01 CM PDF

Diagnostic Techniques for
Condition Monitoring
of Transformers
ARSEPE 2008
Young Zaidey bin Yang Ghazali

Technical Expert
(Transformer Performance & Diagnostic)
Engineering Department
TNB Distribution Division
1
1. INTRODUCTION
Electrical distribution equipment is generally

designed for a certain economic service life.
Equipment life is dependent on operating

environment, maintenance program and the quality
of the original manufacture and installation.
Beyond this service life period they are not expected

to render their services up to expectation with
desired efficiency.
1. INTRODUCTION
Generally due to poor quality of raw material,

workmanship and manufacturing techniques or due
to frequent electrical, mechanical and thermal
stresses during the operation, many equipment fail
much earlier than their expected economic life span.
The concept of simple replacement of failed power

equipments in the system either before or after their
economic service life, is no more valid in the present
scenario of financial constraints.
1. INTRODUCTION
Explore new approaches/techniques of monitoring,

diagnosis, life assessment and condition evaluation,
and possibility of extending the life of existing assets
(i.e. circuit breaker, cables, transformers, etc.)
Minimization of the service life cycle cost is one of
the stated tasks of the electrical power system
engineers. For electrical utilities this implies for
example to fulfill requirements from customers and
authorities on reliability in power supply at a minimal
total cost.
The main goal is therefore to reach a cost effective
solution using available resources which is captured
by the concept of Asset Management.
4
Asset Management Mechanism

Operate
efficiently
Reasonable
returns
High Performance
Low Cost
SAIFI, SAIDI
Power quality
Power availability
Reduced Loss etc.
ASSET
MANAGEMENT
Investment
O&M
Stocking etc.
Balancing cost, risk,

and performance in
the context of asset
full life cycle
T&D ASSET MANAGEMENT
Maintenance Management
With the increasing age of the population of power

system equipment utilities are making efforts to
assess the internal condition of the equipment while
in service before catastrophic failures can take place
Different types of maintenance being done on

equipment are:
Breakdown maintenance
Time or Calendar Based maintenance
Condition based maintenance
Reliability centered maintenance
8
Maintenance Management
Today the paradigm has changed from traditional

calendar based to condition based maintenance and
efforts are being channeled to explore techniques to
monitor, diagnose and assess condition of power
system equipment
This has led to the development of various on- and

off-line non-intrusive tests in recent years that allow
diagnosing the integrity of power system equipment
to optimize the maintenance effort thereby ensuring
maximum availability and reliability
9
Why Condition Based?

Ageing asset population

Age by itself is not a good predictor of
future performance
Must be able to fully justify decisions in
terms of proven engineering principles
Cannot make sound asset management
decisions unless you understand asset
condition!
10
What is CBM?
Combining all available practical and theoretical
knowledge and experience of assets to:
Define current condition and use this to estimate future

condition and performance
Provide a sound engineering basis for evaluating risks and
benefits of potential investment strategies
Uses a well developed methodology (with practical

experience of successful application)
Provides a framework for continual improvement
(information and definition of condition)
11
Why condition based?

Ageing asset population
Pressures to maintain/improve performance and to

reduce costs
Age (by itself) is not an acceptable reason to replace

assets
Must demonstrate need and consequences, condition

and future performance
Cannot make good Asset Management decisions

unless you understand asset condition!
12
Condition Based Management

Define asset condition (Health Index)

Link condition to performance & probability of failure
(PoF)
Calibrate Health Index/PoF against historic fault rates
Estimate future condition and performance
Evaluate effect of investment programmes on future
condition and performance
Provides an ENGINEERING basis to evaluate risk and
determine investment requirements
13
Defining condition and future performance

Need understanding of:

Degradation and failure processes
Condition assessment techniques
Practical knowledge of assets,
Operating context
Everything is related back to physical condition and

degradation processes - maximising the value of
available experience of the assets
14
A health index is:

A consistent and logical means of combining

relatively complex information
A way to rank assets (on basis of proximity to
EOL or probability of failure)
Relatively simplistic
It is NOT a substitute for engineering expertise
and judgement it is an additional aid to
engineers
15
Health Index Mechanism

A Health Index is a means to define proximity to EOL
by combining varied and relatively complex condition
information as a single number
Define significant condition criteria
Code information numerically,
Apply weightings
Develop a simple algorithm to generate a HI for
each asset
Rank and apply calibration
16
Health Index - Ranking

Condition
Remnant Life (years)
Probability of
failure
Bad
At EOL (<5 years)
High
Poor
5 - 10
Medium
Fair
10 - 20
Good
>20
10
Low
Very Low
17
Serious deterioration significant

increase in P(f)
Significant deterioration small

increase in P(f)
Measurable deterioration but no

significant increase in P(f)
Probability of failure (Pf)

0
10
Health Index
18
Information to derive a condition based

Health Index

Actual condition information

Risk factors with direct condition implications failure rates, specific or generic problems,
design issues etc
Other non condition based risk factors can be

mapped on later to evaluate overall risk
(Criticality, load, obsolescence etc)
19
Condition based health index

Means of determining probability of failure

It does not consider consequences of failure
Ultimately require combination of both to
evaluate overall risk
CBHI is the 1st step (phase 1)
Phase 2 use of results in a risk model
20
Phase 1 - Condition and Probability of

Failure (for each asset group)
Review
Condition
Assessment
Techniques
Define
EOL
Issues
Define
Assets
Formulation
and Population
of HI
HI to
Probability
of Failure
Documentation
Conclusions
Report
Data and
Information
Analysis
Change of
HI (PF) with
time
CONSEQUENCES
Phase 2
21
10

of Transformers
ARSEPE 2008

Technical Expert
1
Transformer Design
& Construction
Transformer Design & Construction

Types of Transformers
Core Type
Shell Type
Oil-Immersed Type,
Dry Type

Core Type Transformers

Shell Type Transformers

Typical Winding Connections
Delta Star
Star - Delta
Star Star
Delta Delta

Other Winding Connections
Zig Zag Connections
Tertiary Windings
Double Secondary
Scott (T-T) Connections
Autotransformers
Earthing Transformers
DESIGN CONCEPT
The transformer has been designed,
manufactured and tested according to
IEC 60076 part 1 to 5. Power Transformer
It consist of : core, winding, insulation, core
and winding assembly, tank.
CORE

Grain Oriented Electrical Steel

Type M5 (0.3mm), M4 (0.27mm) and ZDKH
(0.23mm)
WINDING
Are designed to meet three fundamental requirement :

1. Electrical
2. Mechanical
3. Thermal
10
WINDING
Round, Oval or rectangular in shape
and are wound concentrically.
LV winding is wound with foil
conductor (Distribution)
HV winding is wound with rectangular
strip conductor.
HV winding is wound on LV winding.
11
INSULATION
The interlayer insulation are of high quality epoxy

coated kraft paper (DDP)
Corrugated pressboards are placed within the
coil for cooling within the coil.
Thickness of layer insulation
in accordance with voltage
and number of layers.
12
CORE & WINDING ASSEMBLY

Arrangement of windings with respect to the core :

CORE - LV WINDING - HV WINDING
For tapping lead connection normally use stranded copper or

round conductor.
Bushing Lead :1. HV - stranded copper

2. LV - copper bar or flexible copper base on LV rated
current.
13
TANK

It is hermetically sealed type and full fill with insulation liquid.

Oil expansion or contraction due to the change in the
transformer load is accommodated by the corrugated finwall
of the transformer tank.
Corrugated fins are use to
provide sufficient cooling
surface to dissipate the heat
generated by the windings.
14
TERMINATION

Both HV & LV is open bushing termination.

Cable Box
15
MANUFACTURING PROCESS
FLOW CHART
1. Rectangular copper
Paper Covering
Core Cutting
Fabrication
2. Foil Sheet
Low Voltage
Winding
Core Winding
Assembly
High Voltage
Winding
Core
Building
Drying
Process
Tanking
Process
Vacuum & Oil

Filling
Despatch
Finishing
Testing
16

Phasor Relationships
Transformer winding connections
produced a Phase Shift between primary
& secondary
Angle of phase shift depend upon the
winding connection method adopted for
primary and secondary
17

Phasor Relationships
Eg.
Phase Shift of secondary
windings is +30 wrt primary
designated with Dyn11
Significant of Phase Shift
Paralleling of Transformer &
interconnection of system
18

Tapping & Tap Changers
19

Tapping & Tap Changers Functions

To compensate for changes in the applied

voltage on bulk supply
To compensate for regulation within the
transformer & maintain the output voltage
constant
To assist in the control of system VArs flows
To allow for compensation for factors not
accurately known at the time of planning
To allow for future changes in system conditions
20
10

Type of Tap Changers
On-Load Tap Changer (OLTC)
Off Circuit Tap Changer (OCTC)
Tap Changer Mounting
Internal (In-tank)
External (Side mounted)
21

OLTC Technology
Oil Type OLTC
Vacuum Type OLTC (Vacutap)
22
11

OLTC Main Components

Tap Selector
Diverter Switch
Selector Switch
Change-over selector
Transition Impedance
23

Motor Drive Mechanism to operate OLTC

Step-by-step control
Tap Position Indicator
Limiting Devices
Parallel Control Devices
Emergency Tripping Device
Overcurrent Blocking Device
Restarting Device
24
12
Transformer Ancillary Equipment

Pressure Relief Device
25

Gas & Oil Actuated Relays (Buchholz)
26
13

Temperature Indicators
Winding HV & LV
Top Oil
Fans Control
27

Oil Level Indicators
28
14

Other Ancillary Equipment
Conservator Tank
Cooling System/Radiators
Bushings
Cable Box
Oil Valves
Thermometer Pockets
29
15

of Transformers
ARSEPE 2008

Technical Expert
1
Transformer Insulating Oil

& Paper Diagnostics
Oil & Paper Tests in Main Tank & OLTC

1. Oil Quality Test
Physical Properties
Visual Appearance
Colour
Flash Point
Viscosity
Density
Pour Point
IFT
Particle Count
3

1. Oil Quality Test
Chemical Properties
Moisture Content
Acidity
Corrosive Sulphur
Oxidation Stability
Sludge Sediment

1. Oil Quality Test
Electrical Properties
Breakdown Voltage
Dissipation Power Factor
2. DGA
Insulation Condition Assessment

Life Span of Power Transformers Depends on Integrity of Insulation
Most Commonly Used Insulations for Power Transformers
OIL
Provides overall insulation to the transformers
Acts as coolant in extinguishing arcs
Provides the means to monitor insulation condition and operation of
transformers
PAPER
Provides insulation to the conductor in the transformer windings

PRIMARY STRESSES
1. Stresses applied on the transformer due to normal
operation:
Thermal
Electrical
Mechanical
2. Application of these stresses can be:
Continuous
Cyclic
Intermittent

SECONDARY STRESSES
1. Factors that can influence the ageing rate when primary
stresses are applied
2. Simply known as Ageing Factors
Examples of these Ageing Factors can be:
3. Operational factors of the transformers
Environmental factors i.e. radiation, moisture or
water, oxidative agents and corrosive materials
Technological factors i.e. type of oil and paper used
Tests done on the transformers that can influence
the performance of the insulation system

Oil Insulation Deterioration Reversible
1. Oil insulation condition can be reversed through on-line filtration
2. Can reduce the effect of the Ageing Factors
3. Can prolong serviceability of the oil insulation

Paper Insulation Degradation Irreversible
Paper insulation degradation is irreversible
Oil filtration has negligible effect on reversibility of paper
degradation
Ageing of paper directly linked to its mechanical
strength
Loss of mechanical strength eventually leads to loss of
dielectric strength
Once paper loses its dielectric strength, the transformer
is deemed to have reached the end of its service life
Thus, the life of a transformer can be effectively
determined by the life of its paper insulation
10

Three most common degradation factors of cellulose:
Thermal
1. When exposed to heat up to 220C, the glycosidic bond tend to
break and open the glucose molecule rings
2. By-products:
Free glucose
H 20
CO
CO2
Organic acids
Heat
H
O
OH
H20
CO
Glycosidic
bonds broken
and glucose
rings opened
Generates the
following:
CO2
11

Three most common degradation factors of cellulose:
Oxidative
1.
2.
3.
4.
Presence of oxygen promotes oxidation

Glycosidic bond weakens
Causes scission to the cellulose chain
By-products include H20
CH2OH
O2
COOH
COOH
Glycosidic
bonds
weakened
and
moisture
produced
CHO
Hydrolytic
H20 or acids
1.
2.
3.
4.
Presence of water and acids

Glycosidic bond exposed to slicing
Causes scission to the cellulose chain
By-products include free glucose
CH2OH
HO
OH
Free glucose
produced
12

Degradation By-Products
1. It can be observed that by-products related to paper degradation
can include the followings:
CO
CO2
H 2O
Organic acids
Free glucose molecules
2. With H2O and organic acids present in the oil, the free glucose
molecules can degrade to 5-hydroxymethyl-2-furfuryl or 5H2F
13

Degradation By-Products
3. 5H2F is an unstable free glucose molecule and can decompose
further to other furaldehyde as follows:
2-furfuryl alcohol (2FOL)

2-furaldehyde (2FAL)
2-acetyl furan (2ACF)
5-methyl-2-furfuryl (5M2F)
4. All these 5 compounds of glucose or degradation of glucose are

known as Furans.
5. 2FAL is the most stable in the group
6. Furan generation is exclusively due to paper degradation unlike
CO, CO2, H2O or acids which can also be produced through oil
oxidation or breakdown.
14

When taking an oil sample from a sealed tank

transformer, ensure that the transformer is not under
vacuum by checking the vacuum/pressure gauge
Use a clean glass syringe/beaker (provided by the

laboratory) and follow the proper sampling procedure
ASTM D923 & D3613 (IEC 60475 & IEC 60567)
Interpret the quantified results to help determine the

relative health of the transformer, offer clues to the origin
of potential problems and develop a strategy to avoid
catastrophic failure IEEE C57.106
15

Important factors to be considered prior to taking a
sample:
1. Sample Containers
2. Sampling Technique
3. Weather condition
4. Sample storage and transport
16

Characteristic of Sample Containers:

500 ml or 1 liter (Duplicate)
Syringe DGA
Seal the sample from external contamination
Store samples in the dark to prevent from photodegradation
Cleaning and preparation of valves
Avoid liquid spillage, some oil may still contains PCBs
Identification of the sample and apparatus information
Sampling outdoors in rain, strong wind and night time
should be avoided
Should not be stored longer than a few days before
sending to the laboratory for analysis
17

Adaptor
Valve
Transformer
Use correct vessel (good cap and seal)

Plastic
tube
Cap
Seal
Filled
Sample
bottle
Dark Brown
Bottle
500 mL
Waste
Vessel
Sufficient sample
18
Adaptor
Valve
Plastic
tube
Transformer
Syringe
Sufficient sample
Waste
Vessel
19

To effectively interpret DGA results requires insights in

the characteristics of dissolved gas in oil evolution, an
understanding of transformer design, and knowledge of
materials used by transformer manufacturer and
operating conditions ASTM D3612
ASTM D3612 Test methods for analysis of dissolved

gases by gas chromatography
IEEE C57.104 Guide for interpretation of gases
20
10

On-Line Assessment of Insulation Condition
1. Oil Quality Tests to assess the physical, electrical and
chemical properties of the oil
2. Dissolved Gas-in-oil Analysis to detect and identify
incipient faults
3. Furan Compound Analysis to detect and identify
degradation of paper insulation (on-line test)
4. Degree of Polymerization Test to measure
degradation of paper insulation (intrusive mechanism)
21

Oil Screening Tests
1. Colour serious contamination
2. IFT moisture in oil (> 15 mN/ m)
3. Neutralization Number level of acidity (< 0.2 mg KOH / gm)
4. Dielectric Strength contaminants (water & conducting
particles) ( > 30 kV)
5. 5. Water Content amount of dissolved water in ppm
(< 30 ppm)
22
11

IEEE C57.106 Limits Oil Quality Tests
Colour 0.5
IFT > 25 mN/ m for 69 kV
Neutralization Number < 0.2 mg KOH / gm
Dielectric Strength > 20 kV for 69 kV for 1 mm gap
Water Content < 27 ppm for 69 kV at 50 0C

23

Other Oil Quality Tests
Specific Gravity
Viscosity
Power Factor
Resistivity
Flash Point
Visual
PCB Content
Inhibitor Content
24
12
Oil Quality Screening Tests

Water Content (D 1533 / IEC 733) A low water content

is necessary to obtain and maintain acceptable electrical
strength and low dielectric losses in insulation systems.
Color (D 1500) The color of a new oil is generally

accepted as an index of the degree of refinement. For
oils in service, an increasing or high color number is an
indication of contamination, deterioration, or both.
Dielectric Breakdown (D 877 / D 1816 / IEC 156) It is a

measure of the ability of an oil to withstand electrical
stress at power frequencies without failure. A low value
for the dielectric-breakdown voltage generally serves to
indicate the presence of contaminants such as water,
dirt, or other conducting particles in the oil.
25

Neutralization Number, NN (D 664) A used oil having a high

neutralization number indicates that the oil is either oxidized
or contaminated with materials such as varnish, paint, or other
foreign matter.
Interfacial Tension, IFT (D 971) The interfacial tension of an

oil is the force in dynes per centimeter or millinewton per
meter required to rupture the oil film existing at an oil-water
interface. When certain contaminants such as soaps, paints,
varnishes, and oxidation products are present in the oil, the
film strength of the oil is weakened, thus requiring less force
to rupture. For oils in service, a decreasing value indicates the
accumulation of contaminants, oxidation products, or both.
26
13

Index = IFT/NN. This index provides a more sensitive and

reliable guide in determining the remaining useful life of a
transformer oil. A Index below 100 indicates that the oil is
significantly oxidized and that the oil needs to be replaced in
the near future.
27

Non-fault gases - Oxygen (O2) & Nitrogen (N2)

Note: If the ratio O2/N2 is less than 0.3 then it indicates overheating
of oil. This is not a standard, use with caution.
Fault gases - Hydrogen (H2), Acetylene (C2H2)

Carbon Monoxide (CO), Carbon Dioxide
(CO2) Ethylene (C2H4), Ethane (C2H6)
Methane (CH4)
28
14
29
30
15

Dissolved Gas-in-oil Analysis
Fault Condition
Key Gases
Overheated Oil
Methane, Ethane & Ethylene
Partial Discharge
Hydrogen & Acetylene
Overheated Cellulose
Carbon Monoxide & Carbon

Dioxide
Non-Fault Gases are Oxygen & Nitrogen
31

Fault Condition
Key Gases
Thermal Oil
Major Ethylene & Methane

Minor Ethane & Hydrogen
Electrical low energy Major Hydrogen & Methane

Minor Ethane & Ethylene
Electrical high energy Major Acetylene & Hydrogen

Minor Ethylene & Methane
Thermal Cellulose
Major Carbon monoxide & Carbon dioxide

Minor Methane & Ethylene
32
16
IEEE Limit

Hydrogen (H2)
Oxygen (O2)
Nitrogen (N2)
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Methane (CH4)
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
Ethylene (C2H4)
Ethane (C2H6)
Acetylene (C2H2)
100 ppm
N/A
N/A
350
120
2500
50
65
35
33

Ratio Method is used for fault analyzing, not for fault detection.
Ratio Method
Ratios
Rogers
C2H2/C2H4 , CH4/H2 & C2H4/ C2H6
IEEE
CH4/H2, C2H2/C2H4, C2H2/ CH4, C2H6/ C2H2,

C2H4/ C2H6
Never make a decision based on only ratio. Take into consideration

the gas generation rates and amount of total combustible gases.
34
17

Rogers Ratio comparison methods look at pairs of gases, and

develop a coding system to help define potential fault conditions
Rogers Ratio Code

C2H2 / C2H4
< 0.1
0
0.1 -<1.0
1
1.0 - <=3.0
1
> 3.0
2
CH4 / H2
1
0
2
2
C2 H4 / C2H6
0
0
1
2
35

IEC DGA Ratios
C2H2 CH4 C2H4
Case C2H4
H2 C2H6
No Fault, Normal
Partial discharges of low energy
Partial discharges of high energy density
Discharges of low energy, Arcing
Discharges of high energy, Arcing
Thermal Fault, 150 C, Conductor Overheating
Thermal Fault, 150 - 300 C, Oil Overheating, Mild
Thermal Fault, 300 - 700 C, Oil Overheating, Moderate
Thermal Fault, 700 C, Oil Overheating, Severe
36
18

TDCG (ppm)
Status
Remark
720
Condition 1
Transformer working satisfactorily. Look

for individual gas exceeding respective limit.
721-1920
Condition 2
Faults may be present. Additional

investigation required based on individual
gas exceeding respective limit.
1921-4630
Condition 3
Faults probably present. Additional

investigation required based on individual
gas exceeding respective limit.
> 4630
Condition 4
Continued operation could result in failure of

the transformer
As per IEEE C57.104
37

CO2/ CO ratio indicates cellulose degradation

CO2 / CO ratio
<3
3 -<5
5 - <=11
> 11
Condition of Cellulose
Severe Arcing & Short circuit damage
Indicates concern
Normal
Indicates damage due to general
overheating
According to IEEE C57.104 the normal value is 7

38
19
Exercise (Oil Condition)

Transformer Gas Analysis
Component
HYDROGEN (H2)
OXYGEN (O2)
NITROGEN (N2)
CARBON MONOXIDE (CO)
METHANE (CH4)
CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2)
ETHYLENE (C2H4)
ETHANE (C2H6)
ACETYLENE (C2H2)
ppm in oil
10
26200
48500
41
5
570
2
2
1
39
Exercise (Oil Condition)

Component
ppm in oil
HYDROGEN (H2)
OXYGEN & ARGON (O2 + A)
NITROGEN (N2)
METHANE (CH4)
ETHYLENE (C2H4)
ETHANE (C2H6)
ACETYLENE (C2H2)
720
17000
45400
405
1310
6050
5200
1810
256
40
20
Exercise (Paper Condition)

Component
HYDROGEN (H2)
OXYGEN & ARGON (O2)
NITROGEN (N2)
METHANE (CH4)
ETHYLENE (C2H4)
ETHANE (C2H6)
ACETYLENE (C2H2)
2FAL
ppm in oil
105
18000
33400
870
400
12,100
260
28
52
ppb in oil
195
41
Exercise (Oil + Paper Condition)

Component
HYDROGEN (H2)
OXYGEN & ARGON (O2 + A)
NITROGEN (N2)
METHANE (CH4)
ETHYLENE (C2H4)
ETHANE (C2H6)
ACETYLENE (C2H2)
2FAL
ppm in oil
103
16762
20458
0
814
1816
109
75
118
ppb in oil
225
42
21

Furanic Compound Analysis
Fault Condition
Furan Compound
Overheating or Short circuit
2FAL
Excessive Moisture
2FOL
Lightning Strikes
2ACF
Intense Overheating
5M2F
Oxidation
5H2F
Concentration limits of furan compounds must be supported by

CO2/CO Ratio to assess paper degradation
43
2FAL limits (ppb in oil):

58 292
Normal Aging
654 2021 Accelerated Aging
2374 3277 Excessive Aging
3851 4524 High Risk of Failure
44
22

Criteria to select transformers for further investigation
Transformer Age
Operational Criterion number of faults, switching, lightning, etc.
DGA Criterion (oil) Individual concentrations of CH4, C2H2,

C2H4, C2H6 & H2 in ppm & Rogers/IEEE Ratio
DGA Criterion (paper) Individual concentrations of CO2 & CO in

ppm & CO2/CO Ratio
Furan Criterion 2FAL concentration in ppb & others if detected

45

Correlation between TS, DP and Furan
Ageing of paper insulation is related to the decrease in
TS.
TS is directly related to DP ASTM D 4243.
Decrease in DP is directly related to the increase in
Furan.
Thus, as paper aged, it loses its TS. Loss of TS
indicates decrease of DP. Decrease of DP causes
increase in Furan in the insulating oil. It can be deduced
that as paper aged towards its end of service life, the
level of Furan content increases.
46
23

Degree of Polymerization
One of the most dependable means of determining
paper deterioration and remaining life of the cellulose.
The cellulose molecules is made up of a long chain of
glucose rings which form the mechanical strength of the
molecule and the paper.
DP is the average number of these rings in the
molecule.
As paper ages or deteriorates from heat, acids, oxygen
and water the number of these rings decrease.
47

Degree of Polymerization
Following Table has been developed by EPRI to estimate
remaining paper life
1. New insulation
1000 DP to 1400 DP
2. 60% to 66% life remaining
500 DP
3. 30% life remaining
300 DP
4. 0 life remaining
200 DP
48
24
The life of a transformer can be effectively determined by the life of its

paper insulation.
DP is considered direct approach to determine the paper insulation

condition but it is intrusive. Some are skeptical since integrity of paper
insulation may be disturbed and may further damage the paper insulation.
Alternatively, it can be achieved through the use of paper degradation byproducts e.g. CO, CO2, CO2/CO, 2 FAL, H2 as indicators. It is non-intrusive
and requires only samples of the transformer oil which can be obtained
without any shutdown.
The challenge is to develop a Mathematical Model to Estimate DP Value of

Paper Insulation based on the Paper Degradation By-Products i.e.
DP = f (CO, CO2, CO2/CO, 2 FAL, H2)
49
LTC OIL ANALYSIS

By plotting the relative percentages of methane, ethylene

and acetylene onto a special triangular coordinate
system, a graphical output of the likely cause of gassing
is generated.
The causes are categorized as follows.

D1 Discharges of low energy
D2 Discharges of high energy
T1 Thermal faults < 300C
T2 Thermal faults 300C to 700C
T3 - Thermal faults > 700C
DT Mixture of thermal and electrical faults
PD Partial discharge (No samples indicated this type
of fault)
50
25
Case Study
The following gas levels were detected via DGA on the

oil from the load tap changer:
42 ppm of methane
17 ppm of Ethylene
0 ppm of acetylene
Calculate percentages of each gas and use Duvals

triangle approach to find the cause
51
LTC OIL ANALYSIS
52
26
LTC OIL ANALYSIS

Guideline set by an US Utility
When the acetylene or hydrogen reaches a threshold level of

500ppm the unit is put to monthly DGA testing schedule
DGA monthly testing schedule
Hydrogen > 1500 ppm

Acetylene > 1000 ppm
Ethylene > 1000 ppm
When Ethylene level exceeds the maximum value the unit is

removed from service
53
Exercise
The following gas levels were detected via DGA on the

oil from the load tap changer:
319 ppm of methane
181 ppm of Ethylene
1351 ppm of acetylene
Calculate percentages of each gas and use Duvals

triangle approach to find the cause
54
27

of Transformers
ARSEPE 2008

Technical Expert
1
Transformer Basic On-Site &

Off Line Diagnostic Testing
Electrical Tests
1.
Basic Electrical Tests

Insulation Resistance
Traditional Polarization Index (PI) test

to detect moisture content
Tan Delta
Insulation Condition
Assessment
To detect water in cellulose

and chemical contamination
Winding Resistance
To detect open or short circuits or poor electrical connection in

the windings
Turns Ratio
To detect Shorted Turns

3
Electrical Tests
2.
Advanced DiagnosticTests
Frequency Response Analysis (FRA)

Recovery Voltage Measurement (RVM)
Polarization Depolarization (PDC)
Frequency Dielectric Spectroscopy (FDS)
Partial Discharge (PD)
OLTC Motor Current Signature Analysis (MCSA)
OLTC Vibration Signature Analysis (VSA)

On-site Testing
Categorization of On-site Tests

Destructive off-line tests are go/no go tests

Non destructive off-line tests are diagnostic
tests
Non destructive on-line tests are condition
monitoring tests
On-site Testing
These on-site tests are performed individually or in

combination :

Before energizing a new equipment as a

commissioning test
After maintenance
After network alteration
Damaging Factors of Insulation
Fig 4-4
Thermal Withstandibility of Insulation Medium

According to Classes
Insulation Classes by Degrees Centigrade
250
240
240+
Class S
Class C
220
225
200
200
180
Degrees Centigrade
175
155
150
130
125
105
100
Class A
Class B
Class F
Class H
Class N
Class R

Insulation resistance test (a)

Insulation current test (b)
Power factor (c)
DC voltage withstand (d)
AC voltage with-stand (e)
10

Method (e) is primarily used in factory tests

Method (d) is primarily used as commissioning test
Practically all routine field tests are made using
nondestructive methods (a), (b) and (c)
Methods (a) and (c) must also be used as
commissioning test
No single test method can be relied upon for
indicating all conditions of weakened insulation
11

Reading corrected to 20oC

Insulation resistance varies inversely with temperature for

most insulting materials
To properly compare periodic measurements of insulation
resistance, it is necessary either to take each measurement
at the same temperature, or to convert each measurement to
the same base temperature i.e. 200C
Polarisation Index is the ratio of the IR reading after 10
minutes to the IR reading after 1minute
PI is used as an index of dryness
Discharge the winding after a Polarisation Index Test for
sufficient time before handling or performing other tests
12

Polarization Index
Interpretation of Polarization Index (PI) Measurements
PI Value
> 4.0
4.0 2.0
2.0 1.5
1.5 1.0
< 1.0
Interpretation
Healthy
OK
Marginal Pass
Deteriorated condition
Failure
13
14
Insulation Resistance Test
15

Volume Current
Tester
Surface leakage
current
16

Dielectric
Absorption
Current
Capacitive
Current
Conduction
Current
Total
current
Time
17
18
Guard Connections
19
3 Terminal Insulation Resistance Tester
20
10
Spot Any Difference? Why?
21
Inaccuracies can occur during IR measurement

due to the following

Effect of Previous Charge

Effect of Temperature
Effect of Moisture
Effect of Age and Curing
22
11
Test procedures
Hot resistance test - at least 4 hours after shutdown from full-load

operation, or until temperature is stabilized:

Disconnect the equipment to be tested from other equipment

Ground the winding to be tested for at least 10 minutes
Remove the ground connection and connect the insulation
resistance tester
Take readings at 1 -minute and at 10 minutes
Record the temperature of equipment being tested
Ground the winding again for at least 10 minutes
Cold resistance test - Four to eight hours after the hot resistance test or
when equipment has cooled to approximately ambient temperature
Use same procedure as outlined for the hot resistance test
23
Spot Reading
24
12
Temperature Correction

Dry type insulation 40C ambient

Liquid type insulation 20C ambient
Insulating materials have negative resistance
characteristics
Spot test reading must be corrected to a base
temperature
25
Conversion Factors For Converting

Insulation Resistance Test Temperature to 20 C
Temperature
Multiplier
Apparatus
Containing Solid
Insulations
Apparatus
Containing Immersed
Oil Insulations
32
0.25
0.40
41
0.36
0.45
10
50
0.50
0.50
15
59
0.75
0.75
20
68
1.00
1.00
25
77
1.40
1.30
30
86
1.98
1.60
35
95
2.80
2.05
40
104
3.95
2.50
45
113
5.60
3.25
50
122
7.85
4.00
55
131
11.20
5.20
60
140
15.85
6.40
65
149
22.40
8.70
70
158
31.75
10.00
75
167
44.70
13.00
80
176
63.50
16.00
26
13
27
Polarization Index
Polarization index = R10/R1 = I1/I10

(keeping voltage constant)
where:
R10 = megohms insulation resistance at 10 minutes
R1 = megohms insulation resistanceI at 1 minute
I1 = insulation current at 1 minute
I10 = insulation current at 10 minutes
28
14
Polarization Index
29
Interpretation
INSULATION
CONDITION
60/30 SECOND RATIO

Dielectric Absorption Ratio
10/1 MINUTE RATIO

Polarization Index
Dangerous
Less than 1
Less than 1
Poor
Less than 1.1
Less than 1.5
Questionable
1.1 to 1.25
1.5 to 2
Fair
1.25 to 1.4
2 to 3
Good
1.4 to 1.6
3 to 4
Excellent
Above 1.6
Above 4
30
15
Step Voltage Test
31
Step Voltage Test
32
16

PI & DLF
PI
If a PI falls by 30% or more from the previous value then remedial
action such as cleaning, oil-filtering or further investigation should
be considered.
Tan Delta
If the IFT and oil moisture content exceed their respective limits
then Tan Delta test is recommended. This is a good complement to
PI test and as remedial action drying is usually performed.
Field test results must be corrected to 20o C before comparison.
33
Tan Delta (DLF) test
In on site tan delta measurement there are two modes namely Grounded
Specimen Test (GST) and Ungrounded Specimen Test (UST). During GST
mode, the dielectric loss of insulation between one of the windings to
ground will be measured depending on the winding that is being excited.
Under UST mode, dielectric loss of insulation between the two windings
will be measured irrespective of the winding being excited.
The ratio obtained from the field test should agree with nameplate
value within 0.2% for the insulation system between the high
voltage and low voltage winding at all taps. Otherwise, winding
repair is recommended.
The ratio obtained from the field test should be within the limit of
0.5% for the insulation system between the high voltage winding
and ground. Otherwise, winding repair is recommended.
34
17
Power Factor Test
Power Factor = cos = ir / it

900 =
Dissipation Factor = tan = ir / ic
35
Power Factor Test

For small , Cos (90 ) = tan
tan = ir / ic
ic = CV
ir = CV tan
Power loss (dielectric loss) = V ir = CV2 tan watt
Dielectric loss is dependent on voltage and frequency
Variation of tan with voltage is an important diagnostic method

and will be part of this course
36
18
Power Factor Test

Power factor or dissipation factor is a measure of insulation

dielectric power loss
Not a direct measure of dielectric strength
Power-factor values are independent of insulation area or
thickness
Increase in dielectric loss may accelerate insulation
deterioration because of the increased heating
Insulation power factor increases directly with temperature
Temperature corrections to a base temperature must be
made, usually to 20 degree C
37
Power Factor Test

Windings not at test potential should be grounded

Refer to IEEE Standard No. 262, 1973
Test sets consist of a completely shielded, high-voltage,
50-Hz power supply which applies up to 10 kV to the
equipment being tested
Much simpler and less expensive tester is also available
which applies about 80 volts to the equipment being
tested but not sufficiently shielded against induced
voltages
38
19
39
Power Factor Test Set up
40
20
Temperature
correction factors for the power factor

of power transformer windings
From IEEE Standard No. 262, 1973
where:
FP20 = power factor corrected to 20 degree C
FPT = power factor measured at T degree C
T = test temperature
K = correction factor from table
41
Temperature correction factors for the power factor

of power transformer windings
42
21
Power Factor of Some Common Materials

Material
Power Factor approx.)
Bakelite
2 - 10%
Vulcanized Fibre
5%
Varnished Cambric
6 - 8%
Mica
2%
Polyethylene
0.03%
New Insulating Oil
0.01-0.2%
43
Insulation Current Test

High Voltage DC/AC Test

The voltage is slowly raised in discrete steps, allowing

the leakage current to stabilize for a predetermined time
A plot of the leakage current as a function of test voltage
yields information on the condition of the insulation
If the curve is a straight line, it indicates good condition
of the cable
If the current begins to increase at a rapid rate, indicates
degradation / defects in the cable insulation
After the completion of the test, the cable under test is
grounded for sufficient time to discharge the voltage
build up due to effects of absorption currents
44
22
45
Insulation Current Test

HVDC
120
100
Indicates
Concern
80
Healthy
A
60
40
20
20
40
60
80
100
Applied Voltage (% of Maximum Voltage)
46
23
47
HIGH-VOLTAGE, DC/AC TESTS

Very little supply power is required to operate the DC

test set
The DC test set is portable and smaller than an ac, highvoltage tester
Disconnect the buswork from the unit
The dc breakdown voltage may range from 1.41 times
the rms ac breakdown voltage to 2.5 times the rms ac
puncture voltage
Cases have indicated that on winding insulation with
some deterioration, the application of overpotential tests
may cause further deterioration, even though the
insulation may not puncture
48
24
Test Procedure

The machine winding should be grounded for at least 1

hour before conducting the test
The phases should be separated and tested individually
Lightning arresters and capacitors must be disconnected
Cables and/or buswork should be disconnected if it is
convenient to do so
If the separation of phases is difficult then separation is
needed once for the benchmark tests, and thereafter the
phases may be tested together until deviation from normal
is detected
49
Test procedure

The voltage should be raised abruptly to the first voltage

level with the start of timing for the test.
The ratio of the 1-minute to the l0-minute reading of
insulation current will afford useful indication of
polarization index
This gives the test engineer an idea of insulation dryness
early in the test
The test schedules are arranged to include a minimum of
three points up to and including the maximum voltage
50
25
Test procedure

If the insulation microampere versus voltage plots are

straight lines, the test may be continued to the maximum
test voltages
The quality of the insulation may be judged by the
position of any curvature or knee in the plot of insulation
current versus test voltage
If curvature or knee appears, the test should be stopped
Upon completion of the dc, high- voltage test, the
winding should be discharged through the special
discharge resistor usually provided with the test set
The winding may be solidly grounded when the voltage
has dropped to zero or after a few minutes of discharge
have occurred
A winding should remain solidly grounded long enough
before restoring the machine to service
51
HIGH-VOLTAGE, DC TESTS - RAMPED VOLTAGE METHOD

The ramped technique of insulation testing uses a

programmable dc, high-voltage test set and
automatically ramps the high voltage at a preselected
rate (usually 1 kV/min)
Insulation current versus applied voltage is plotted on an

x-y recorder providing continuous observation and
analysis of insulation current response as the test
progresses
The principal advantages of the ramp test over the

conventional step method is the elimination of the human
factor which makes it much more accurate and
repeatable
52
26
Destructive go/no go tests

High Voltage DC/AC

Less capable of revealing voids or cavities left inside the

accessories
Useful in detecting the defects related to contamination
along the interface between the different components of
the insulation system
Voltage applied is usually three to four times the nominal
phase-to earth voltage for 15 minutes or more
This is destructive test
53

Turns Ratio test
This test only needs to be performed if a problem is suspected

from the DGA.
It indicates shorted turns.
Shorted turns may result from short circuits or dielectric

(insulation) failures.
The ratio obtained from the field test should agree with the factory
within 0.5%. Otherwise winding repair is recommended.
54
27

Turns Ratio test
55

Turns Ratio test
56
28

Winding Resistance test
This test only needs to be performed if there is a high rate of generation

of ethylene and ethane.
Turns ratio test give indications that winding resistance testing is

warranted.
Resistances measured in the field can be compared to the original

factory measurements or to sister transformers.
Agreement within 5% for any of the above comparisons is considered

satisfactory.
If winding resistances are to be compared to factory values, resistances

measurements will have to be converted to the reference temperature
used at the factory.
57

Since the winding resistance changes with temperature, the winding and oil
temperatures must be recorded at the time of measurement and all test
readings must be converted to common temperature to give meaningful results.
Most factory test data are converted to 75C which has become the most
commonly used temperature.
Rs
Rm
Ts
Tm
Tk
=
=
=
=
Resistance at the factory reference temperature (found in the transformer

manual)
Resistance you actually measured
Factory reference temperature (usually 75 C)
Temperature at which you took the measurements
A constant for the particular metal the winding is made from:
234.5 C for copper
225 C for aluminum
58
29

Four terminal testing set up
C1
P1
P2
C2
Measured Resistance (R) = V/I
59
30

of Transformers
ARSEPE 2008

Technical Expert
1
Transformer Advanced Off-Line

Diagnostic Testing
Advanced Diagnostic Testing

Most of the techniques, whether chemical or electrical

methods, or destructive or non-destructive methods, only
provide partial information about the state of the
insulation condition of power transformers.
More advanced condition monitoring or condition
assessment techniques have been developed and are
now starting to come into more general use.
They have been developed in response to the need for
new materials assessment methods.
However, in some advanced diagnotics tools are still in
the developmental stage, either in the technical
development or, more likely, in the methods of analysis
and interpretation of the test data.
3


Polarization and Depolarization Current Measurement (PDC)
Frequency Domain Dielectric Spectroscopy (FDS)
Frequency Response Analysis (FRA)
Partial Discharge (PD) Measurement
RVM, PDC & FDS are based on the used of the dielectric
response of insulating materials to the application of electric
fields Conductivity, Polarization & Dielectric Response

When a dielectric material with polar molecular structure is

subjected to a DC voltage, the electric dipoles are oriented within
the material in response to the applied electric field.
There is thus a polarization charge induced by the dipole
movement and realignment and this will effectively give a voltage
across the capacitance. When the dielectric is short circuited, the
stored charge in the dielectric capacitance is dissipated by a
current discharge with a time constant determined by the
effective intrinsic resistance and capacitance.
During the short circuit the voltage across the dielectric is zero,
but when the short circuit is removed before total charge to
equilibrium occurs, then a voltage will appear across the
dielectric. This measured voltage is known as the recovery
voltage.
5


Recovery Voltage Measurement (RVM) - TETTEX 5461

Polarization & Depolarization Current (PDC)
A dielectric material becomes polarized when exposed to an electric field.

Polarization is proportional to the intensity of the electric field and by
measuring the current, polarization process can be observed. The current
density is the sum of the conduction current and the displacement current.
When the insulating material is exposed to a step voltage, polarization
current is obtained. If the step voltage is removed, a reverse polarity current
known as depolarization current is obtained. These two currents can be
used to determine the response function and the conductivity of the
dielectric material.
The PDC is a DC testing method which determining the polarization
spectrum in time constant domain between 10e-3 10e3 seconds in which
the interface polarization phenomena of long time constant are active. The
range of polarization is strongly influenced by the absorbed moisture and
the deterioration by product content of the paper insulation. It applies a
500V step of DC voltage to the high or low voltage winding insulations of
transformers. Time of voltage application is typically up to 10000 seconds.
Both the polarization and depolarization times are performed for the same
period of time.

The polarization current pulse has a peak magnitude, a final

steady state level and a time constant and duration that are
determined by the quality of the oil including both the moisture
level and the electrical conductivity. In genera the electrical
conductivity affects the peak current in the first 100 seconds or
so of the current pulse. The moisture in the insulation affects the
longer term polarization current level after about 1000 seconds.
[Figure 8.6]
Polarization and depolarization current measurement method
gives general information about the state of insulation condition.
This technique is proved to be a useful testing method in
predicting of moisture and development of ageing phenomena.

Effect of moisture in oil and cellulose paper on the polarization

depolarization current measurement
10

Frequency Dielectric Spectroscopy Measurement (FDS)
In the FDS technique, a known sinusoidal voltage is applied and

measured together with the current passing across the insulation
material.
The measurement is repeated for several frequency sweeps from high frequency to low frequency for minimizing the memory
effects.
Advantage - the complete diagnostic on the property change in

the material can be discerned
By dividing the current by the voltage and comparing the phase

difference, both the capacitance and the loss at the particular
frequency and amplitude can be calculated.
11

The advantage of an analysis of the dissipation factor frequency

as compare at fixed frequency:

Behaviour of insulation caused by moisture affects can be evaluated.

At higher frequencies the pressboard and the oil volume determine
the dielectric loss, at medium frequencies the oil conductivity is the
dominant factor and the lower frequency range is dominated by the
pressboard dielectric loss.
12

Example on how moisture affects the dissipation factor of kraft

paper at 20C
13

Measurement results of the insulation between primary and

secondary to tertiary windings on a power transformer.
14

PROGRAMMA IDA 200
15
Frequency Response Analysis
How do you know whether you can energize A

TRANSFORMER after transportation to site or
after a protection trip?
Check Mechanical Integrity
16

When does Mechanical Integrity matter?

Re-location
Short Circuit
Lightning
Tap-changer fault
Transportation damage can occur if the clamping and

restraints are inadequate; such damage may lead to core
and winding movement.
Radial buckling or axial deformation may occur due to
excessive short circuit forces while in service.
17

What you can identify by checking mechanical integrity?

Core Movement
Winding Deformation
Faulty Core Grounds
Partial Winding Collapse
Hoop Buckling
Broken or Loosened Clamping Structures
Shorted Turns and Open Windings
18
What Test can be Done?

Frequency response analysis (FRA) using a
low voltage AC wave of varying frequency to
identify changes in natural resonance
19
Why FRA?
FRA Technique: The technique covers the full dynamic range and
maintains the same energy level for each frequency, providing results
that are repeatable and accurate.
Impulse Technique: This technique requires high sampling rates and

high resolution to obtain a valid measurement. The applied impulse does
not produce constant energy across the specified frequency, which can
cause poor repeatability that is influenced by the non-linear properties of
the test specimen.
20
10

What is FRA ?
FRA is a tool that can give an indication of core or winding

movement in transformers.
This is done by performing a measurement to look at how well

a transformer winding transmits a low voltage signal that varies
in frequency.
Transformer does this in relation to its impedance, the

capacitive and inductive elements which are intimately related
to the physical construction of the transformer.
Changes in frequency response as measured by FRA

techniques may indicate a physical change inside the
transformer, the cause of which then needs to be identified and
investigated.
21
22
11
23

Test Equipment
24
12
25
26
13
27

What is the frequency range?
The measured frequency range is normally very large,

which can be from 5Hz up to 10MHz
This frequency range covers the most important

diagnostic areas:
Core and Magnetic Properties
Winding Movement and Deformation
Interconnections-Leads and Load Tap Changer
28
14
29

The magnitude and the angle of the complex transfer function

can be obtained using a network-analyzer
The resulting amplitude of the measurement can be expressed

as,
H (dB) = 20 log10 [(ZS)/(ZS+ZT)]
The resulting phase is defined by

H () = tan-1 [(ZS)/(ZS+ZT)]
30
15
31
32
16

What are the ANALYZING TECHNIQUES?

Signature
Difference
Transfer Function
Statistical
FRA Signatures are analyzed based on 3 band

methods
33
What do the 3 Bands mean?

5Hz up to 10KHz defect in core and magnetic

circuit
10KHz up to 600KHz deformation in winding
geometry
600KHz up to 10MHz abnormalities in the
inter-connection and test
system
34
17

SIGNATURE TECHNIQUE
35

SIGNATURE TECHNIQUE
36
18

SIGNATURE TECHNIQUE
37

DIFFERENCE TECHNIQUE
(Phase A before)
38
19

(Phase A after)
39

This technique can analyze the windings phase by phase, which is not
possible in the signature technique
40
20
Historical data or Baseline Reference are, undoubtedly,

the best reference to be used for FRA analysis
However, it is not practically easy to get historical data due

to constraints of outages
Criteria to choose reference FRA measurements in the

absence of historical data or baseline reference
41
CATEGORY
KV RATIO
MVA
RATING
MANUFACTURER
S/S
LOCATION
Twin
Same
Same
Same
Same
Sister
Same
Same
Same
Different
Peer
Same
Same
Different
Different
42
21
Partial Discharge

What is PD Electric discharge that do not completely

bridge the electrodes
Discharge magnitude is usually small but can cause
progressive deterioration and lead to failure

Overeating of dielectric boundary

Charges trapped in the surface
Attack by ultraviolet rays & soft X-rays
Formation of chemicals such as nitric acid & ozone
Therefore presence of PD need to be detected in a

non-destructive test
43
Partial Discharge
PD Classification
44
22
Partial Discharge
PD Classification
45
Partial Discharge
Occurrence of PD Inception Voltage
46
23
Partial Discharge
Occurrence of PD Inception Voltage
47
Partial Discharge

Occurrence & Recognition

Detection
Measurement
Location
Evaluation
48
24
Partial Discharge
Evaluation

Amplitude in dB
Energy or charge in pC
Duration in ms
49
Partial Discharge
On-line acoustic PD Detection - Physical Acoustic DISP-24
50
25
Why SFRA in a factory environment?

Quality
assurance
Baseline reference
Relocation and commissioning preparation
Manufacturers are using SFRA as part of their quality program to ensure

transformer production is identical between units in a batch
51

Why SFRA in a field environment?
Relocation and commissioning validation

Post incident: lightning, fault, short circuit, seismic event
etc
Once a transformer arrives on site after relocation it must be tested
immediately, to gain confidence in the mechanical integrity of the
unit prior to commissioning
52
26

Frequency Response Analysis is a very effective tool for

diagnosing transformer mechanical integrity both in the
factory and in the field,
which cannot always be detected using other means
The best way to obtain baseline reference results is,
undoubtedly, on completion of the manufacturing
process at the factory
However, in the absence of baseline reference the
proposed criterion of twin, sister, and peer transformers
can be used as references with reasonable degree of
accuracy
53
Transformer Maintenance (Dry Type)

Electrical Tests
Perform insulation-resistance tests winding-to-winding

and each winding-to-ground
Perform turns ratio tests at the designated tap position
Perform power-factor or dissipation-factor tests
Measure the resistance of each winding at the

designated tap position
Measure core insulation-resistance at 500 volts dc if
core is insulated
54
27
Insulator Maintenance

Inspection - look for cracks, dirt etc., tracking, copper wash,

mechanical damage
Cleaning - Wash, dry wipe
Repairs - Usually replace except special cases
Testing - Megger & Power Factor test
Do not climb on or use for personal support!
55
Transformer Maintenance (Liquid filled)

Visual inspection
Inspect physical condition for evidence of moisture and corona
Verify operation of cooling fans
Verify operation of temperature and level indicators, pressure

relief device, and gas relay
Verify correct liquid level in all tanks and bushings
Verify correct equipment grounding
Verify the presence of transformer surge arresters
Test load tap-changer
Inspect all bolted electrical connections for high resistance using

one of the following methods:
1.
Use of low-resistance ohmmeter
2.
Perform thermographic survey
56
28
Transformer Maintenance (Liquid filled)

Electrical Tests
Perform turns ratio tests at all tap positions
Perform power-factor or dissipation-factor tests
Measure the resistance of each winding at all tap positions
Perform insulation-resistance tests winding-to-winding and each

winding-to-ground
If core ground strap is accessible, measure core insulation

resistance at 500 volts dc
Remove a sample of insulating liquid in accordance with ASTM

D923
Test for Oil Quality, DGA and Furan

57
Conclusion
Diagnostic Testing provides a powerful tool for the
complete and economic assessment of the transformer
condition
There is nevertheless still a lack on how to integrate the
information obtained by the on-line monitoring into the
actions taken onto the service of the transformer
The supplementary information obtained by the off-line
diagnostic after the detection of an abnormal condition is a
worth-full information to be integrated into future on-line
monitoring systems
58
29

of Transformers
ARSEPE 2008

Technical Expert
1
Test Results
Interpretation
1. Scoring
Scoring can be applied to test results to indicate

acceptable condition level of transformers.
Transformer condition indicator scoring is somewhat
subjective, relying on transformer condition experts.
Relative terms are used and compared to industry
accepted levels; or to baseline or previous
(acceptable) levels on this transformer; or to
transformers of similar design, construction, or age
operating in a similar environment.
2. Weighting Factors
Weighting factors is used to recognize that some

condition indicators, affects the Condition Index to a
greater or lesser degree than other indicators.
These weighting factors were arrived at by
consensus
among
transformer
design
and
maintenance personnel with extensive experience.
3. Mitigating Factors
Every transformer is unique and, therefore cannot

quantify all factors that affect individual transformer
condition.
It is important that the Transformer Condition Index
arrived at be scrutinized by experts.
Mitigating factors specific to the utility may determine
the final Transformer Condition Index and the final
decision
on
transformer
replacement
or
rehabilitation.
5
1. Tan Delta for Main Tank

This test is done on the transformer at regular interval under normal condition. This test results
are considered for condition assessment of an in-service transformer.
Results
Score
Action
%tan < 2
Normal. The monitoring frequency of

24 months can be maintained.
2 <% tan < 4
The monitoring frequency should be

revised to 6 months.
4 <% tan < 5

revised to 3 months. Make arrangement
for advanced electrical tests tests.
% tan > 5
Perform appropriate advanced

electrical tests tests as recommended
by the expert or internal inspection of
main tank immediately.
6
2. Turns-Ratio Test
This test is done on transformer at regular interval of 24 months under normal condition. This
test results are considered for condition assessment of an in-service transformer.
Results
Score
Action
% deviation < 0.2
Normal. The monitoring frequency of

0.2 <% deviation < 0.3

0.3 <% deviation < 0.5

revised to 3 months. Make
arrangement for advanced electrical
tests tests.
% deviation >0.5
Perform appropriate advanced

electrical tests tests as recommended
by the expert or internal inspection of
main tank and OLTC tank
immediately.
7
3. Winding Resistance Test

This test is done on transformer at regular interval of 24 months under normal condition. This
Results
Score
Action
No more than 5% difference

between phases or from
factory tests
Normal. The monitoring

frequency of 24 months can
be maintained.
5 to 7% difference between
phases or from factory tests
The monitoring frequency

should be revised to 6
months.
7 to 10% difference between

phases or from factory tests
The monitoring frequency

should be revised to 3
months. Make arrangement
for advanced electrical tests
tests.
More than 10% difference

between phases or from
factory tests
Perform appropriate
advanced electrical tests tests
as recommended by the
expert or internal inspection
of main tank immediately.
4. Main Winding Insulation

Resistance Test
This test is done on transformer tail at regular interval of 24 months under normal condition. This
Results
Score
Action
PI value 3.0
Normal. The monitoring periodicity of 24

months can be maintained.
1.0< PI value < 3.0
The monitoring periodicity should be revised

to 6 months.
1.0< PI value < 1.5
The monitoring periodicity should be revised

to 3 months. Make arrangement for
advanced electrical tests tests.
PI value < 1.0
Perform appropriate advanced electrical tests

tests as recommended by the expert or
internal inspection of main tank
immediately.
9
5(i). Oil Quality Test

No
Criteria
Weightage
Moisture
0.3
BDV
0.1
Acidity
0.4
Power factor
0.2
10
5(ii).
Oil Quality Test
Moisture
(ppm)
BDV
(kV)
Acidity
IFT
Condition Indicator
Score
0-10
>56
<0.01
< 0.010
10
11-15
51-55
0.02-0.04
0.01 0.03
16-20
46-50
0.05-0.06
0.031 0.05
21-25
41-45
0.07-0.09
0.051 0.07
26-30
36-40
0.1-0.12
0.071 0.09
31-35
30-35
0.13-0.16
0.091 0.1
36-40
25-29
0.17-0.20
0.11 0.2
41-45
20-24
0.21-0.24
0.21 0.3
46-50
15-19
0.25-0.3
0.31 0.5
>50
<15
>0.31
> 0.5
1
11
6. Fault Gases Limit

Status
H2
C2H2
C2H4
C2H6
CH4
CO
TDCG
Condition 1
100
35
50
65
120
350
720
66 100
121 400
351 570
721 1915
Condition 2
101
700
36 - 45 51 - 100
Condition 3
701
1420
46 - 80
101 150
101 150
401 800
571 1400
1916 4000
Condition 4
> 1420
> 80
> 150
> 150
> 800
> 1400
> 4000
12
7. Key Gases Analysis

Individual fault gases exceed
limit
Per unit exceeded
Condition
Indicator Score
Condition 1
10
Condition 2
<2
3-4
5-6
Condition 3
Condition 4
<2
3-4
5-6
<2
3-4
5-6
1
13
8. Furanic Analysis
Furanic
Estimated DP
Condition Indicator Score
0-200
646-1300
10
201-400
560-645
401-600
510-559
601-800
475-509
801-1000
447-474
1001-1200
424-446
1201-1400
405-423
1401-1600
388-404
1601-1800
374-387
>1800
<373
14
9. Oil Quality, Key Gases & Furan

Analysis Score
This test is done on transformer at regular interval under normal condition. This test results are
considered for condition assessment of an in-service transformer.
Score
Action
7.5 Overall ranking 10
Results
Normal. The monitoring periodicity of

4.0 Overall ranking 7.5
The monitoring periodicity should be

1.5 Overall ranking 4.0
The monitoring periodicity should be

revised to 3 months. Make
arrangement for advanced electrical
tests.
Overall ranking 1.5
Seek immediate advice from the expert

to perform advanced electrical test or
internal inspection
15
10. FRA
Results
Score
Adjustment
Action
No deviation
Comparison between phases (using Crosscorrelation Index, CCI):
CCI at low freq zone >2.0
CCI at mid freq zone > 1.0
CCI at high freq zone > 0.6
Subtract 0
The monitoring periodicity of all basic

electrical tests tests should be maintained at 6
months. Practice FRA test if necessary.
Minor deviation
Comparison between phases (using Crosscorrelation Index):
1.0<CCI at low freq zone <2.0
0.6<CCI at mid freq zone < 1.0
Subtract 0.5
Retest the transformer for FRA after 6

months. The monitoring periodicity of all
basic electrical tests tests should be
maintained at 6 months.
Moderate deviation
0.6<CCI at low freq zone <1.0
CCI at mid freq zone < 0.6
Subtract 1.0
Retest the transformer for FRA after 3

months. Arrange for replacement of defective
section(s).
Significant deviation
CCI at low freq zone <0.6
Subtract 1.5
Indicates serious problem requiring immediate

evaluation, additional testing (if applicable)
and immediate consultation with experts
16
11. FDS
Score
Adjustment
Action
Subtract 0
The monitoring periodicity of all basic

electrical tests tests should be
maintained at 6 months. Practice FDS
test if necessary.
1.5 < % moisture in paper < 2
Subtract 0.5
Retest the transformer for FDS after 6

months. The monitoring periodicity of
all basic electrical tests tests should be
maintained at 6 months.
2 < % moisture in paper < 4
Subtract 1.0
Retest the transformer for FDS after 3

months. Arrange for replacement of
defective section(s).
% moisture in paper > 4
Subtract 1.5
Indicates serious problem requiring

immediate evaluation, additional
testing (if applicable) and immediate
consultation with experts
Results
% moisture in paper < 1.5
17
12. PD
Results*
Score
Adjustment
Action
Amplitude 40-60 dB
Energy 1-200
Duration 100 ms-2000 ms
Subtract 0
The monitoring periodicity of all

basic electrical tests tests should be
maintained at 6 months. Practice PD
test if necessary.
Amplitude 60-70 dB
Energy 200-300
Subtract 0.5
Retest the transformer for PD after 6

months. The monitoring periodicity
of all basic electrical tests tests should
be maintained at 6 months.
Amplitude 70-80 dB
Energy 200-400
Subtract 1.0
Retest the transformer for PD after 3

months. Arrange for replacement of
defective section(s).
Amplitude 80-90 dB
Energy 400-500
Subtract 1.5
Indicates serious problem requiring

immediate evaluation, additional
testing and immediate consultation
with expert. Recommendation is to
remove the transformer from service
immediately.
18
19
10

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Diagnostic Techniques for

Young Zaidey bin Yang Ghazali

Electrical distribution equipment is generally

Equipment life is dependent on operating

Beyond this service life period they are not expected

Generally due to poor quality of raw material,

The concept of simple replacement of failed power

Explore new approaches/techniques of monitoring,

Asset Management Mechanism

Balancing cost, risk,

T&D ASSET MANAGEMENT

With the increasing age of the population of power

Different types of maintenance being done on

Today the paradigm has changed from traditional

This has led to the development of various on- and

Why Condition Based?

Ageing asset population

Define current condition and use this to estimate future

Uses a well developed methodology (with practical

Why condition based?

Ageing asset population

Pressures to maintain/improve performance and to

Age (by itself) is not an acceptable reason to replace

Must demonstrate need and consequences, condition

Cannot make good Asset Management decisions

Condition Based Management

Define asset condition (Health Index)

Defining condition and future performance

Need understanding of:

Everything is related back to physical condition and

A health index is:

A consistent and logical means of combining

Health Index Mechanism

Health Index - Ranking

Remnant Life (years)

At EOL (<5 years)

Serious deterioration significant

Significant deterioration small

Measurable deterioration but no

Probability of failure (Pf)

Information to derive a condition based

Actual condition information

Other non condition based risk factors can be

Condition based health index

Means of determining probability of failure

Phase 1 - Condition and Probability of

Diagnostic Techniques for

Young Zaidey bin Yang Ghazali

Transformer Design & Construction

Transformer Design & Construction

Transformer Design & Construction

Transformer Design & Construction

Transformer Design & Construction

Grain Oriented Electrical Steel

Are designed to meet three fundamental requirement :

The interlayer insulation are of high quality epoxy

CORE & WINDING ASSEMBLY

Arrangement of windings with respect to the core :

For tapping lead connection normally use stranded copper or

Bushing Lead :1. HV - stranded copper

It is hermetically sealed type and full fill with insulation liquid.

Both HV & LV is open bushing termination.