Fabrics usually need to be washed, bleached and dyed before they are made into textile products.

Garments are assembled using various joining techniques including sewing, fusing and heatsealing. Finishing improves the appearance, handle and performance of fabrics, while pressing is
used to shape and stabilise fabrics.

Dyeing
Before dyeing and printing the fabric is prepared by washing, bleaching and mercerising, in
which the yarn is treated to improve strength, lustre and receptivity to dye. Fabrics can be dyed
by hand or by machine.

Hand dyeing

Hand dyeing fabric

In hand dyeing, fabrics are immersed in hot or cold dyes in a dye bath. The dye bath is agitated
so the dye reaches all areas. When the desired colour is achieved the fabric is removed and rinsed
to remove excess dye. Then it is fixed with a mordant or a fixing agent such as salt. The
strength of a dye colour is determined by the:

amount of time in the dye bath

absorbency of fibres

original fabric colour

concentration of the dye colour in the dye bath

effective use of a mordant or fixative

Commercial dyeing
In industrial production fabric is dyed by continuous or batch dyeing.

Continuous dyeing
The fabric is passed through a dye bath, and then squeezed between rollers to spread the dye
evenly and remove excess. Continuous dyeing is used for colours that do not need to change too
quickly with fashion.

Batch dyeing
Fabrics are produced without dye. Instead, they are dyed to order in large batches according to
the colours required. Batch dyeing is used for fabrics that have to change in colour frequently
because of fashion

Printing
Fabrics are printed by block or screen printing.

Block printing
Block printing is done using metal or wooden blocks, one for each colour. The background
shapes are cut away to leave a raised design on the block. Dye is applied and stamped onto the
fabric. This is a slow process used by specialised craft industries.

Links
Look at the traditional Indian technique of block printing. Watch

Screen printing
In screen printing a pattern is printed onto fabric through a stencil held in place by a screen.
Each screen prints one part of the design in one colour. After printing the dyestuff must be fixed
using steam or dry heat.

Manual flat-bed screen printing

Manual flat-bed screen printing is a slow process, done by hand. It is used by designer-makers
for complicated fabric designs or for small runs.

1. Mesh is stapled to a frame to make a screen.

2. Masking tape is stuck to the underside of the screen.
3. A stencil is made from paper.
4. The stencil is placed under the screen but on top of the paper.
5. Ink is poured at one end of screen.
6. A squeegee is used to press down and draw ink across screen.
7. The screen is carefully lifted.
8. The print is checked before the process is repeated.

Industrial flat-bed screen printing

Industrial flat-bed printing automates this process, with the fabric moved through the machine on
a conveyor belt and the print repeating rapidly.

Rotary screen printing

Rotary screen printing uses CAD and roller squeegees. One roller is used for each colour. This
is a very fast process used in the continuous printing of furnishing and clothing fabrics.

Links
Watch a video on CAD and rotary screen printing. Watch

Joining
Textile materials are joined by stitching, fusing or heat-sealing.

Stitching
Stitching two fabrics together produces an unfinished seam. Finishing the seam prevents
fraying and produces a hard-wearing, neat finish.

Fusing
Fusing is used to permanently join two fabrics together using an adhesive resin.

Fusing by hand is used to join Vilene to fabric to make it stable and strong. It is also used
to reinforce and strengthen fabrics for garments, bags and accessories and allows hems to
be turned up without stitching.

In a factory there are two types of machine used for fusing. A flat-bed press is used to
join short fabric lengths for batch production, and a conveyor press is used for fusing
long fabric lengths for mass production.

Heat-sealing
Heat-sealing is used for synthetic fibres made from thermoplastics, such as
polyester or nylon. It is used to set a material into a shape, eg pleats. It is
also use to seal the seams on tents and all-weatIndustrial sewing machines
A range of different sewing machines are used in industry for stitching seams, embroidery,
buttonholes etc. The main ones are listed in the table below.

Industrial sewing machines

Industrial machine Method of control
Joining process
Lockstitch
Electric
Lockstitch
Lockstitch

Electric

Overlocker

Electric

Seamcover

Electric

Linking

Electronic, CAM

Automatic buttonhole Electronic, CAM

Used for
Straight seams
Stretchy knits, finishing
Zigzag stitch
edges
Stitches, cuts and finishes Non-fraying seams,
seams in one process
stretchy seams
Knitted hems, belt loops
Flat seam
on jeans
Joins knitted fabric stitch
Knitted seams
by stitch
Lockstitch, chainstitch
Buttonholes

Industrial machine Method of control

Joining process
Computer-numerically Computer software, Lockstitch, zigzag,
controlled (CNC)
electronic (CAM)
embroidery

Used for
Making collars, labels,
logos, embroidery

her gear to make them waterproof.

Finishing
Finishing is done to improve the appearance, properties and quality of a product. It covers many
different processes, some mechanical and some chemical.

Mechanical finishing processes

Mechanical finishing uses heat, pressure and rollers to improve the appearance of the fabric.

Brushing
Brushing cotton or nylon fabrics makes them fluffy and warm, with a soft handle. The fabrics
pass through rollers with wire brushes that lift the fibres to form a nap.

Calendering
Calendering is the industrial equivalent of ironing. It smoothes the fabric and improves its lustre.
Engraved calendar rollers are used to emboss relief patterns on the fabric surface.

Heat-setting
Heat-setting is used for thermoplastic fabrics (polyester and nylon). The fabrics are set in
permanent shapes or pleats.

Chemical finishing processes

Chemical finishing involves the application of chemical solutions or resins to improve the
appearance, handle or performance of a fabric.

Bleaching
Cotton and synthetic fabrics are bleached before dyeing. This makes it easier to dye pastel
shades.

Mercerisng

Cotton or linen fabrics are mercerised using the alkali caustic soda. Mercerised fabrics are
stronger, dye well and have improved lustre.

Shrink resist
Wool can be given a shrink-resist finish using silicone or Teflon. This results in soft, smooth,
lustrous yarns and fabrics that are machine washable.

Crease resist
Cotton and viscose fabrics are given a crease-resistant finish using resin. This makes them easy
care. They dry fast and smooth and need little ironing.

Flame resistant
Children's nightwear and cotton/viscose furnishings must by law be given a flame-resistant
finish. This often makes the fabric stiffer and weaker.

Smart finishes
These are new, high-tech methods for finishing products.

Anti-bacterial finishes
Anti-bacterial finishes are applied to the fabric surface to slow down the growth of bacteria.
They control odours in sports shoes and reduce infection in medical products.

Coating
Coating involves applying a layer of polymer to the surface of the fabric. Teflon coating makes
fabrics stain resistant, water repellent and breathable

Biological finishes
Biological finishes use natural enzymes to change a fabric's appearance. Bio-stoning gives a
stone-washed finish to denim fabrics.

Thermochromatic finishes
Thermochromatic substances change colour due to a change in temperature.

Nanomaterials and integrated electronics

Nanomaterials
Nanomaterials are those broadly defined as having tiny components with at least one
measurement below 100 nm. Sometimes nanomaterials are used as thin films or surface coatings,
as on computer chips or as nanowires, nanotubes, or as blobs of tiny nanocrystalline particles.
In the clothing sector special functional textiles are under development, for example selfcleaning textile surfaces or protective insulating clothing. Antimicrobial silver nanoparticles are
already used in socks, shoe insoles and a few clothing textiles. By using nanostructured polymer
coatings on textile surfaces, textiles and other products may be enhanced to include new
properties like these listed below.
Two key factors cause the properties of nanomaterials to be special: their quantum effects and
their structure. Their tiny structure means they have a greater relative surface area than other
materials and this can alter or improve properties such as strength and electrical
characteristics or reactivity. Their quantum effect can affect the electrical, magnetic or optical
performance.
Properties vary but can include improvements such as:

magnetic/optical performance

electrical conductivity

strength/elasticity

thermal conductivity

absorbency

This has resulted in the development of:

harder and tougher tools

water-repellent and anti-bacterial coatings

wear- and scratch-resistant hard coatings

UV absorbent and reflective transparent-looking nanosized titanium dioxide and zinc

oxide in some sunscreens

a military battle suit that that will withstand blast waves (currently being developed by
the Institute of Soldier Nanotechnologies at MIT)

Nanomaterial finishes
These new technologies are available:

Nanomaterial finishes
Nanomaterial
finishes

ZANO

Characteristics

UV-absorbers for fabrics: protects fabrics from

degradation, protects against sunburn of wearer.
ZANO is a fungistat.

NanoGrain
CeO2

UV-absorbers for fabrics: protects fabrics from

degradation, protects against sunburn of wearer.

NanoGrain TiO2
(rutile) or Optisol

Partial UV-absorbers for fabrics, protects fabrics

from degradation, protects against sunburn of
wearer.

NanoGrain TiO2
(anatase)

Can combat malodours on textiles by stopping

decomposition of food, sweat, etc.

Uses

Summer clothing

Hammocks

Tents

Mountain wear

Climbing wear

Sportswear

Summer clothing

Umbrellas

Swimwear

Tents

Summer clothing

Tents

Socks and
underwear

Shoe insoles

Sportswear

Nanomaterial
finishes

Characteristics

Uses

Children's
clothing

Integrated electronics
LEDs and other electronic components such as sensors are being integrated into textile and other
products, and can offer a dual-purpose product like a wearable light-emitting garment or a roll-up
illuminated mat.

Pressing
Pressing is done to shape, stabilise and set textile materials using dry heat or steam. In industry,
pressing can be done using specialist equipment or by hand. The main methods for pressing are
outlined in the table below:

Methods for pressing

Stage of
manufacture
Product
assembly
Product
assembly
Product
assembled

Pressing
Equipment
operation
Under
Pressing unit
pressing
Pressing unit, ironing and
Moulding
sleeve boards
Steam dolly, tunnel finisher,
Top pressing
flat-bed press for trousers

What it does
Reduces shrinkage; removes
creases; makes sewing easier
Stretches and sets 3D shapes in
fabrics, eg at top of sleeve
Final pressing makes the
product ready for sale

Exam tips
1. Make sure that you can explain any decorative technique you used in your coursework,
such as appliqu, patchwork, tie-dye, batik, quilting or embroidery. These are favourite
exam topics!
2. You may be asked about tools and equipment used for measuring, marking, cutting or
sewing fabrics. Again - check your coursework notes.
3. You may be asked to explain the benefits of using CAM or CNC sewing machines - so
make sure you can!