached,
keep the end of the boom at least 6
feet away from high voltage lines. When
operating boom-type lifting or hoisting
equipment, the minimum clearance is 10
feet if the overhead line is carrying
between 600 and 50,000 volts.
This warning sign should be posted on
the equipment, in clear view of the
operator:
UNLAWFUL TO OPERATE THIS
EQUIPMENT WITHIN 10 FEET OF
HIGH VOLTAGE LINES OF 50,000
VOLTS OR LESS.
The following statement must be
printed on the sign in smaller lettering:
FOR MINIMUM CLEARANCE OF
HIGH-VOLTAGE LINES IN EXCESS
OF 50,000 VOLTS, SEE ARTICLE 86,
TITLE 8, HIGH-VOLTAGE
ELECTRICAL SAFETY ORDERS.
If you don't know whether an overhead
line is live, assume that it is until
whoever owns or operates the line
verifies that the power is not on. If you
are working near a dead (power off) line,
make sure it is clearly grounded at the
worksite. A grounded line has a
grounding wire clamped to it, with the
other end clamped to either the
structure or a grounding rod.
Page 1 of 2

SAFELY - CALIFORNIA (OSHA)
Metal Fruit Picking Rods

Use of metal poles for fruit picking or
nut harvesting is a violation of General
Industry Safety Order 3455.
Discussion Questions
Is there danger on this job site of
coming into contact with high voltage
overhead lines?
What can be done to prevent such
contact?
Are the requirements of the safety
orders being followed on this site? If
not, how are they being violated?
Appendix 1
Page 2 of 2

APPENDIX 3 HEALTH EFFECTS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
FIELDS
ASSOCIATED WITH HIGH VOLTAGE LINES
Overhead Lines - Research

Overhead lines have attracted attention from researchers since the early 1960s when the first
report of general illnesses was issued. The interest heightened in 1979 and 1993 with the
publication of research reports that claimed very low levels of magnetic fields were associated
with the increase in childhood leukaemia.
The type of research involved in these latter studies was Epidemiological, that is, they studied
groups of people living near wires and overhead lines and compared their state of health with
other groups living further away. The research did not study or try to explain in biological
terms how such effects could occur. Biology today cannot provide an accepted biological
mechanism for the causation or promotion of cancer.
Of course it does not require all the answers to be provided before concerns and fears are
raised. The electricity companies throughout Britain soon became involved in addressing the
concerns of those people living near to overhead lines and other equipment.
Looking at the picture opposite it is easy to see why many people became
alarmed. Here a builder has avoided the costs involved having this 400kV
(400,000 Volt) double circuit 'Quad' line moved or raised by aligning his
road with the tower (sometimes called a pylon). The industry name
'Quad' is given to this type of construction as there are four conductors
grouped together with star like spacers between them.
The magnetic field under and close to this line exceeded the values given
in the Swedish report. However the only conclusions that can be offered
that are;
No-one should climb the tower.
No-one should fly kites.
There will be wind noise from the conductors and the tower.
There will be a crackling noise created by ionisation of the air around the conductors.
The use of computers using standard monitors will be impaired by the screen image
flickering or wobbling. Laptop computers will be unaffected.
There will be more research claiming harmful effects that attracts wide media coverage and
other research that finds no cause for concern that gets very little coverage.
Appendix 3 Health Effects of Electromagnetic Fields
(Associated with High Voltage Lines)
Page 1 of 6

FIELDS
Overhead Lines and Ions

There has been some alarm recently about the role that Ions may play in increasing the risk of
cancer for people living near to high voltage overhead lines. This concern originated from work
carried out by Professor Henshaw of Bristol University that was used by the BBC to launch it's
new Radio Four programme, 'Costing the Earth' on 21 September 2000.
Professor Henshaw's theory, put simply, is:
The high voltage overhead lines create Ions, charged particles. These particles become
attached to pollutants in the air, which in turn, become more attracted to people. The pollutant
will then stick to the skin or be breathed in. The theory goes, once in the lung, the pollutants
will cause lung cancer.
The high voltage overhead line is not itself harmful, but its presence will attract and
concentrate the pollutants from car exhausts etc, and these will accumulate downwind of the
overhead line. It is claimed this effect has been missed in all previous work as all the research
associated with overhead lines has looking for magnetic field effects, not electric field effects.
Wrong, the study of possible magnetic field effects resulted from work that first looked for
electric field effects. The whole subject of electric and magnetic fields (EMF) originated from
reports that Russian workers in high voltage substations were suffering various maladies.
Electrical utilities around the world carried out checks to see if any such effects were present,
they were not. Swedish research on EMF first started with a study looking for electric field
effects associated with high voltage overhead lines and they found no such effects. Having had
no success with electric field studies, the scientific community moved its attention to magnetic
fields.
There are many other points on which Professor Henshaw's theory can be challenged. The
overwhelming consensus of the scientific community is that he is mistaken in his beliefs. There
has been some very strong and damming views expressed of both the research and the role of
the BBC in creating unnecessary public alarm.
One example is the Press Release issued by the Institute of Electrical Engineers (IEE)
responding to the BBC programme:
The Bristol scientists are unwilling or unable to disclose their research methods.
It is highly irresponsible to make sensational claims about alleged health effects, which
appear to contradict work carried out elsewhere, without publication of peer reviewed
papers.
The peer review process is our quality control check and should not be missed out. We deserve
to have all the checks carried out, especially where public health is concerned. The full Press
Release is reproduced in this appenbdix.
Page 2 of 6

FIELDS
The IEE Press Release

27 September 2000
POWER LINE PROGRAMME "IRRESPONSIBLE" SAYS IEE
The IEE, Europe's largest engineering professional body, strongly deplores the manner in which
scientists at Bristol University have collaborated with the BBC in producing a sensational
programme on the alleged harmful effects of overhead power lines on people's health, without
providing adequate supporting data.
The IEE has, since 1994, been conducting a rigorous study of peer reviewed papers concerning
the possible harmful effects of low level low frequency electromagnetic fields, such as those
near overhead power lines. In that time some 1600 papers have been reviewed by a panel of
experts who have concluded that there is no evidence of any harmful effects. The same
conclusion was reached recently following a major epidemiological study conducted as part of
the UK Childhood Cancer Study under Professor Doll from Oxford University (the Doll Report).
Scientists from Bristol University are claiming that the electrostatic fields surrounding power
lines can, under certain circumstances, cause particles of pollution to become electrically
charged, and the particles are then inhaled by people living near those power lines. Such
particles, it is claimed, are more likely to "stick" to the lungs, and therefore cause cancer.
The resulting number of deaths which they claim, are far higher than could be explained on the
basis of published data, and no account appears to have been taken of the effects of smoking,
which is well known as the major cause of cancer of the lung. Despite requests by the IEE's
experts, the Bristol scientists are unwilling or unable to disclose their research methods. Nor
have any peer review published papers been produced to support their claims.
The IEE's Chief Executive Dr Alf Roberts said that the IEE believes that it is highly
irresponsible to make sensational claims about alleged health effects, which appear to
contradict work carried out elsewhere, without publication of peer reviewed papers in scientific
journals. Publication via the media, without releasing the associated data and scientific
methods, can only serve to cause unjustified alarm in the general public without adding to valid
scientific debate.
To follow for interest are figures of magnetic flux created by 400kV, 275 kV and 110 kV
overhead lines at ground level (50 Hz) Also included is a chart of the undisturbed voltage
strength around the conductors of a 400 kV line at 50 Hz. These were published in a report
before the end of the last century by an academic institution in Europe, Recommended maximum
values from the report have been included.
Authors Summary
Up to the present time there does not appear to be any positive evidence that there is any
connection between the voltage and magnetic fields of High Voltage Overhead Lines and the
health of the general public when recommended clearances are adhered to.
Page 3 of 6

APPENDIX 3 HEALTH EFFECTS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
Magnetic flux density ( T ) by 50Hz

in 1 metre above ground
> 0.1 < 2

>2<4
>4<6
> 6<8
> 8 < 10
> 10 < 20
> 20 < 30
> 30 < 40
> 40 < 50
> 50 < 60
> 60 < 70
> 70 < 80
> 80 < 90
> 90 < 100
> 100
Limit value: 100 T

(26th BlmSchV 1997)
Vertical profile
Page 4 of 6

Magnetic Flux Density by High-voltage

Overhead Lines (50 Hz) in Vertical Profile
> 0.1 < 2

>2<4
>4<6
> 6<8
> 8 < 10
> 10 < 20
> 20 < 30
> 30 < 40
> 40 < 50
> 50 < 60
> 60 < 70
> 70 < 80
> 80 < 90
> 90 < 100
> 100
Vertical profile
Page 5 of 6

Undisturbed Electric Field Strength by

High-voltage Overhead Lines (50 Hz) in
Vertical Profile
Electric field strength (kV/cm)
by 50 Hz in vertical profile
> 0.5 < 1

>1<2
>2<3
>3<4
>4<5
> 5 < 10
> 10 < 15
> 15 < 20
> 20 < 25
> 25
Limit value : 5 kV/m

26th BLMSchV 1997
Page 6 of 6
APPENDIX 4
IMPEDANCES & FAULT LEVEL CALCULATIONS
CONTENTS
Section
No
Description
Figure or Table
Page
No.
App.4.1 Inductive Reactance

App.4.1.1 Basic Formula, Geometric Radius and Geometric Mean
Distance
Fig. App. 4.1 Simple Go and Return Two Wire Single Phase
Table App. 4.1 Geometric Mean Value Radius (GMR) values
as a Function of Conductor Radius r
App.4.1.2 Three Phase Formula
Fig. App.4. 2 Three Phase Inductance
App.4.1.3 Positive and Negative Sequence Reactance
App.4.1.4 Zero Sequence Reactance
Table App.4.2 Typical Overhead Line Zero/Positive
Sequence Reactance Ratios
App. 4.1.5 Capacitive Reactance
App. 4.1.6 Resistance
Table App. 4.3 Resistance of Different Conductor
Materials
App.4.2 Short Circuit Current Calculations (Fault Levels
Fig. App 4.3 Choosing Base Values
App.4.2.1 Worked Example for a Simple Network
Fig. App 4.4 Three Node System
Fig. App.4.5 Generation added at node C
Fig. App.4.6 Additional Circuit Added
Fig. App.4.7 Further Circuits (Interconnection) is added
App.4.2.2 Unbalanced Faults
Fig. App 4.8 Connection of Sequence Impedances for
Various Unbalanced Faults
Impedances and Fault Level Calculations - Contents
Page 1 of 2
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
6
6
7
8
8
9
9
APPENDIX 4
IMPEDANCES & FAULT LEVEL CALCULATIONS
CONTENTS
Impedances and Fault Level Calculations - Contents
Page 2 of 2

APPENDIX 4 IMPEDANCES &
FAULT LEVEL CALCULATIONS
App.4.1 Inductive Reactance

App.4.1.1 Basic Formula, Geometric Radius and Geometric Mean Distance
The inductance of an overhead line is derived from its self-inductance and the mutual
inductance between the different phase conductors.
d
2r
Fig. App. 4.1 Simple Go and Return Two Wire Single Phase
For a simple go and return to wire single phase a.c, system (figure App.4.1) the
inductance L is given by the expression: -
L = 0.2 0.25 + loge m H/km

r
The expression may be reduces to a single term by taking a hypothetical value for the
conductor radius which still gives the same value for the inductance. Thus: -
L = 0.2 0.25 + loge

m H/km
GMR
where d = separation between the conductor axes (mm)
r = radius of conductor (mm)

GMR = geometric mean radius of conductors (mm)
All aluminium or all
Copper conductor
ACSR
Number of strands
GMR
Number of
aluminium strands
GMR
7
19
37
61
91
127
169
Solid
0.726r
0.758r
0.768r
0.772r
0.774r
0.776r
0.779r
0.779r
6
12
26
30
54
0.768r
0.859r
0.809r
0.826r
0.810r
Table App. 4.1 Geometric Mean Value Radius (GMR) values as a Function of
Conductor Radius r
Appendix 4 Impedances and Fault Level Calculations
Page 1 of 10

For solid conductors the GMR 0.78r and for stranded conductors it varies according
to the number and size of the strands. Table App 4.1 gives values of GMR for ACSR and
all copper or all aluminium stranded conductors of conductor radius, r
App.4.1.2 Three Phase Formula
Refer to figure App. 4.2
For a three phase system the mutual effects of one conductor on another modify the
formula and the expression under symmetrical operating conditions becomes: -
GMD
L = 0.2 loge
+ K m H/km
GMR
line to neutral inductance
K = correction factor for steel core in ACSR

(K = 0 for single material conductors),
conductor diameter = 2r
phases r = red, y = yellow and b = blue
r
dry
dbr
b
dyb
Fig. App.4.2 Three Phase Inductance

GMD = geometric mean difference between the r, y and b phases
= 3 (d ry x d yb x d br )
App. 4.1.3 Positive and Negative Sequence Reactance
The positive and negative phase sequence inductive reactances (X1, X2) of a three phase
overhead line are equal and for a frequency, f Hz, become: -

GMD
X1 = 2 x x f x 10 -3 0.2 loge
+ K ohms/km line to neutral inductive
GMR

reactance
Page 2 of 10

App. 4.1.4 Zero Sequence Reactance

Zero sequence reactance (X0) is most complicated to calculate. The value depends upon
the position and materials employed in the earth wires and the log of the square root
of the ground resistivity. Typical values for the ratio of zero-to-positive sequence
reactance for double-circuit and single-circuit overhead lines are given in Table App.4.2
Earth wire
Overhead Line
X0/X1
Single circuit
3.5
Double circuit
5.5
Galvanised steel
Single circuit
3.5
Galvanised steel
Double circuit
5.0
Non-magnetic
Single circuit
2.0
Non-magnetic
Double circuit
3.0
Table App. 4.2 Typical Overhead Line Zero/Positive Sequence Reactance Ratios
App. 4.1.5 Capacitive Reactance
In hand calculations for short overhead lines at higher voltages the capacitive
reactance is usually ignored if data is not immediately available. In computer modeling,
however, involving short overhead line sections (if the value is known) it is normally
entered. It is important to remember that a long, lightly loaded overhead line may have
a receiving end voltage higher than the sending end voltage due to capacitance effects.
The expression for line-to=neutral capacitance C is in the form: -
C=
1
GMD
18 loge
However, the earth plane modifies this expression and still more complex formulae are
applicable to bundled conductor configurations.
App. 4.1.6 Resistance
Resistance values for different conductor materials at 20OC were given in Module 5
Table 5.1. The segment of this table for resistance is repeated for clarity as Table
App. 4.3. The effective resistance of high voltage overhead lines is usually negligible
and is therefore usually neglected in simple hand calculations for load flow or fault
current analysis (Refer to section App. 4.2). Only at medium and low voltage does the
resistance become significant for short circuit calculations
Page 3 of 10

Property
Unit
Annealed
Copper
Harddrawn
Cadmium
Copper
copper
Resistance
at
20OC
mm2/km
17.241
17.71
Harddrawn
Aluminium
alloy
aluminium
21.77
28.26
32.2
Table 4.3 Resistance of Different Conductor Materials

App.4.2 Short Circuit Current Calculations (Fault Levels)
The procedure for the calculation of the short circuit currents in a power network
adopts the principles of network reduction from a sources of short current namely
generators, motors and capacitors.
The fault currents relating to circuit breaker interrupting capacity are quoted in kA.
The term fault level refers to the level of short circuit power (in VA MVA, kVA) at
any point (node) on the network at which a fault clearing device, a circuit breaker, a
downstream recloser (in overhead distribution networks) or fuse is fitted.
It is normal to work in p.u. or % values to a common study base. This permits an
assumption at least for hand calculations that all the sources of short current, can be
assumed at 1.p.u and are in phase with each other. Computer programs on the other
hand may begin first with a load flow study and more accurately represent the actual
situation.
1,000 kVA
1,000 kVA
1,000 kVA
B
11,000 Volts
Parameter
Primary Rating
11,000
Secondary Rating
3,300
High Voltage
System (A)
Low Voltage
System (B)
M
3,300 Volts
Ratio
Base Volts
11000
3300
3.33
Base kVA
1000
1000
1.00
Base Amps
52.49
174.96
0.30
Base Ohms
121.00
10.89
11.11
Fig.App 4.3 Choosing Base Values

Page 4 of 10

Where two systems of differing voltage are interconnected through a transformer, we

will select a common VA base for both systems and the rated voltage of each system as
is own base voltage. (These base voltages must have the same ratio to each other, as
the turns ratio of the transformers connecting the two systems). Base ohms and base
amps for the two systems will thus be correspondingly different. Figure App. 4.3
illustrates this with a simple example.
Per Unit Ohms = Actual Ohms/Base Ohms

Per Unit Volts = Actual Volts/Bas e Volts
Per Unit Amps = Actual Amps/Base Amps

For a 3-phase System
Base Amps =
Base VA
3 Base Volts
Base Ohms =
Base Volts
3 Base Amps
Where Ohms are the phase to neutral values as described in the foregoing sections on
inductive reactance, VA is the 3-phase value and as stated above the base voltage is
the line-to-line voltage.
Once the system values are expressed as per-unit values, we may treat the two
interconnected systems as a single system and carry out any necessary calculations.
Only in reconverting the per-unit values of the results to actual voltage and current
values, do we need to remember that two, or more, voltages actually existed on the
network
After the network is reduced to a single equivalent impedance (ZF) in p,u value from
source bus to the prescribed point of short-circuit the fault level is given by
Fault Level (VA) =
Base VA
ZF
thus Fault Current (A) =
Fault Level ( VA )
3 x Line Volts (VL )
If the utility chosen values are % on a VA base (i.e. final ZF is in %) then the formula
for Fault Level in VA (refer to worked example in section 4.2.1) becomes:Fault Level (VA) =
Base VA
ZF
x 100 ..(1)
Page 5 of 10

App.4.2.1 Worked Example for a Simple Network.

The 3-node network used to describe load-flow constraints in module 5, section 5.6.2,
page 36 will now be examined for balanced three-phase faults. For unbalanced faults
(refer to section 4.2.2) three equivalent networks are required.
Figure App. 4,4 shows the single 3-node Transmission system of section 5.4.2 of module
5. Four generators feed the HV node at 'A' through generator transformers. Each
generator has a sub-transient reactance of 25% expressed on a 199 MVA Base. The
generator transformers each have a positive sequence reactance of 15% also expressed
on a 100MVA Base. Circuits A-B, B-C and A-C each have a positive sequence reactance
of 4% on a 100 MVA Base. The calculated 3-phase fault levels at nodes 'A', 'B' and 'C'
for this simple network are 1000, 790 and 790 respectively.
This circuit was introduced
in Figure 4.5 - Load Flow
Constraints - Now Looking
at Short-Circuit Levels - Power Station
at C shut down
XT
For this example -working on a base

of % on a 100 MVA
= 15%
X = 4%
X = 4%
X = 4%
Xd = 25%
Developing the Equivalent Circuit

for a 3-phase fault at Node B
I
B
10
Faultgiven by
100 x 100
Xequivalent
12.67
790 MVA
Fig. App 4.4 Three Node System
Figure App 4.5 shows the effect of adding 3 similar generators at node 'C'. The
calculated 3-phase fault levels at nodes 'A', 'B' and 'C' are 1626, 1295 and 1540
respectively.
Figure App.4.6 shows the effect of adding an additional circuit between 'A' and 'C'
(reactance is 5%) The calculated 3-phase levels at nodes 'A', 'B' and 'C' are 1663,
1336 and 1602 respectively.
Page 6 of 10

Power Station
at C running
XT
= 15%
X = 4%
X = 4%
X = 4%
Xd = 25%

for a 3-phase fault at Node A
I
13.33
10
C
A
4
6.15
1626 MVA

for a 3-phase fault at Node C
I
10
13.33
A
C
4
8.33
I
B
4
4
=
1540 MVA

for a 3-phase fault at NodeB
10
Faultgiven by
100 x 100
Xequivalent
6.495
Faultgiven by
100 x 100
Xequivalent
B
10
8.33
1.33
1.33
1.33
7.72
C
1295 MVA
Fig. App.4.5 Generation added at node C
Page 7 of 10

Additional Circuit
is
added
XT
= 15%
X = 4%
X = 5%
X = 4%
X = 4%
Xd = 25%

10
13.3
5
4
C
Faultgiven
100 x
Xequivalent
6.01
1663 MVA
Fig. App4.6 Additional Circuit Added
Further Interconnection
added
For this example -working on a base

of % on a 100 MVA
XT
= 15%
X = 4%
X = 5%
X = 4%
X = 5%
X = 5%
X = 4%
Xd = 25%

I
A
10
12.3
2.22
A
5.97
4.44
Faultgiven
100 x
Xequivalent
=
`1675 MVA
Fig. App.4.7 Further Circuits (Interconnection) is added

Page 8 of 10

If interconnection is increased further in Figure App.4.7 by adding additional circuits

A-B and B-C. The calculated 3-phase fault at nodes 'A', 'B' and 'C' are 1675, 1463 and
1621 respectively.
It can be seen therefore, from this simple example that the general fault levels rise on
the network as generators are added.
Furthermore, the fault levels rise as
interconnection is added, e.g. Fault Level at 'B' rises from 1295 MVA in Figure 4.11 to
1463 MVA in Figure 5.13.
FAULT-LEVELS or fault capability of circuit breakers is thus a limitation on the design
and operation of power networks.
Series reactors are used in some networks to reduce the fault levels at certain nodes,
where the switchgear has a lower fault duty, or to provide interconnection for security
without exceeding switchgear ratings.
Normally, the objective of any self-respecting Transmission Design Engineer is to avoid
their use. This is achieved by the choice of appropriate voltage levels, switchgear
ratings, system connections and transformer impedances. However, they remain in
considerable use on interconnected Sub-Transmission and Distribution Networks.
Asynchronous interconnection, by means of Direct Current Transmission (HVDC) does
not increase fault levels. This is occasionally the major factor in the choice of this
technology, e.g. ties into large centres of demand from transmission networks, where
the additional cost of HVDC is outweighed by the cost of higher duty switchgear. This
however, is seldom the reason for utilising HVDC technology. Normally, the choice
stems from power flow control and system stability considerations
App.4.2.2 Unbalanced Faults
Symmetrical components are employed to analyse unbalanced faults i.e. single phase to
ground, phase-to-phase, and phase-to-phase to ground. The three components are: Positive Sequence Component (X1 or Z1)
The Voltages and Currents in each phase are equal in magnitude and have the
normal phase rotation
Negative Phase Sequence Component (X2 or Z2)
The Voltages and Currents in each phase are equal in magnitude and have the
opposite phase rotation
Zero Phase Sequence Component (X0 or Z0)
The voltages and currents are equal in magnitude but have no rotation.
Sections App 4.1.3 and 4.1.4 described how X1, X2 and X0 are derived for overhead lines
from various parameters.
Page 9 of 10

Three separate equivalent networks are then computed for a calculation of an

unbalanced fault at any node on the network. Figure App 4.8 illustrates how the
equivalent networks are connected to compute the value of fault level and short circuit
current for the various possible unbalanced faults conditions.
Fig. App 4.8 Connection of Sequence Impedances for Various Unbalanced Faults
Delegates Notes
Page 10 of 10

APPENDIX 5 WORKED EXAMPLE
SAG AND TENSION
Worked Example Line Calculation Sag and Tension

This appendix was referred to in Module 6 on page 3 section 6.3
Line calculations were addressed in Module 5 and a conductor was identified
that would adequately transmit 40 MVA over a 70 km line (Lynx, ACSR at
tropical conditions)
Having determined the acceptability of the chosen conductor for the electrical
load it is now possible to determine the correct tower dimensions in order to
obtain adequate clearances. We need to calculate the maximum conductor
tension at minimum temperature and ensure this is within the capability of the
ACSR Lynx conductor. In addition we need to calculate the maximum and
minimum sag, at maximum temperature, to ensure correct tower height.
Parabolic equations are used to simplify the arithmetic in this hand calculation
example. Assume the following conditions:Minimum tropical temperature = 0OC (no ice)
Everyday tropical temperature = 20OC
Basic span
= 330m
Wind pressure
= 680 N/m2
Lynx breaking load
= 79.8 kN
Lynx mass
Lynx overall diameter
= 0.842 kg/m
= 19.53 mm
(a) Check the ruling tension condition

Maximum working tension (MWT) factor of safety (with wind and ice loads)
= 2.5 x, say
Everyday stress (EDS) factor of safety (no wind, no ice) = 5 x ,say
At 0OC, with wind tension = breaking load/2.5 = 79.8/2.5 = 31.92 kN
At 20OC, no wind tension = breaking load/5 =
79.8/5 = 15.96 kN
Wind load = p(y + x)

Where p = wind pressure = 680 N/m2
y = radial thickness of ice = 0 mm

x = conductor diameter = 19.53 mm
Appendix 5 Worked Example Sag & Tension
Page 1 of 5

SAG AND TENSION
The effective weight of the conductor, W1, under maximum loading conditions is
derived from the resultant of wind load and the weight of the conductor itself
wind load
W1 = (weight of conductor + ice ) +

g
(0.842 x 9.81)2 + (680 x 0.01953 )2
15.64 N/m = 0.01564 kN/m
At 0OC, T1 = 31.92 kN so calculate T2 at 20OC from the general change-of state

equation for tensions in conductors: -
EA x x (t 2 - t 1 ) + W1 x g2 x L2 x EA/ 24 T1
2
) - T = (W
where E = modulus of elasticity
= 84 x 103 MN/m2
A = cross-sectional area of conductor
= 226.2 mm2
= coefficient of linear expansion
= 19.3 x 10-6 per OC
t2 t1 = temperature differential
x g 2 x L2 x EA /24 T2 - T2
= 20OC
(use negative sign for
temperature fall)
W1 = effective weight of conductor at conditions

which produce tension T1 = 15.64 N/m
W2 = final conductor unit effective weight

Alone at T2 conditions
g = gravitational constant
L = basic span length
= 8.26 N/m
= 9.81 m/s2
= 330 m (on practice a bit on
the long side for this
conductor)
Page 2 of 5

SAG AND TENSION
T1 = initial known conductor tension based on ruling situation of most onerous

condition with a factor of safety on minimum temperature or everyday
temperature
= 31920 N
84 x 103 x 106 x 226.2 x 10-6 x 19.3 x 10-6 x (20-0) + {15.642 x 3302 x 84 x 106 x
226.2 x 10-6/(24 x 319202)} 31920 = 8.262 x 3302 x 84 x 103 x106 x 226.2 x 106
/(24 x T22) T2 3887.32 = (5.8823 x 1012/T22) T2)
This may be solved by trial and error or by using a simple calculator subroutine
with an initial approximation for T2 as T2 =
5.8823 x 1012 18052 N
Further iterations give T2 = 19440N = 19.44 kN. Since this value is greater than
the permissible value at 20OC of 15.96 kN, the latter value must be used as the
sagging basis. Therefore the limiting condition becomes 15.96 kN.
Under such circumstances a check is advisable as to the MWT resulting from
this sagging basis since MWT will affect the design of the tension structures.
We use the same general change of state equation as before but put
W1 = 8.26 N/m
t2 = 0OC
t1 = 20OC
T1 = 15960 N
W2 = 15.64 N/m
Thus
84 x 103 x 106 x 226.2 x 10 x 20 + {8.262 x 3302 x 84 x 103 x 226.2 x 10-6/24 x
159602)} - 15960
= 15.642 x 3302 x 84 x 103 x 106 x 226.2 x 10-6/(24 x T22) T2
= 201.18 =
(2.1089 x 1013/T22) T2
Taking an initial approximation for T2 as T2 = 3 2.11 x 1013 = 27630N
Further iterations give T2 at 0OC = 27695N. Hence a value of 27.70 kN may be
used as a value for checking the strength of towers.
Page 3 of 5

SAG AND TENSION
(b) Next check the sag at maximum temperature

Having established that the everyday temperature, no wind, is the ruling
condition the maximum sag (at maximum temperature = 75OC) is calculated in
order to determine the height of the tower arm for the lowest phase conductor.
In this way adequate clearance is ensures. The parabolic approximation for the
conductor shape is again used. In this case with t2 = 75OC and t1 = 20OC., for this
simple hand calculation. In areas liable to flood, extension legs may be applied to
the towers to ensure clearances under maximum water height conditions. In the
change-of-state equation W1 = W2 = 8.26 M/m since only the bare weight of
conductor needs to be taken into account
EA x x (t 2 - t 1 ) + W1 x g2 x L2 x EA/ 24 T1
2
) - T = (W
1
x g 2 x L2 x EA /24 T2 - T2
84 x 103 x 106 x 226.2 x 10-6 x 19.3 x 10-6 x (75-20) + {8.262 x 3302 x 84 x 103 x
106 x 226.2 x 10-6/(24 x 159602)} 15960 = 8.262 x 3302 x 84 x 103 x 106 x
226.2 x 10-6/(24 x T22) T2
-27302.48 = (5.8823 x 1012/ T22) T2
T2 12202N 12.2 kN
The sag is determined by the equation
W=
W x g x L2
8T
=(0.842 x 9.81 x 3302)/8 x 12202

=9.21 m
Note for comparison, if catenary equations had been used the
sag = e (cosh L/2e 1)
sag = e (cosh330/2 x 1477.24
sag = 9.22m i.e. very little difference with the parabolic approximation.
(c) Determine the lowest conductor fixation point
For a 132kV line typical minimum phase conductor-to-ground clearance might be
7m. Lowest conductor point on the tower (assuming approximately flat terrain)
becomes: Sag + suspension insulator set string and fitting length + allowable clearances)
= 9.22 + 2(say) + 7 = 18.22m
Page 4 of 5

SAG AND TENSION
When estimating the level above ground of the attachment point of the
insulator, no allowance has been made for creep. In such a case, the erection sag
would have to be smaller than calculated so as to allow for a margin of sag
increase due to creep. Designs made on this basis should be conscious of the
fact that should the worst loading conditions occur soon after erection, the
maximum calculated tension would be exceeded certainly for at least the first
meteorological cycle.
Delegates Notes
Page 5 of 5

APPENDIX 6 CORONA CALCULATION - SPACERS
This calculation was requested by Dubai Electricity and Water in December
2002
Calculation for Spacers

DEWA 400 kV Lines (Tower Construction)
400 kV 4 x 0.4 sq inch

Normal Span 1000 feet (305 meters)
Low Height Construction
BES-L9(1966)
Up
d
D
104 feet
(31.7 meters)
8 cm
12
1150
2D/2 291.25 cm
191.67
d/2
Vg
Appendix 6 Corona Calculation
230.95
cm
log2D/2
22 square feet
(6.7 sq meters)
230.95 kV
1165
4 cm
spacer size
2.464266
2.282547
23.43kV per cm
16.86
This is below the critical value of 18 kV/cm

But what about relative humidity ?
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