Gen Basics

Disclaimer
This training presentation is provided as a reference for

preparing for the PJM Certification Exam.
Note that the following information may not reflect
current PJM rules and operating procedures.
For current training material, please visit:
http://pjm.com/training/training-material.aspx
PJM2014
Generation Unit Basics
Interconnection Training Program

State & Member Training
PJM2010
3/6/2014
Agenda
Provide an overview of:

Generators
Describe the types:
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Fossil Steam generating units

Nuclear generating units
Hydroelectric generating units
Combustion turbines
Combined Cycle Power Plants (CCPP)
Wind Power
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Generating Unit Basics

Generating Theory
Part 1
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Generators
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Basic Operating Principles

A.C. Generator Components
Generator Rotational Speed
Generator Characteristics
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Electromagnetic Induction is the principle used by a generator

to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy
Induction is further defined as producing a current and an emf
in a circuit by changing a magnetic field around the circuit
For this to happen, three things are needed:
- A magnetic field
- A current-carrying conductor
- A relative motion between the two
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Generators use mechanical energy from the prime mover to

turn the generators rotor (field) inside the generators stator
(armature)
The turning of the rotors magnetic field sets up the main airgap flux inducing a voltage in the stator windings
The stators output to the system is a three-phase alternating
current since the direction of the magnetic field changes in
relation to the windings as the rotor turns 360 degrees
One rotation is equal to a complete cycle of power
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Output voltage of the generator is controlled by changing the

strength of the magnetic field of the rotor.
This is accomplished by changing the direct current or
excitation current that is supplied to the rotor
The field excitation is supplied by the exciter
When real power is constant, the real power output of a
generator is equal to the real power demand.
Steady-state equilibrium is defined as the mechanical torque
input being equal to the electrical torque output of the
generator
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Review
A D.C. voltage is applied to the rotor

Rotor is an electromagnet placed inside the stator
The rotor rotates within the stator providing relative motion
between the magnetic field and the armature windings
A.C. voltage is induced in the stator
The stator voltage is the output voltage at the terminals of the
generator
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How is the output voltage determined?

Strength of the magnetic field
Number and length of turns of conductors
Magnitude of relative motion or rotational speed between the
rotor and stator
Control of excitation voltage is the primary means of

controlling the generator output voltage
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A rotating field is more common

because its a low voltage, low
power circuit
It is considerably more difficult to
conduct the higher AC voltage and
power through a set of collector
rings and brushes
Rotating Magnetic Field

Series of Stationary
Conductors
Source of D.C. Voltage
(Exciter)
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Synchronous Machine: an AC machine that under steady-state

conditions operates at a constant speed and a constant
frequency
Main features include:
- Rotor supplied with a DC field
- Three-phase stator or armature
- Prime mover or turbine
- Controllable DC source or exciter
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A.C. Generator Components: Rotor
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The basic function of the rotor is to produce a magnetic field

of the size and shape necessary to induce the desired output
voltage in the stator
The rotating field is required to produce a given number of
lines of magnetic flux which is obtained by: Ampere-turns
Ampere-turns is the product of the number of turns in the
rotor winding and the current in the winding
The rotor body forms the path of the magnetic lines for part
of the circuit, and the stator core and air gap provide the
return path for the flux
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Generator rotors are made of solid steel forgings with slots cut
along the length for the copper windings
Insulated winding bars are wedged into the slots and
connected at each end of the rotor and are arranged to act as
one continuous wire to develop the magnetic field
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Two types of rotors:

- Cylindrical and salient-pole
Salient-pole rotors are used in low-speed machines with
separate field coils primarily for hydroelectric
Cylindrical rotors are used in high-speed machines that uses a
slotted integral forging
Rotor design constraints include:
- Temperature
- Mechanical force
- Electrical insulation
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Temperature:
- Ampere-turn requirements for the field increase
with an increase in rating, which entails a
combined increase in heating in the coil
Mechanical force:
- Ampere-turn requirements for the field increase
with an increase in rating causing a higher
centrifugal load
Electrical insulation:
- In older units, slot insulation is a primary thermal barrier
and as current increases, becomes a greater obstacle
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Advantage:
Air gap between the stator
and rotor can be adjusted
so that the magnetic flux
can be sinusoidal
including the waveform
Disadvantage:
Because of its weak
structure it is not suitable
for high-speed generation
It is also expensive
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Advantage:
Cheaper than a salient-pole
Because of its symmetrical
shape, dynamic balance can
be obtained making it
perfect for high-speed
application
Disadvantage:
Air gap is uniform,
generated voltage is
polygonal giving way to the
susceptibility of harmonics
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A.C. Generator Components: Stator
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The stator is the stationary part of the generator that is

comprised of a series of stationary windings or armature coils
and the core
Basic function of the stator core is to provide a return path for
the lines of magnetic flux, and support the
coils of the stator winding
The stator core is made of soft iron to provide the magnetic
field path with a high permeability
The iron is laminated to reduce eddy currents (opposing field)
and hysteresis (power losses)
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In the stator, three phase windings are installed 120 degrees

apart
Each phase winding is made up of several conductors
connected together at each end of the stator and grouped
into poles
Electromagnetic forces acting on the generator components
are of significant importance steady-state running conditions,
as well as transient or fault conditions
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A.C. Generator Configuration
Two-Pole Generators:
In a two-pole generator, there are three armature winding coils
installed in the stator
North and south poles of the rotor are 1800 apart
Four-Pole Generators:
In a four-pole generator, there are six armature winding coils
installed in the stator
North and south poles of the rotor are 900 apart
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A generator which is connected to the grid has a constant

speed which is dictated by grid frequency
Doubling the magnets in the rotor and doubling the windings
in the stator ensures that the magnetic field rotates at half
speed
When doubling the poles in the stator, the magnets in the
rotor must also be doubled
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Most steam and gas turbines drive two-pole or four-pole

(nuclear) generators with a cylindrical rotor
Four-pole is a repetition of a two-pole generator
Since there is a total four pole reversal for every rotor
revolution, the four-pole machine speed is one-half the speed
of a two-pole machine for the same voltage output
Hydroelectric turbines run more slowly, driving a salient-pole
generator with more than four poles
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Frequency = (# Pole Pairs)(RPM)/60
Example: 2 poles
60 Hz = (1 Pole Pair)(3600 RPM)/60
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Frequency = (# Pole Pairs)(RPM)/60
Example: 4 poles
60 Hz = (2 Pole Pair)(1800 RPM)/60
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Synchronous Generator Speeds (RPM)

Pole Number
2
4
6
8
10
12
16
20
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50 Hz Speed
3000
1500
1000
750
600
500
375
300
40
60 Hz Speed
3600
1800
1200
900
720
600
450
360
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Generator Rotational Speed 2 Pole
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Generator Rotational Speed 4 Pole
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A.C. Generator Components: Exciter
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The function of the excitation system is to provide direct

current for the generator rotor/field windings through slip
rings/brushless to produce the magnetic field
Maintains generator voltage, controls var flow, and assists in
maintaining power system stability by modifying the field
current based on changes in terminal voltage
During load changes or disturbances on the system, the
exciter must respond, sometimes rapidly, to maintain the
proper voltage at the generator terminals
Utilizes negative feedback; as terminal voltage increases,
field current decreases
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Excitation System has three fundamental components:

- Exciter: provides field current for the synchronous generator
- Automatic Voltage Regulator: couples the terminal voltage to the
input of the main exciter
- Amplifier: increases the power of the regulating signal to that
required by the exciter
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Basic types of excitation systems:

- Rotating DC commutator: uses a DC generator mounted on the
shaft of the synchronous generator to supply field current
- Slow in response
- Requires high maintenance and brushes
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- AC Alternator: uses an AC alternator with AC to DC rectification to
excitation to the field winding
- Brushless
- Inverted alternator where the field winding is on the stator, and the
armature windings are on the rotor
- Rectification occurs by feeding the alternator output through a
thyristor-controlled bridge
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- Static system: composed entirely of solid-state circuitry
- Uses a potential and/or a supplied by the synchronous generator
terminals
- Rectified DC output is fed to the field windings via slip rings and
brushes
- Less expensive than AC Alternators, and the additional maintenance
of the slip rings and brushes is outweighed in that the system does
not have a rotating device.
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Governor Characteristics
Governors control generator shaft speed.

Adjust generation for small changes in load.
Operate by adjusting the input to the prime
mover.
-Steam flow for fossil
-Water flow for hydro
-Fuel flow for combustion turbine
Amount of governor control varies according to plant design.

Equivalent to a cars cruise control
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The Watt centrifugal governor was the mechanical means for

governor control
- Used weights that moved radially as rotational speed
increased that pneumatically operated a servo-motor
- Electrohydraulic governing has replaced the
mechanical governor because of:
- High response speed
- Low deadband
- Accuracy in speed and load control
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Governor
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Mechanical style of
governor
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Load
Rate of frequency decline from
points A to C is slowed by load
rejection.
Generators
Generator governor action halts the
decline in frequency and causes the
knee of the excursion, and brings
the frequency back to point B from
point C.
It is important to note that frequency will not recover from point B to 60 Hz until the
deficient control area replaces the amount of lost generation.
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Governor Droop
Adding a droop characteristic to a governor forces generators

to respond to frequency disturbances in proportion to their
size.
Droop settings enable many generators to operate in parallel
while all are on governor control and not compete with one
another for load changes.
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Generators - Droop
Droop (continued)
Now imagine if there was a feature added to the cruise control
such that any change in speed and subsequent signal to the
cruise control, would be weighted based on the cars engine
capacity (droop)
Example:
If more load were added to the trailer, both car A and car B
would assume more load, however, (because of this new droop
feature) the signal from the cruise control (governor) would be
based on the engine sizes of the two cars.
Load changes could be more evenly shared between cars
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Generators - Droop
Droop
Using the cruise control analogy, consider two cars coupled by
a chain to a heavy trailer.
If the cruise controls (governors) on each car are not exactly
identical there would be instability in how they each carried the
load.
One car would assume more load from the trailer, and one car
would slow down.
There would be constant racing and runback in the engines of
both cars.
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Governor Droop
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Generators/Cruise Control
Think about the previous analogy of the two cars on cruise

control.
When a generator synchronizes to the system
It couples itself to hundreds of other machines rotating at the
same electrical speed.
Each of these generators have this droop feature added to
their governor
They will all respond in proportion to their size whenever there
is a disturbance, or load-resource mismatch.
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Generators - Deadband
Deadband
An additional feature displayed by generators.
Deadband is the amount of frequency change a governor must
see before it starts to respond.
Deadband was really a natural feature of the earliest governors
caused by friction and gear lash (looseness or slop in the gear
mechanism)
Deadband serves a useful purpose by preventing governors
from continuously hunting as frequency varies ever so slightly
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Generator limitation factors

Power capability of the prime mover
Heating of generator components (I2R losses)
Necessity to maintain a strong enough magnetic field to transfer
power from the rotor to the generator output
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Heating of generator components

Heat generated within the armature windings is directly related
to the magnitude of the armature current
Heat generated in the rotor is directly related to the magnitude
of the field current
Heat dissipated by the generator is limited by the cooling system
design
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Magnetic field strength

Controlled by excitation voltage
If excitation voltage is lowered:
Voltage induced in A.C. windings is lowered
More VARS absorbed by generator from system
Undervoltage can cause overcurrent conditions in the stator
and lead to armature or stator heating
Capability curves provide Max/Min limits
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Relay protection:
- Stator short circuits
- Grounded field (unbalanced air-gap fluxes; vibration)
- Loss of excitation (loss of synchronization)
- Unbalanced phase currents (overheating of the rotor)
- Motoring or reverse power (overheating of turbine)
- Loss of synchronism (system electrical center)
- Abnormal frequency (turbine/generator damage)
- Overexcitation (hot spots and saturation of generator/
transformer)
- External faults (uncleared faults)
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Power Factor
MVA =
MW2 + MVAR2
MVA = 100.2
Power Factor is the ratio

of Real Power to
Apparent Power:
PF = P/S
AC Power is made up of
three components:
- Reactive Power (Q)
- Real Power (P)
- Apparent Power (S)
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Generator Capability Curve
The steady-state capability of a generator as it is influenced by

the power factor is divided into three major components on
the curve
Region A-B: Zero power factor lagging to rated power factor
- Generator is over-excited
- Field current is at rated value
- Capability limitation is field overheating
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Region B-C: Rated power factor lagging through unity to 0.95

power factor leading
- Capability limitation is dependent on the stator
current
- Maximum nameplate stator amperes should not
be exceeded
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Nameplate Data
Main Generator Nameplate Characteristic Data
Rated Output
496,000 kVA
Rated Voltage
22,000 v
Rated Stator Current
13,017 amps
Rated Field Current
3,017 amps
Power Factor
0.9
Poles
Phases
Electrical Connection
Wye
Rated Speed
3,600 RPM
Rated Frequency
60 Hz
Rated Hydrogen Pressure
48 psig
Rated Hydrogen Purity
97%
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Region C-D: leading power factor operation

- Excessive heating in the stator end-iron due to
flux leakage from the core
- Capability limitation is end-iron heating
- This is also an underexcitation region and
capability is further reduced by the voltage
squared during reduced terminal voltage
operation
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MVAR Flow & Voltage

VAR / Voltage Relation
MVARs flow downhill based on voltage
Flow from high per unit voltage to low per unit voltage
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MVAR Flow & Voltage

VAR / Voltage Relation
MVAR flow between buses is determined by magnitude
difference between bus voltages
Voltage magnitude difference is driving for MVAR flow
The greater the voltage drop or rise between 2 locations the
greater the MVAR flow
V1
V2
X
Bus 1
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Bus 2
V1 (V1 - V2)
VARs =
X
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MW Flow & Power Angle

Power-Angle Relation
MW flow between buses is determined by phase angle
difference between voltages at the buses
Phase angle difference between voltages is called Power
Angle which is represented by the symbol
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Power Angle
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Power Angle
Rotor Angle
on transmission system is similar to rotor angle
aka: Load angle or Torque angle

No load
Field pole of rotor lined up with stator field (in

phase)
=0
Load added
Rotor advances with respect to stator

MW flow out of machine
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Rotor Angle
MW
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Generator Synchronizing
In order to synchronize properly, three different voltage

variables must be monitored:
- Voltage magnitudes
- Frequency of the voltages
- Phase angle difference between the voltages
If voltage magnitudes are not matched, Mvar will rise

suddenly when the breaker is closed
If frequencies are not matched, a sudden change in MW flow
will occur when the breaker is closed
Most important, if phase angle difference is not minimized,
MW flow will increase when the breaker is closed
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System is modeled as an infinite bus

With the unit output breakers open, the generator is operated
at slightly above system frequency
Excitation is adjusted for equal voltage magnitudes on either
side of the output breakers
The phase angle difference between the unit and system is
monitored through the use of a synchroscope
When the phase angle is small and heading towards zero, the
output breakers are closed pulling the generator in step with
the system
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Voltage
Frequency
Phase Angle
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Reference (Running) voltage: Bus voltage

Incoming voltage: Generator voltage
Clockwise motion: Generator frequency is greater than bus
frequency
Once synchronized, excitation system can be put into
automatic voltage regulation, and speed governor can be put
in automatic generation control
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Four-Part Process
Basic Energy Conversion
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Generating Units Principles of Operation
Energy Conversion Process

Chemical Energy (Fuel)
to
Thermal Energy (Steam)
to
Mechanical Energy (Work)
to
Electrical Energy (Generator)
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Principles of Operation
Four Phases - Steam/Water Cycle

Generation (Boiler)
Changes chemical energy of fuel to thermal energy of steam
and water in boiler
Expansion (Turbine)
Changes potential energy to kinetic energy
Nozzle changes pressure to velocity
Thermal energy to mechanical energy.
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Four Phases - Steam/Water Cycle

Condensation (Condensate System)
Changes steam to water removing latent heat
Recover condensate
Largest efficiency loss: 1035 BTU/Lb
Feedwater (Feedwater System)
Increases energy, both thermal (temperature) and potential
(pressure) of water returning to the boiler, including the
economizer
1% gain in efficiency for every 100 F rise
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Fossil Generation
Part 2
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Coal / Oil / Gas Steam Plants

Provide about 76.9% of the PJM area generation
Power output is as low as 15-20 MW or as high as 1,300 MW
Rate of change of power is several MW/min. on older units, and
10-20 MW/min. for newer units
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Fossil steam plants can use coal, oil, gas

Each fuel requires a unique set of components to control the
reaction that produces heat, and handle the by-products of
the reaction
These factors place limitations on the operating capabilities of
the plant
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Fossil Generation
Boiler is defined simply as a closed vessel in which water is

heated, steam generated, and superheated under pressure by
the application of additional heat
Basic functions of a boiler:
- Pressure containment
- Heat transfer
- Steam separation
Two types of boilers:

- Subcritical (drum type)
- Supercritical
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Fossil Generation
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Fossil Generation
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Drum Type Boiler Components
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Economizer
Steam Drum
Downcomers
Mud Drum
Superheater (3% efficiency gain/1000 F inc)
Reheater (4%-5% gain/1000 F inc)
- Lower pressure/same heat
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Economizer: Improve boiler efficiency by extracting heat from the

flue gases and transferring it to the feedwater
Steam Drum: Separate the water from the steam generated in the
furnace walls
Downcomers: Return path for the feedwater back to the boiler;
located away from main heat source
Mud Drum: Fed from downcomers; collection point for sentiment
and impurities
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Superheater: Increases cycle efficiency by adding heat to raise

the steam temperature above its saturation point; located in
the flue gas path
- Radiant: Direct radiation from the furnace
- Convection: Absorb heat from hot gases
Reheater: Adds energy to the steam that has been partially

used by the turbine
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Furnace Air System

Air Heaters
Used to transfer heat from stack flue gases to
the combustion and primary air
Forced Draft Fans
Used to maintain windbox and secondary air pressure to
accelerate combustion
Induced Draft Fans
Used to maintain a negative furnace pressure
Always larger than FD due to combustion gas
expansion
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Air Heater
Air Inlet
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Steam Turbine
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Steam Turbine
Steam Turbine: Form of heat engine with the function of

converting thermal energy into a rotating mechanical energy
Turbine is made up of four fundamental components
- Rotor: carries the blades or buckets
- Stationary part
- Nozzles: flow passages for the steam
- Foundation: support for the stationary and
rotor parts
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Steam Turbine
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Steam Turbine
Two steps are required to convert the thermal energy of the

steam into useful work:
- Thermal energy of the steam is converted into
kinetic energy by expanding the steam in
stationary nozzles or in moving blades
- Thermal energy is converted into work when
the steam passes through the moving blades
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Steam Turbine
Turbine Stages
High Pressure Turbine (HP)
Supplied by Main Steam (Suphtr. outlet)
Exhausts to boiler Reheater
Intermediate Pressure Turbine (IP)
Supplied by Reheat Steam (Reheater Outlet)
Exhausts to Low Pressure Turbine
Low Pressure Turbine (LP)
Supplied by IP Turbine exhaust
Exhausts to Condenser
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Steam Turbine
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Steam Turbine
Each turbine stage consists of stationary blades (nozzle) and

the rotating blades (buckets)
Nozzles convert the potential energy of the steam into kinetic
energy directing the flow into the rotating blades
The buckets convert the kinetic energy into forces, caused by
the pressure drop, into rotation
Limitations on blades:
- Erosion due to moisture (Low pressure)
- Solid particle erosion
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Steam Turbine - Blading
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Steam Turbine
Auxiliary Turbine Equipment

- Bearings:
- Thrust axially locate the turbine shaft
- Journal support the weight of the shaft
- Shaft seals: series of ridges and grooves around
the housing to reduce steam leakage
- Turning gear: slowly rotates the turbine, after
shutdown to prevent bowing of the shaft and to
even out temperature distribution
- Vibration detection: measures the movement of
the shafts in their bearings
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Steam Turbine - Bearings
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Steam Turbine Turning Gear
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Operating Limitations:
- Eccentricity: shaft out of concentric round
- Differential expansion: rotor and turbine casing
heat up and expand at different rates
- Bearing vibration limits
- Critical speed: harmonics due to natural
resonance
- Back pressure limitation: fatigue cracks and
harmonics on low pressure blades
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Operating Limitations:
- Bearing material: temperature limitations
- Bearing oil: temperature limitations
- Babbitt material: temperature limit
- Rotor prewarming
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Turbine Trips:
- Low bearing oil pressure
- Thrust bearing wear detection
- Low vacuum
- Bearing vibration/bearing metal temperature
- Low steam temperature
- Differential expansion
- Reverse power
- High heater level
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Principles Of Operations
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Condensate System
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Condenser
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Condensate System
Condenser: converts the exhaust steam into water

after it leaves the last stage of the turbine
Hotwell: receptacle where water is collected from
the condenser
Hotwell Make-up / Draw-off valves: distilled or
demineralized water to compensate for losses or
excesses to or from the condensate storage tank
- Controlled by the deareator level
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Condensate System
- Demineralizers: condensate purification
- Condensate Pumps
- Low Pressure Feedwater Heaters: condensate is pumped to be
preheated before entering the deareator
- Deareator: open heater where condensate passes and is mixed
with steam to increase temperature and remove noncondensible gases (mainly oxygen)
- Provides water to the suction side of the
Boiler Feed Pump
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Condensate System Feedwater Heater
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Condensate System Feedwater Heater
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Condensate System - Deaerator
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Feedwater System
Boiler Feed Pump: supplies water to the boiler and has to
overcome boiler pressure, friction in the heaters, piping, and
economizer
High Pressure Feedwater Heaters (Boiler feed pump pressure):
preheats the feedwater before entering the boiler
Economizer: serves as a feedwater heater effecting economy by
extracting heat from the flue gases
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Feedwater System Boiler Feed Pump
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Feedwater System Boiler Feed Pump
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Miscellaneous Systems
Gland sealing: enable the turbine to be sealed where the shaft
exits the casing (air out, steam in)
Hydrogen Cooling System: cooling water coils in the generator
to cool the hydrogen gas
Hydrogen Seal Oil System: seals the generator where the shaft
exits the casing keeping the hydrogen in
Cooling Water (Lube oil, hydrogen, seal oil, service water, and
stator oil)
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Miscellaneous Systems:
- Circulating Water: primarily provides the cooling
water for the condenser

- Turbine Lube Oil: free of foreign material and
moisture supplied at proper temperature, pressure,
and quantity
- Fire Protection
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Bottom Ash (slag): course, granular, incombustible by-products
collected from the bottom of the boiler
Fly ash: fine-grained, powdery particulate that is found in flue
gas
Fuel Systems: Oil, Gas, Coal
Service Air: for deslagging and any pnuematic needs within the
plant
Control Air: used on pneumatic applications where moisture
cannot be tolerated such as instrumentation and control
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- Demineralization: purification of condensate for
boiler
- Waste Water Treatment:
- Station Battery (Lube oil, cooling water, turning gear)
- Scrubber Facilities: traps pollutants and sulfur that is produced
from burning coal and natural gas from escaping into the air
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Super Critical Boiler (Once Thru): the boiler feed pump

supplies the pressure for the cycle
Once proper pressure is obtained, heat is applied, and water
is directly converted to steam without going through the
boiling process
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Does not have a boiler drum

No recirculation process
Consists of many circuits of superheaters
Operates in excess of 3206.2 psia / 705.4 F
Requires a Start-up system (By-pass)
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Supercritical boilers cannot use the drum design because

there is no distinct water/steam phase transition above the
critical pressure
Boiler is operated at supercritical pressures (~3200) as
compared to the subcritical (~2400)
Increased efficiency: 1.5% to 2% gain using a supercritical as
opposed to a subcritical for same output
More efficient in certain MW ranges
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The form of steam turbine employed with supercritical

conditions is the same as that for subcritical cycles, although
temperatures and pressures are higher
- Stronger materials for rotor forgings, casings,
steam lines, and valves

- Ferritic materials are being replaced by nickelbased superalloys
- Special alloys on the last stages of blading
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Start-Up System:
- Before steam can be supplied to the turbine, the boiler must
be brought up from a virtual cold condition to supercritical
temperature and pressure
- Provides minimum flow through the pressurized parts of the
boiler matching the steam temperature and pressure to the
initial metal temperature of the turbine for shorter roll times
- Provides a steam source for deaeration and also a means of
heat recovery during start-up
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Limitations:
Temperature limit on the furnace water wall caused by increases in
pressure and final steam temperatures
Corrosion of superheater and reheater tubes caused by the
increase in steam temperatures
Airheater thermal efficiency is compromised because an increase in
feedwater temperature to the boiler leads to a rise in airheater gas
inlet temperature
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Super Critical Boilers

Advantages
Greater efficiency (45%)
Faster response to changing load
Reduced fuel costs due to thermal efficiency
Low emissions (CO2, NOx, SOx)
Disadvantages
Long start-up time
Expensive to build (greater press. / temp.)
Requires a start-up system
Loss of circulation causes serious boiler damage
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Megawatt Limitations
Limitations that can restrict scheduled or operating MW

capacity of a generating unit:
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Environmental
Fuel
Maintenance
Operating
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Environmental
Maximum allowable water temperature, pH (solubility) and
turbidity (suspended solids) of cooling water return to river or
lake
Maximum allowable values of substance discharged to the
atmosphere
Nitric Oxide - NOX
Sulfur Dioxide - SO2
Carbon Monoxide CO
Carbon Dioxide CO2
Particulates - Opacity
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pH (solubility): depends on the relative concentration of

hydrogen ions
- A substance is acidic if the positive cations
outnumber the negative anions

- The acidity of cycle water has a great impact on
the corrosion of system components
Turbidity: suspended solids such as sediment, mud, and dirt

that are in the water
Dissolved solids: minerals picked up by the water that will
form hard adherent deposits on the internal surfaces of the
boiler (Conductivity meter)
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Dissolved Oxygen: entrapped in water, attacking metal parts

including feedwater, condensate, and boiler tubes
Iron: concentration must be at a certain level in order to raise
temperatures in a supercritical unit
Silica: found in water as a dissolved solid
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Fuel
Excessive moisture/bad weather
- Coal
- Difficulty unloading
- Buildup in chutes
- Sliding on conveyor belts
- Frozen coal
- Poor quality
- Excessive slagging tendencies
- High ash resistivity
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Oil:
- Moisture: deteriorates the performance of oil
increasing the risk of corrosion

- Coking
- Particulate and impurities
Gas:
- Moisture: when mixed with impurities form a
corrosive mixture
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Fuel Types
Gas, oil, and coal

Oil:
- Needs to be prewarmed to pump (150-180o) and to burn
(250-3300)
- Guns need cleaned and maintained regularly
Coal: crushed or pulverized

- Type of burner
- Pulverized
- Stoker
- Cyclone
Major problem is flame detection in boiler

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Maintenance
Auxiliary equipment out of service, scheduled or unscheduled
which prevents full output
Heat Cycles
Heaters, condensate or boiler feed pumps
Pulverizers (Mills) or oil pumps, gas
Fans: ID, FD, or primary air
Pumps: circulating water
Fuel
Ash handling
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Operating
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Boiler Water Chemistry

Poor equipment thermal performance
High vibration on rotating equipment
High condenser backpressure
Vacuum leaks
Dirty condenser waterboxes
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Boiler Water Chemistry
Scale: hard tube deposits/overheat failure

Oxygen: causes corrosion in boiler tubes
Silica (O2): limits operating pressure and can leave deposits on
turbine blades causing imbalances and loss of turbine
efficiency
Condenser leaks are the main source of impure water
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Key
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
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Cooling tower
Cooling water pump
Three-phase transmission line
Step-up transformer
Electrical generator
Low pressure steam turbine
Boiler feedwater pump
Surface condenser
Intermediate pressure stage
Steam control valve
High pressure stage
Deaerator
Feedwater heater
Coal conveyor
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
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Coal hopper
Coal pulverizer
Boiler steam drum
Bottom ash hopper
Superheater
Forced draft fan
Reheater
Combustion air intake
Economizer
Air preheater
Precipitator
Induced draft fan
Flue gas stack
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Nuclear Generation
Part 3
Nuclear Generation
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Nuclear Generation
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Has the greatest potential as an energy source

Provide about 19.1% of the PJM area generation
Power output can be as high as 1,200 MW
The nature of nuclear fuel requires the rate of raising power
be limited to very slow rates at certain times during the 12-24
month fuel cycle of the reactor.
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Nuclear Generation
Government Control
- Nuclear Regulatory Commission
- Power plants must conform to NRC regulations
- Once a license is received it must be maintained by certain rules
Tech Specs
- Tech Specs are the laws that describe operational
requirements of plant equipment, and
operating/shutdown limitations on plant equipment
- Violations could result in fines and/or forced plant shutdown
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Nuclear Generation
In US, Light-Water Reactors are pre-dominant

Light-water reactors use ordinary water to slow down the fast
neutrons produced in the reaction
Light-water reactors use enriched uranium, U235
Two types of light-water reactors:
- Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)
- Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)
- Both types supply steam at or near saturation at approximately
1000 psi
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PWR/BWR Reactors
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Nuclear Generation
The Boiling Water Reactor operates essentially the same way

as a fossil-fueled generating plant where a steam/water
mixture is produced within the vessel
The Pressurized Water Reactor differs from the Boiling Water
Reactor in that the steam is produced in the steam generator
rather than in the reactor vessel
In the United States, PWRs outnumber the BWRs two-thirds
to one-third
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Nuclear Generation
The fission process or the splitting apart of an atom is what

produces heat in a nuclear reactor
The process occurs when a free neutron enters the nucleus of
a fissionable atom causing the nucleus to become unstable,
vibrate, and split into two at a high rate of speed releasing 2
to three more neutrons
The kinetic energy of the split is transformed into heat
The process continues into a chain reaction
The key is to control the rate of the emitted neutrons and the
nuclear chain reaction
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Nuclear Generation
Nuclear fission provides ~ 10 million times more energy than
conventional chemical processes
Conventional light water reactors utilize fuel with an initial
235U concentration enriched to at least 3.5%
Heat from the reaction has a conversion efficiency of 33%
Fuel is loaded at 3.5% 235U and replaced once the
concentration has fallen to 1.2%
A 1 GW light water plant consumes 30 tons of fuel per year in
comparison to 9,000 tons of coal per day for a fossil plant of
the same magnitude
Pound of highly enriched uranium has the same amount of
energy as 1 million gallons of gasoline
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Nuclear Generation
Basic Components of a Nuclear Reactor:

- Fuel: pellets of enriched uranium encased in fuel rods that
are bundled in assemblies
- Control Rods: absorb neutrons controlling the rate of the
chain reaction
- Coolant: usually water to carry heat away from the reactor
- Moderator: material used to slow neutrons down
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Control Rod
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Fuel Assembly
Both PWRs and BWRs fuel assemblies consist of the same

major components:
- Fuel rods: approximately 12 feet long containing the ceramic
fuel pellets and are arranged in a square matrix from 17x17

(PWR) to 8x8 (BWR)
- Spacer grids: separate the individual rods providing rigidity of
the assemblies and allowing the coolant to flow freely up
through the assemblies and around the fuel rods
- Upper and lower end fittings: structural elements of the
assemblies; directs flow of coolant through the assemblies
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Fuel Assembly
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Fuel Assembly
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Pressurized Water Reactor
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Two major systems are used in the conversion:

- Primary system: transfers heat from the fuel to the steam
generator
- Secondary system: steam formed in the steam generator is
transferred to the main turbine generator
In order for the primary and secondary systems to perform

their functions, there are approximately one hundred support
systems
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PWR Components
Reactor Vessel: supports and contains the fuel core and

supplies the flow paths for coolant
Steam Generator: heat exchanger between primary and
secondary systems
Reactor Coolant Pump: pumps water back to the reactor (2, 3,
or 4 cooling loops)
A 1000-1300 Mw unit would require (4) 6,000-10,000 hp
pumps
Pressurizer: controls pressure in the cooling system to prevent
boiling in the reactor (2250 psi at 590-600 degrees F). Acts as
a surge tank also.
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PWR Components
Reactor vessel houses the reactor core and all associated

support and alignment devices including:
Core Barrel: houses the fuel and supports the fuel assemblies
- Reactor Core
- Upper Internals: sits on top of the fuel and contains the guide
columns to guide the control rods
-
Steam generator allows the secondary feedwater to absorb

sufficient heat from the reactor coolant to boil and form
steam
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Control
Rods
Reactor
Vessel
Inlet
Outlet
Water flows downward on the

outside of the core barrel to the
bottom of the reactor. The flow
then turns upward in between the
fuel rods from the bottom to the
top of the reactor. The water
leaves the reactor on it way to
the steam generator
Core
Barrel
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PWR Components
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PWR Components
The Reactor Coolant Pump provides forced primary coolant

flow to remove the heat being generated by the fission
process
Major components of the RCP
- Motor
- Hydraulic section (impeller and discharge volute)
- Seal package: prevents water from leaking up the containment
shaft into the containment atmosphere
Horsepower rating is 6,000 to 10,000; approximately

100,000 gallons of coolant per minute per pump
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PWR Components
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PWR Components
Pressurizer is the component in the reactor coolant system

which provides a means of controlling the system pressure
due to changes in coolant temperature
Pressurizer operates with a mixture of steam and water in
equilibrium
- Coolant temperature increases, coolant density decreases and the
coolant takes up more space causing steam pressure to increase
- Coolant temperature decreases, coolant density increases and the
coolant will occupy less space causing steam pressure to decrease
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Secondary Systems
Main Steam System

- Condensate/Feedwater System
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Chemical and Volume Control System

Auxiliary Feedwater System/Steam Dump System
Residual Heat Removal System
Emergency Core Cooling Systems
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Secondary Systems
Main Steam System

Condensate/Feedwater System
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Secondary Systems
Chemical and Volume Control System is a major support

system for the reactor coolant system
- Purifies reactor coolant using filters and demineralizers
- Adds and removes boron
- Maintains the pressurizer level at setpoint
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Secondary Systems
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Chemical and Volume

Control System
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Secondary Systems
Auxiliary Feedwater System and Steam Dump System work

together to remove heat from fission decay in the reactor
during shutdown to prevent fuel damage
- Auxiliary feedwater system pumps water from the condensate
storage tank to the steam generators producing steam that can be
dumped to the main condenser through the steam dump valves or
directly to the atmosphere if the condenser or steam valves are
not available
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Secondary Systems
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Auxiliary Feedwater System/Steam

Dump System
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Secondary Systems
Residual Heat Removal System is used when the decay heat is

not sufficient to generate enough steam in the generators to
continue the cool down by removing heat from the core and
transferring it to the environment
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Secondary Systems
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Residual Heat Removal

system
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Secondary Systems

- Provide core cooling to minimize fuel damage for a coolant loss
- Ensure the reactor remains shutdown following the cool down
associated with a main line steam rupture
Both incidents of coolant loss and a ruptured steam line are contained
through the injection of large quantities of borated water
- Four separate systems (powered from diesel generators)
- High pressure injection system
- Intermediate pressure injection system
- Cold leg accumulators
- Low pressure injection system
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Secondary Systems
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Emergency Core211Cooling Systems
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Utilizes two to four separate cooling systems

Reactor water and steam are separate.
Reactor power is controlled by boron injection in the reactor
coolant
Moderator is the reactor coolant
Control rods are inserted from the top
Water is pressurized to about 2250 psi and heated to
~ 600 degrees F without boiling
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Advantages:
- Fuel leak in core is isolated
- Very stable due to producing less power as temperatures
increase
- Can be operated with a core containing less material reducing the
chance of the reactor running out of control
- Enriched uranium allows ordinary or light water to be used as a
moderator
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Disadvantages:
- Coolant water is highly pressurized to remain liquid at high
temperatures requiring high strength piping and a heavy
pressure vessel
- PWRs cannot be refueled while operating
- High temperature coolant with boric acid is corrosive to carbon
steel limiting the lifetime of the reactor, and adds to the overall
cost for filtering and radiation exposure
- Fuel production costs are increased by use of enriched uranium
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Disadvantages:
- It is not possible to build a fast breeder reactor with PWR
design
- Reactor produces energy slower at higher temperatures; a
sudden decrease in temperature could increase power
production
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Boiling Water Reactor
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Primary Containment: includes the suppression chamber, the reactor, and the
recirculation pumps
Reactor Building: (secondary containment) surrounds primary containment
and serves the same purpose as the PWRs auxiliary building
Turbine Building
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Inside a BWR, a steam water mixture is produced when

reactor coolant moves upward through the core
The major difference in this operation from other nuclear
systems is the steam formation in the core
Steam is separated from the mixture as it leaves the core and
enters two stages of moisture separation directly exiting to
the main turbine
Reactor power is controlled by varying the coolant flow
through the reactor core by using the recirculation pumps and
jet pumps
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BWR Components
Reactor Vessel Assembly includes

- Core Support Structures
- Core Shroud: provides a partition to separate the upward flow of
coolant through the core from the downward recirculation flow
- Moisture Removal Equipment
- Steam separators
- Steam dryers
- Jet Pump Assemblies: accelerating jet pulls in or entrains the

reactor coolant delivering it at an elevated pressure
Recirculation Pump: same as the reactor coolant pump for a
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Steam
Dryers
Water flows downward on the

outside of the core barrel to
the bottom of the reactor. The
flow then turns upward in
between the fuel rods from the
bottom to the top of the
reactor.
Steam is separated at the top
from the water.
Steam
Separators
Shroud
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Systems
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Reactor Water Cleanup System

Decay Heat Removal
Reactor Core Isolation cooling
Standby Liquid Control System
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Systems
The purpose of the Reactor Water Cleanup System is to

maintain high reactor water quality by removing fission
products, corrosion products, and other soluble and insoluble
impurities
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Systems
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Reactor Water Cleanup
System
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Systems
Decay Heat Removal works similar to the systems used during

shutdowns for a PWR
During a reactor shutdown, the core will still continue to
generate decay heat
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Systems
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Decay Heat Removal

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Systems
Reactor Core Isolation Cooling provides makeup water to the

core for cooling when the main steam lines are isolated and
the normal supply of water to the reactor vessel is lost
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Systems
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Reactor Core Isolation

Cooling
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Systems
Standby Liquid Control System injects boron (neutron poison)

into the reactor vessel to shutdown the chain reaction,
independent of the control rods, and maintain the reactor
shutdown as the plant is cooled
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Systems
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Standby Liquid Control

System
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Systems
Emergency Core Cooling Systems provide core cooling under

the loss of coolant accident conditions to limit fuel cladding
damage
- Systems consist of two high pressure and two low pressure
systems
- High pressure system is independent requiring no auxiliary
AC power, plant air systems, or external cooling water
systems. It also works in conjunction with the automatic
depressurization system which opens safety relief valves
- Low pressure system includes the core spray system and the low
pressure residual heat removal system
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Systems
High Pressure Emergency Core

Cooling System
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Low Pressure Emergency Core

Cooling System
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Utilizes one cooling loop

Reactor water and steam are one and same
Reactor power is controlled by positioning the control rods
when starting up the reactor and operating up to 70% of rated
power
Increasing/decreasing water flow through the core is the
normal method for controlling power when operating
between 70% and 100% rated power
Control rods are inserted from the bottom
Water is kept at 1000 psi and does not boil until
~ 545 degrees F
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Advantages:
- Reactor vessel and associated components operate at a
lower pressure as compared to a PWR
- Operates at a lower nuclear fuel temperature
- Fewer components; no steam generators or pressurizer vessel
- Fewer pipes, welds, and no steam generator tubes lowering the
risk of a loss of coolant
- Vessel is subject to little irradiation (brittleness)
- Can operate at lower core power density using natural
circulation and can be designed so that recirculation pumps
are eliminated
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Disadvantages:
- Complex design; two-phase fluid flow requiring more in-core
nuclear instrumentation and complex operational calculations
- Larger pressure vessel than PWR, with corresponding cost
- Turbine contamination with fission products requiring shielding
and access control during normal operations
- Control rods are inserted from below for current BWR designs
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Nuclear Systems
Plant Systems
There are approximately 80 systems in a nuclear power plant
Three systems that control and/or limit nuclear plant output
are:
Control rod drive system
Reactor coolant system
Off-gas system
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Nuclear Systems
Control Rod Drive System: controls reactor power output.

Reactor Coolant System: removes energy from the core and
transfers it directly (BWR) or indirectly (PWR) to the steam
turbine
Off-Gas System: Processes air and any non-condensable gases
in the main condenser before being released to the
environment. Condenser vacuum is decreased if gases are not
removed.
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Nuclear Plant Auxiliaries
Similarities (Nuclear to Fossil)

- Feedwater system contain the same components, but with less
pumping power required due to the lower feedwater pressure and

low-pressure steam
- Reactor feed pumps are equivalent to boiler feed pumps
Contrasts
- For fossil, feed pumps are driven by steam; motor drives are
applied to reactor feed pumps

- Nuclear does not require large fan drives or large fuel preparation
drives
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Nuclear Plant Auxiliary Power system
The basic auxiliary power system of a nuclear facility is very

similar to a fossil plant, except for the engineered safety
features
ESF systems are intended to ensure safe shutdown of the
reactor under abnormal conditions
The aux power system must be able to supply power to
redundant drives and loads which provide the safety features
predominantly the core cooling systems
The power system must provide separate paths to redundant
ESF systems and must have (2) off-site
power sources available after a shutdown is initiated
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Nuclear Limitations
Equipment Vibration
Individual component vibration is monitored by a central
computer
Systems are quickly identified and isolated to prevent damage
from excessive vibration
A problem area in nuclear plants are the protective relay panels
Excessive vibration may cause a system or plant shutdown
due to vibration of relays
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Nuclear Limitations
Power Ascension: 0-100% power increase depends on:

- Amount of testing required during start-up
- After a forced outage, power ascension takes
~ 24 hours
- After a refueling outage, power ascension takes
~ 48 hours
Fuel Depletion: occurs by the absorption of neutrons and the

fission process
Reactor core refueling: 1/4 to 1/3 of the fuel bundles are
removed at intervals of 12-18 months
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Nuclear Generation
Abnormal Operations
Reactor SCRAM (Safety Control Rod Axe Man)
(Safety Cut Rope Axe Man)
When all control rods move into the core to shut down the
reactor.
A SCRAM occurs when a protective device sends a signal
to the control rod drive system.
Reactor power decreases because the control rod
material absorbs neutrons, thus interrupting the nuclear
chain reaction.
The cause of a SCRAM must be determined before a unit
is restarted.
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Hydroelectric Generation
Part 4
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Hydro once played a significant role in the electric utility

industry accounting for 30%-40% of the total energy produced
Currently, hydroelectricity produces about 10% of the
electricity generated in America
Hydro is regarded as a free source of energy since it uses no
fuel
Because the water cycle is an endless, constantly recharging
system, hydro power is considered a renewable energy
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Provide about 3.7% of PJMs energy

Typical PJM unit output is between 20 and 510 MW
Two types of hydroelectric generating plants:
- Run-of-River
- Pumped Storage
Pumped storage facilities operate the same as runof-river with the exception of the motor pump function
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Basic elements of hydroelectricity

- Water at one elevation, and a dam to hold it
there
- Lower elevation location where the water
output can be directed
- Hydraulic turbine connected to a generator
- Penstock to conduct water from the upper level
through the turbine at a lower level
- Controls and auxiliaries (Governor oil pump,
head-gate motors, crane, air compressor)
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Hydro plants capture the kinetic energy of falling water

Power capacity of a hydro plant is the function of two
variables:
- Flow rate which is expressed in cubic feet per second
(Kinetic energy)
- Hydraulic head: difference vertically between head water and
tail water elevation
(Potential energy)
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A simple formula for approximating electric power production

at a hydroelectric plant is: P = hrgk, where
- P is Power in watts,
- is the density of water (~1000 kg/m3),
- h is height in meters,
- r is flow rate in cubic meters per second,
- g is acceleration due to gravity of 9.8 m/s2,
- K is a coefficient of efficiency ranging
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Basic Parts of a Hydroelectric Plant:

- Dam: a reservoir is constructed by building a dam. The dam
will increase the height of the water level and the working
head (potential energy) of the plant
- Trash racks: removes debris from entering the intake gate and
penstock
- Intake gate/Valve house: controls the intake for the flow of
water into the powerhouse. Usually includes the trash racks
and gates and the entrance to a canal, penstock, or directly
to the turbine
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- Penstock: pipe between the surge tank and plant that carries
the water from the reservoir to the turbines in the station
- A disilting chamber precedes the penstock to remove larger
size sediment from entering
- Surge tank: to avoid sudden, large pressure increases due to

rapid start of the turbine or valve closing
- Acts as a pressure relief opening to absorb surplus kinetic
energy
- Acts as a balancing reservoir to supply or store additional
water during starting or closing of the gates and valves
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- Draft tube: diffuser that regains residual velocity energy of
the water leaving the turbine runner
- Runner: the rotating element of the turbine that converts
hydraulic energy into mechanical energy
- Turbine/Generator: vertical/horizontal machine that is low
speed, and inherent high reactance
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- Amortisseur Windings:
- Reduce overvoltage induced in the field caused by
surges/unbalances in the stator
- Reduce overvoltage in the stator caused by unbalanced
faults on the machine
- Reduce generator output oscillations caused by loads
connected through resistance circuits
- Aids in stability reducing rotor oscillations
- Wicket Gates: adjustable vanes that control the amount
of water that can enter the turbine. These are controlled
by the governor by changing the angle of the gates
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Types of Hydraulic Turbines

- Impulse:
- Used in high head plants: needs less water volume
- Low-velocity head is converted into a high-velocity jet and
directed into spoon-shaped buckets
- Energy supplied is kinetic completely
- Runner operate in air; water is at atmospheric pressure
- Efficiency is less than Reaction-type at full load, but better at
partial load
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Advantages of an Impulse turbine:

- Greater tolerance for sand/other particles in the water
- Better access to working parts
- No pressure seals around the shaft
- Easier to fabricate and maintain
- Better part-flow efficiency
Disadvantage: unsuitable for low-head sites because of low

specific speeds
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Types of Hydraulic Turbines

- Reaction:
- Two types: Francis and propeller (Kaplan)
- Runner is fully immersed in water and
enclosed in a pressure casing
- Pressure differences impose lift forces
causing the runner to rotate
- Low to medium head is converted into
high speed
- Energy supplied is both kinetic and
pressure head
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Francis
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Kaplan Turbine
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Advantages of a Reaction turbine:

- Rotate faster at the same given head and flow
conditions
- Eliminates a speed-increasing drive system
- Simpler maintenance thereby reducing costs
- Higher efficiency
- High running speeds at low heads from a compact
machine
Disadvantages:
- Require more sophisticated fabrication
- Poor part-flow efficiency characteristics
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Run-of-River
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Run-Of-River
Low impact method that utilizes the flow of water within the
natural range of the river, requiring little or no impoundment.
Produce little change in the stream channel or stream flow
Plants can be designed using large flow rates with low head or
small flow rates with high head
Hydraulic head is the elevation difference that the water falls
in passing through the plant
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Run-Of-River
Operating Considerations
Rainfall in Watershed Area
River Flow and Forebay/Tailrace Elevation
Water Quality Impacts
- Dissolved Oxygen
- Higher temperatures
- Decreased food production
- Siltation
- Increased phosphorus and nitrogen
- Decomposition products
Ice during frigid temperatures
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Run-Of-River
Advantages:
- Reduced exposure to price volatility
- Minimal construction
- Ecologically sound
- Reliable
- Low operating costs
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Prevents debris from entering
Minimizes pressure surges

or the effects of water
hammer
Penstock
Head:
Vertical change in elevation between the head
water level and the tailwater level.
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Acts like a diffuser.

Maintains a water
column between turbine
and downstream
Provides high efficiency

operation by recuperating
kinetic energy
Pump Storage
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Pump Storage
Uses off-peak electricity to pump water from a lower

reservoir to an upper reservoir
During periods of high electrical demand, water is released to
generate electricity
Most modern plants utilize a reversible Francis-type turbine
which operates in one direction of rotation as a pump, and
the opposite direction as a turbine connected to a
synchronous generator/motor driving the pump in one
direction, and generating power in the other direction
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Pump Storage
Operating Considerations
Water Quality Impacts
- Thermal Stratification
- Toxic Pollutants
- Eutrophication: loss of nutrients
Reservoir Sedimentation
Flood Control and Hazard
Groundwater level
Ice Formation
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Pump Storage
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Both Run-Of-River and Pump Storage offer:

- Rapid start-up, shutdown, and loading
- Long life
- Low operating and maintenance costs
- Low outage rates
- Units, when generating, can respond and follow to system load
changes limited only by the speed with which the gate valves can
be operated
- Can be designed to operate as a synchronous condenser for
voltage control when not generating
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Auxiliary Equipment:
- Inlet valve pressure oil system
- Lubricating oil system: turbine/generator bearings
- Hydraulic oil system: turbine governor control
- Cooling water system: used to supply cooling water the generator
air coolers, lube oil coolers, turbine/generator bearings, and
transformers
- Compressed air system: supply compressed air to various turbine
and generator auxiliaries for rotor lifting, generator braking,
charging governor oil systems, control systems, and service air
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Auxiliary Equipment:
- De-watering system: used to dewater the powerhouse in case of
seepage and maintenance
- Used for de-watering the tunnels and penstocks
- Pump water out of the draft tube for maintence
- Service units: small hydraulic turbine/generator used for

station service and as a independent source of power in case
of system separation
- Turbine gland water for shaft packing
- Fire protection
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Safety Considerations:
- Extra flywheel effect is built into the generator dictated by the
hydraulic conditions to prevent excessive rate of rise in speed if
load is suddenly lost
- Both turbine and generator need to be built to stand runaway
speed due to the possibility that full load may be lost at a time
when the gate-closing mechanism is inoperative
- Runaway speed is defined as turbine speed at full flow, with no
shaft load
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Combustion Turbine
Part 5
Combustion Turbines
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Combustion Turbines
Combustion turbines play an important role in utility system

generation planning
Characteristics that make it attractive include:
- Peaking applications
- Where a exhaust heat recovery system can be used
- Base-load operation
Combined-cycle units provide most of the advantages of the

simple-cycle peaking plant with the benefit of a good heat
rate; it also requires less cooling water than conventional
fossil and nuclear of the same size
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Simple-Cycle Combustion Turbines
Operation is similar to a jet engine

Air is compressed, mixed with fuel in a combustor, to heat the
compressed air
The turbine extracts the power from the hot air flow
It is an internal combustion engine employing a continuous
combustion process
2/3 of the produced shaft power runs the compressor; 1/3
produces the electric power
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Simple-Cycle Combustion Turbine
Brayton Cycle: describes the relationship between the space

occupied by the air (volume) and the pressure that its under
(basic thermodynamic cycle)
- Air is compressed increasing the pressure as the volume of
space occupied by the air is reduced
- Air is heated at a constant pressure continuously
- Hot compressed air is allowed to expand reducing the pressure
and temperature while increasing the volume ( power to the
turbine shaft
- Volume and temperature of the air is decreased as heat is
absorbed into the atmosphere
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Combustion Turbine
Basic Parts of a Combustion Turbine:

- Starting package: AC motor and a hydraulic torque converter
- Compressor: draws in and compresses the air
- Combustor: adds fuel to heat the compressed air
- Turbine: extracts the power from the hot air flow
- Generator: produces the electric power output
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Combustion Turbines
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CTs are quick response units.

Can be started, loaded and shutdown remotely.
Typical capacity is 15-180 MW.
Not designed to run on a continuous basis.
CTs make up about 3% of the PJM area generation.
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Combustion Turbines
CT Advantages
Automatic- Unmanned (some cases)
Low initial capital investment
Turn-key operation (modular construction)
Self contained unit
Short delivery time
Fast starting and fast load pickup
Governor response units
Black start capability
No cooling water required
Low emission
Minimum operation and maintenance costs
Minimum transmission requirements
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Combustion Turbines
CT Disadvantages
Fuel operating cost (heat rate)
Low Efficiency: 25%- 40%
Thermal stress
High rate of temperature change
Short life due to cycling
High maintenance cost
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Combustion Turbines
Efficiency can be increased by:

- Regeneration: install a heat exchanger (recuperator) gives 5-6%
efficiency increase and improved part-load applications
- Intercooling: is a heat exchanger that cools the gas during the
compression process
- Reheating: used when turbine has two stages increasing efficiency
by 1-3% by reheating the flow between the two stages
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Combustion Turbine
Output Limitations:
- Ambient air temperature and density
- High barometer/low temp: air most dense
- Low barometer/high temp: air least dense
- Highest efficiency: cold, dense air
- Cold weather
- Lube oil temperature
- Moisture in fuel
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Combustion Turbines
Environmental
Stack Emission (NOx/CO2/CO)
Temperature 980 - 1000 F.
High temperature in combustion section accelerates nitric
oxide emission
Particulate emission opacity (oil)
Sound levels
Combined cycle units require:
Circulating water source
Waste water treatment for plant effluent
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Combustion Turbines
Because turbine combustors operate at a very high

temperature, high levels of NOX are produced
Common methods for control:
- Water injection to reduce combustion temperature
- Selective Catalytic Reduction is an after-treatment to remove NOX
- Xonon is a combustor that operates below the NOX formation
temperature
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Simple Combined Cycle Unit
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One combustion turbine unit along with an associated

generator
AND
One Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) along with its
own steam turbine
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Simple Combined Cycle
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Combined Cycle Unit
Heat Recovery: utilizing the large volume of exhaust that is

high in oxygen content
Duct Burner: direct-fired gas burner located in the turbine
exhaust stream that boosts the total available thermal energy
HRSG: heat recovery steam generator utilizes the heat in the
turbine exhaust
Diverter: used to divert turbine exhaust to the
atmosphere
The higher the electrical efficiency of the turbine, the lower
the available thermal energy in the exhaust
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Combined Cycle Unit
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Combined Cycle
The HRSGs convert heat in the CT exhaust gas to steam for

use in the steam turbine
CTs utilizing the HRSG can be operated from 50 to 100% peak
load
Start-up system (static frequency converter) is used to start
the rotation for light-off of the CT
Generator acts as a synchronous motor
The generators stator and rotor is supplied by current via a
start-up transformer
The rotor is supplied by the static excitation system
The stator is supplied from the SFC
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Combined Cycle Unit
HRSG incorporates features of conventional fossil-fired boilers

such as:
- Economizer, Evaporator, and Superheater
- Auxiliary systems for the steam turbine portion are similar to
conventional steam plants
- Cooling water must be supplied for the steam turbines
condenser
- Operates with a simple feedwater cycle
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Multiple Combined Cycle
More than one combustion turbine unit along with its own
generator
AND
More than one Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) along
with one or more steam turbines and generators
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Multiple Combined Cycle
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Combined Cycle and Co-Generation
Combined Cycle units can be used in conjunction with CoGeneration

Co-Generation (Distributed Generation)
A means of generating hot water, and / or high and low pressure
steam and electricity at the same time, from the same energy
source, yielding a highly efficient power plant
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Combined Cycle with Cogeneration
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Why Combined Cycle Plants?
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Competition / Future Projections

Plant Conversions / Stagnant
Efficient
Environment
Cheaper / Built Faster
Short Payback Time
Distributed Power Applications
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Competition /Future Projections
Competition between Generation Companies, IPPs, Merchant

Plants and others to participate in the selling of energy
produced in an efficient manner.
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Thermal Efficiency
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Generation Type
Efficiency
Combustion Turbine
Steam (no reheat)
Steam (reheat)
Combined Cycle
28% - 34%
31% - 35%
36% - 41%
42% - 53%
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Environment
Gas fired Combined Cycle Unit

Lower Emissions
SO2 and Particulate emissions are negligible

Nox emissions are lower than a conventional coal plant
No production or emission of sludge
No production or emission of ash
Land Use
CCPP on the average require five times less land than a coal fired plant
(100 acres versus 500 acres)
Water Use
Lower cooling and condensate water consumption
Condensing steam turbine is only about 35% of output
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Short Payback Time
High Availability rate of 90%

CCPP is designed primarily for Peaking and Intermediate or
Mid-Merit use.
CCPP can also be used as a Base Load unit
CCPP also has excellent performance responsiveness for
spinning reserve capability
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Advantages/Disadvantages
Advantages:
Higher efficiency
Lower capital investment
Operational flexibility
Base, Intermediate or Peaking
Distributed Power application
Dual fuel capability
- Natural gas (primary/Low sulfur fuel oil (secondary)
Technological and Strategic advantages over Steam Power Plants
(STPP)
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Advantages/Disadvantages
Disadvantages:
- Increased chemistry requirements with more complex plants
- Rapid heating and cooling of critical components
- Emissions to the environment: nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur
dioxide (SO2), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), and
opacity
- Availability and cost of fuel
- Poor thermal performance, high vibration, tube leaks, and
ambient conditions
- Auxiliary equipment out of service which prevents unit from
achieving full load
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Wind Generation
Part 6
Wind Power Generation
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Wind is a form of solar energy caused by:

- Uneven heating of the atmosphere by the sun
- Irregularities of the earths surface
- Rotation of the earth
Wind flow patterns are modified by:

- Earths terrain
- Bodies of water
- Vegetative cover
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Wind power turns kinetic energy of the wind into mechanical

and electrical power
Power available in the wind is proportional to the cube of its
speed (Double the speed increases the power by a factor of
eight)
Wind power depends on elevation and wind speed
Wind speed increases with altitude and over open areas
It is considered a free and renewable resource just like
hydroelectricity
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Type of Wind Generators

Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT)
Most commonly used type of wind turbine
Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT) most common

Emerging Technologies and many times smaller capacity and use
Ducted Wind Turbines (DWT)

Developed decades ago, this design causes the wind speed to increase just before it strikes the
blades, which in turn creates faster revolutions. Normally smaller operations
Wind power provides more than 2.5% of all electricity

consumption (2010)
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Wind Turbine Major Parts
317
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Other type units may have gear

boxes
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Over the past decade, wind turbine use has increased at more than 25 percent a year
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Tower Components
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Wind Generation
Generator: Induction
- Utilizes the principle of electromagnetic induction
- Requires reactive power for excitation
- Requires the stator to be magnetized from the grid, at least
initially, to produce the rotational magnetic flux
- Generating: Produces electrical power when the rotor is rotated
faster than synchronous frequency causing an opposing rotor flux
to cut the stator coils producing a current in the stator coils
- Motoring: stator flux rotation is faster than rotor rotation creating
opposing rotor flux causing the rotor to drag behind the stator flux
by a value equal to the slip
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Induction Generator
Produces electric power when the shaft of the generator is

rotated faster than the synchronous frequency of the
equivalent induction motor
Induction generators:
- Produce useful power at varying rotor speeds
- Simpler both mechanically and electrically than other types
of generators
- Do not require brushes or commutators
- Not self-exciting; require external excitation
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Induction Generator
The rotating magnetic flux from the stator induces currents in

the rotor, which also produces a magnetic field
- If the rotor turns slower than the rate of the rotating flux, the
machine acts like an induction motor
- If the rotor turns faster than the rate of the rotating flux, the
machine acts like an induction generator, producing power at
the synchronous frequency
- In a stand-alone situation, capacitor banks are used to
supply the magnetizing flux until the machine starts
producing power
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Induction Generator
Most Wind Generators use 4 or 6 pole

generators based on cost and size savings
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Anemometer: measures wind speed transmitting data to the

controller
Blade: catches the wind causing the blades to lift converting
it to rotational shaft energy
Brake: mechanically, electrically, or hydraulically stops the
rotor in emergencies
Chopper: used in the rectifier circuit
- Improves the power factor of the overall system
- Controls the level of DC voltage
- Controls the torque of the machine
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Controller: computer which monitors the turbine conditions

such as overheating and power quality. It also starts the
turbine, yaws it against the wind, and checks the safety
systems
- Starts at wind speeds 8-16 mph
- Shutdown at wind speeds greater than 55 mph
Gearbox: optimizes the power output by connecting the lowspeed shaft to the high-speed shaft increasing rotational
speeds (30-60 rpm to ~ 1,000 to 1,800 rpm)
Newer direct-drive generators operate at lower rotational
speeds without gear boxes (5-11.7 rpm)
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Inverter: converts incoming DC power into AC power for use

on the Interconnection
Nacelle: housing atop the tower containing the gear box, lowand high-speed shafts, generator, controller, and brake
Pitch: blades turned out of the wind to control rotor speed
and keep the unit from turning into too high or low winds to
restrict electrical production
Rectifier: converts incoming AC power into DC power for
excitation
Rotor: blade and hub assembly. Power available to the blades
is proportional to the square of the diameter of the rotor
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Tower: tubular steel, concrete, or steel lattice

Wind vane: measures wind direction and communicates with
the yaw drive to orient the unit properly with respect to the
wind
Yaw: Rotation of the unit parallel to the ground to face winds.
Upwind turbines face into the wind; yaw drive keeps the rotor
facing into the wind (Not required on a downwind turbine)
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Wind turbines are available in a variety of sizes

- Largest has blades that span more than the length of a
football field, stands 20 building stories high, and
produces electric power for ~ 1400 homes
- Smaller machines have rotors between 8 and 25 feet,
standing ~ 30 feet, supplying an all-electric home or
small business up to 50 kW
- Utility-scale turbines range in size from 50 kW to 7.50 MW
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Advantages:
- Wind is a free, renewable resource
- Clean, non-polluting energy
Disadvantages:
- Higher initial investment
- 80% equipment, 20% site preparation/installation
- Environmental
- Noise produced by the rotor blades
- Visual impacts
- Avian/bat mortality
- Intermittent wind/remote locations
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Solar Power Generation
Part 7
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Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either

directly (photovoltaic), or indirectly (concentrated solar power)
- Photovoltaic: solar cells that change sunlight directly into electricity.
Individual solar cells can be grouped into panels and arrays of
panels for a wide range of applications
- Solar Energy Concentrator Systems: generates electricity by using
heat from solar thermal collectors to heat fluid which produces
steam that drives a turbine/generator package.
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Photovoltaic cell, or solar cell, is a non-mechanical device

usually made from a silicon alloy
- Individual cells, considered to be the basic building block of the
system, vary in size from to 4 inches across
- To increase power output, cells are connected electrically into
modules which are further connected to form an array
- The number of modules in an array depends on the amount of
power output needed
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Photons, particles of solar energy, are absorbed by the cells

dislodging electrons from the cell materials atoms causing the
electrons to migrate to the PV cells front surface
The resulting imbalance in charge between the cells surfaces
creates a voltage potential similar to a DC battery
Once a load is connected across the cells surfaces, a current
flows completing the circuit
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Applications of a Photovoltaic Cell:

- First used to power US space satellites
- Small consumer electronics (calculators, watches)
- Provide electricity to pump water, power communications
equipment
- Solar panel installations on residential roofs
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Advantages of a Photovoltaic Cell:
- Conversion from sunlight to electricity is direct; generators are
unnecessary
- Arrays can be installed quickly and in any size
- Environmental impact is minimal, requiring no water for cooling
and generating no by-products such air or water pollution
- No greenhouse gases
Disadvantages of a Photovoltaic Cell:

- Photovoltaic cell is dependent on sunlight. Clouds and fog have a
significant effect on its performance
- DC must be converted to AC power requiring inverters
- Most modules have a 10% efficiency
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Solar Energy Concentrator System:

- Works the same as fossil fuel generation, except that the steam is
produced by heat collected from sunlight and transferred indirectly
to a fluid
- Main types of solar energy concentrator systems:
- Parabolic trough system
- Solar dish/engine system
- Solar power tower
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Parabolic Trough System:

- The collector utilizes a long parabolic-shaped reflector (mirror) that
focuses the suns rays on a receiver pipe located at the focus of
the parabola
- The collector tilts with the suns movement from east to west
- Concentration ratio (focus) is 30 to 100 times the suns normal
intensity, achieving fluid temperatures over 750 degrees F
- Transfer fluid, usually oil, is heated as it circulates from receiver to
heat exchanger to superheat water into steam for use in a
conventional steam turbine/generator
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Solar Dish/Engine System:

- Uses collectors, always pointing straight at the sun, to concentrate
the solar energy at the focal point of the dish
- Concentration ratio (focus) is much higher than a trough system,
typically over 2,000 with a fluid temperature over 1,380 degrees F
- Stirling engine converts heat into mechanical energy by
compressing the working fluid when cold, heating the compressed
fluid, and then expanding the fluid through a turbine or with a
piston to produce work
- Engine is coupled to an electric generator to convert the
mechanical energy into electrical power
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Solar Power Tower:

- Generates electricity by focusing concentrated solar energy on a
tower-mounted heat exchanger
- The system uses flat sun-tracking mirrors called heliostats to
reflect and concentrate the solar energy onto a central receiver
tower (concentrated energy can be as much as 1,500 times that
of the energy coming in from the sun)
- Energy losses are minimized as the energy is directly transferred
from the heliostats to a single receiver
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Disadvantages of Solar Energy:

- The amount of sunlight at the surface of the earth is not constant.
It depends on location, time of day, time of year, and weather
conditions.
- Because the sun doesnt deliver that much energy to any one
place at any given time, a large surface area is needed to collect
the energy at a useful rate
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Summary
Overview
Generators
Electrical and governor characteristics
Plant Principles of Operation
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Steam
Nuclear
Hydro
Combustion Turbines
Combined Cycle Power Plants (CCPP)
Wind Power
Solar Power
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Questions?
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Disclaimer:
PJM has made all efforts possible to accurately document
all information in this presentation. The information seen
here does not supersede the PJM Operating Agreement or
the PJM Tariff both of which can be found by accessing:
http://www.pjm.com/documents/agreements/pjmagreements.aspx
For additional detailed information on any of the topics
discussed, please refer to the appropriate PJM manual
which can be found by accessing:
http://www.pjm.com/documents/manuals.aspx
PJM2010
345
3/6/2014

Gen Basics

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Gen Basics

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This training presentation is provided as a reference for

Generation Unit Basics

Interconnection Training Program

Provide an overview of:

Describe the types:

Fossil Steam generating units

Generating Unit Basics

Basic Operating Principles

Basic Operating Principles

Electromagnetic Induction is the principle used by a generator

Basic Operating Principles

Basic Operating Principles

Generators use mechanical energy from the prime mover to

Basic Operating Principles

Output voltage of the generator is controlled by changing the

Basic Operating Principles

Basic Operating Principles

Basic Operating Principles

A D.C. voltage is applied to the rotor

Basic Operating Principles

How is the output voltage determined?

Control of excitation voltage is the primary means of

A rotating field is more common

A.C. Generator Components

Rotating Magnetic Field

A.C. Generator Components

Synchronous Machine: an AC machine that under steady-state

A.C. Generator Components: Rotor

A.C. Generator Components: Rotor

The basic function of the rotor is to produce a magnetic field

A.C. Generator Components: Rotor

A.C. Generator Components: Rotor

A.C. Generator Components: Rotor

Two types of rotors:

A.C. Generator Components: Rotor

A.C. Generator Components: Rotor

A.C. Generator Components: Rotor

A.C. Generator Components: Rotor

Rotating Magnetic Field

Rotating Magnetic Field

A.C. Generator Components: Rotor

A.C. Generator Components: Stator

A.C. Generator Components: Stator

A.C. Generator Components: Stator

The stator is the stationary part of the generator that is

A.C. Generator Components: Stator

In the stator, three phase windings are installed 120 degrees

A.C. Generator Components: Stator

A.C. Generator Components: Stator

A.C. Generator Configuration

Generator Rotational Speed

A generator which is connected to the grid has a constant

Generator Rotational Speed

Most steam and gas turbines drive two-pole or four-pole

Generator Rotational Speed

Frequency = (# Pole Pairs)(RPM)/60

Generator Rotational Speed

Frequency = (# Pole Pairs)(RPM)/60

Generator Rotational Speed

Synchronous Generator Speeds (RPM)

Generator Rotational Speed

Generator Rotational Speed 2 Pole