ORGANISATIONS.

INTRODUCTION.
There are many forms and types of organisations. Some are large, others small:
some have a very complex structure, other a quite simple one. Some are directed
towards producing products, other towards producing services and others
towards a combination of those.
There are many ways to characterise organisations. But a single characteristic
approach is rather fruitless. More promising, is looking to organisations as
patterns or configurations of characteristics.
In my approach toward organisations, I shall use the ideas developed by
Mintzberg and Miller.
I successively shall dwell upon the following subject matters:
- the elements and members of the organisation;
- the essence of an organisation structure;
- structure and context;
- fundamental forms of organisation.
ELEMENTS AND MEMBERS.
Elements.
There are six elements:
1. At the basis of each organisation, we find workers: the people who are
performing the fundamental work of producing goods and, or services. They are
the operational nucleus
2. All organisations have at least one full time manager in the strategic apex
from which the total system is overseen.
3.As the organisation grows, there is a need for more managers, not only
managers of workers but also managers of managers. There is created a middle
line a hierarchy of authority between the operational nucleus and the strategic
apex.
4.When an organisation becomes even more complex, a new category of people
usually is needed: the analysts. They perform an administrative task: formally
they plan and administrate the work of others, but their work is a different
nature: it is often called staff work. These analysts are called technostructure and
are placed outside the hierarchy. The staff is only indirectly influencing what is
done in the hierarchy.
5. Most organisations add another kind of staff units to this: the supporting staf:
cantina, post department, juridical unit or pr-staff. This supporting staff is also
influencing the work to be done indirectly.
6. Ideology: the traditions, beliefs of an organisation that make a difference
between the organisation and other organisations. It gives life to the skeleton of
the structure.
Figure 1
Members.
Two kinds of people are relevant: people inside the organisation and those
outside;

1. The people who work in the organisation to take decisions and take action
can be considered as influencers who form a kind of internal coalition. By
this is meant a system in which the people compete with each other to
establish the division of power.
2. There are also people outside the organisation who try to exercise
influence on it. Those external influences form a field of forces around the
organisation: owners, unions, other organisations of employees, suppliers,
partners, competitors, the government, the public, clients etc. Together,
they are considered as external coalition. Sometimes the external coalition
is passive. At other moments, one active influencer or a jointly operating
group of influencers dominates it. In other cases, the coalition is divided
when different groups want to exercise contrary pressure on the
organisation. (e.g. a prison in which one group acts in favour of
imprisonment and the other for resocialisation).
Figure 2.
ESSENCE OF ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE.
1.General.
Every organised human activity raises two fundamentally different and contrary
requirements:
- the division of labour in different performing activities;
- the co-ordination of the activities to reach the objectives.
- the structure of an organisation can be described as:
the total of the ways in which labour is divided in
separate activities;
and
the degree of co-ordination between those activities.
2. Co-ordination mechanisms.
There are 6 fundamental co-ordination mechanisms:
Figure 3.
1. Mutual Adaptation: the simple process of informal communication
establishes co-ordination.
2. Direct Supervision: Co-ordination is reached because one person orders or
gives directions to
many persons who work in one or the other way
together; (a chief tells his subordinates what should happen step by step)
3. Standardisation of Activities: co-ordination is established by specifying the
activities of people who work in one or the other way together (such norms
are usually developed by the technostructure on behalf of the operational
nucleus, like working instructions stemming from time and movement
analyses on grass roots level);
4. Standardisation of Results: specifying the results of the different activities
(again developed in the thechostructure , like a financial plan in which the
objectives to be reached by subordinates units are determined, or
specifications of the dimensions of a product);

5. Standardisation of Skills and, or Knowledge: Different activities are coordinated by means of the related education and training of the performers
(like medical specialists, like the surgeon and anaesthetist in an operation
theatre who automatically interact to each others standardised
procedures);
6. Standardisation of Norms: the norms that regulate the work, are
controlled: in general these norms rule the whole organisation, so
everybody is functioning according to the same system of beliefs (some
religious sects)
There seems to be a rank order in these mechanisms. To the extend the work in
an organisation becomes more complex, the most favourite ways of co-ordination
seem to shift from mutual adaptation (the simplest mechanism) to direct
supervision, next to standardisation preferably of work processes and norms or
results - to return to mutual adaptation in the end. Paradox ally, mutual
adaptation is the best mechanism when faced with the most complex tasks.
There are organisations that used more than one co-ordination mechanism.
However, many organisations prefer one mechanism above the others at least in
some stages of their development. Organisations that dont have that preference
are prone to conflicts that arise when people are competing to fill up a vacuum of
power .One must keep in mind that little direct supervision can be an indication
of a weak system of authority, little standardisation indicates a weak ideology
etc.
There are parameters that are connected to the co-ordinating mechanisms. The
most important are:
- Job specialisation: the amount of tasks and the amount of control the
worker has over them>
There exist a difference between:
* Horizontal specialisation: a job contains a limited number of narrowly
defined tasks;
* Vertical specialisation: the worker has no control of the executed task.
- Formalisation of behaviour: standardisation of the work process by
imposing operation instructions, job descriptions, rules etc. Structures that
are based on one or the other form of standardisation are called
bureaucratic and other structures organic.
- Training:Formal programs of instruction to establish in people the requires
knowledge and skills to perform certain jobs in the organisation and to
standardise them.
- Indoctrination: programs and techniques by which the norms of members
of the organisation are standardised so that they meet the ideological
needs of the organisation and by this trusted with respect to decision
taking and acting.
- Grouping of units: Grouping promotes the co-ordination by placing jobs
with a different character under common supervision, by forcing them to
use common means, equipment and achievement standards and
facilitating mutual adaptation. There are two fundamental bases for
grouping:
the job: one link in the chain of processes by which
goods and services are produced;
the market: the whole chain with respect to specific
end products.
- Size of the unit: the number of positions (units) within one single unit. The
term span of control is not used here. Sometimes there are small units
without supervision doing organic work: sometime there are big units
consisting of many people, doing standardised work under one supervisor.

Planning and control systems are used to standardise results:

action planning systems define the results of specific
actions before they are performed;
achievement control systems specify the wanted
results of collections of actions (e.g. the sale of a whole
division has to increase 10%.
Liaison instruments: mechanisms that are used to promote the mutual
adjustment within and between units. They vary from liaison positions, via
task groups, integration of managers (interim manager) to matrix
structures.
Decentralisation is related to the spread of the power to decide. When all
power is concentrated in one position, we call that a centralised structure.
To the extend in which the power is spread over a large number of
individuals, we talk about a relatively decentralised structure.
vertical decentralisation: delegation of formal power to
the line managers on the lower levels in the hierarchy;
horizontal decentralisation: the extend to which formal
and informal power is transferred from the line
hierarchy to non-managers, like workers, analysts and
people working in the supporting staff.
Besides that a distinction can be made between:
selective decentralisation: the spread of power with
respect to different decisions over different positions in
the hierarchy;
parallel decentralisation: power over diverse sorts of
decision is placed on one place in the organisation.
Six forms of decentralisation can be distinguished:
+ vertical descentralisation in which all power is vested in the
strategic summit;
+ limited horizontal decentralisation (selective) in which the
strategic summit shares a little power with the techno
structure that standardises the work of all other collaborators;
+limited vertical decentralisation (parallel) in which power
over most decisions concerning their line units is delegated to
managers of units that are oriented to specific markets;
+ vertical and horizontal decentralisation in which most power
is vested in the executing nucleus at grass roots level;
+ selective vertical and horizontal decentralisation in which
the power over different decisions is spread over the diverse
positions in the organisation, over managers, staff officers,
workers, working together in teams on diverse hierarchical
levels;
+ pure decentralisation in which h the power more or less is
shared by all members of the organisation.

3. Structure and context.

Lifetime and size:
- The older an organisation, the more formalised is its behaviour; older
organisations use to repeat their behaviour, become more predictable by
this and more susceptible to formalisation.
- The bigger an organisation, the more formalised its behaviour: that means
the stronger the jobs and units are specialised and the stronger its
administrative elements are dev eloped

- The structure reflects the lifetime of a branch of industry.

Technical systems:
- The bigger the regulating by the technical system - the stronger it
controls the activities of the workers the more the executing activities of
the workers are formalised and the more bureaucratic the structure of the
executing nucleus. Technical systems promote routine and this in turn
promotes specialisation and formalisation that creates the conditions of
bureaucratisation of the working nucleus.
- The more complex the technical system, the more extended and
professional the supporting staf. High tech requires experts and the higher
the need, the more influence they will have and the more liaison
mechanisms they develop.
- Automation the work of the executing nucleus transforms a bureaucratic
structure into an organic one. When the bureaucratic routine work is
automated, the social relationships change. The regulation now refers to
machines, not to people. By that, the obsession for control use to
disappear and by that a big deal of the managers and analysts who were
needed to control Their job will be occupied by staff experts and this
deceases the tendency to use standardisation to coordinate.
The environment:
- The more dynamic the environment, the more organic the structure of an
organisation. When the environment becomes dynamic changes in
products are needed, the personnel turnover is high, political situation is
instable- the organisation cannot permit standardisation. It must stay
flexible b y coordination by direct supervision or mutual adjustment. That
means a more organic structure. (e.g. armies against a guerrilla war)
- The more complex the environment, the more decentralised the structure
of an organisation: not all information that is needed for making decisions,
can be assembled in the mind of one person.
- The bigger the diversity of markets that face the organisation, the bigger
the tendency to split up into divisions that are tuned to certain markets,
when they expect benefits of scaling up.
However if the executing nucleus cannot be divided, than splitting up can
appear impossible.
- Extreme hostility in the environment forces an organisation to centralise
its structure.
Power:
- The stronger the external control of an organisation, the more centralised
and formalised its structure. The two most effective ways to control an
organisation from outside are:
to make the top manager responsible for its actions;
to establish clear norms to comply with.
Furthermore, external control forces an organisation to special carefulness
in its actions.
- A divided external coalition causes a politicised internal coalition and vice
versa. Conflicts in one coalition spread to the other because one group of
influencers tries to get support from the other one.
- Fashion movements and hypes favour the structure and culture of the
moment, even if those are on subordinate importance. In the ideal case,
the design parameters are chosen in accordance with the requirement of
the lifetime, size, technical systems and environment. In reality, fashion
movements play a role that stimulates organisations to use the design
parameters that are popular at that moment.

4. Configurations.
Scheme:
Figure 4.
Combination of all the above-mentioned elements, leads to the following 6
configurations:
Main coordination
Essential element
Configuration mechanism
of the organisation
decentralisation

Type of

Entrepreneurial
direct
and horizontal
Organisation supervision

Vertical

Strategic
apex

centralisation

Machine
Standardisation Techno structure Limited horizontal
Organisation of work processes
decentralisation
Professional Standardisation Executing
decentralisation
Organisation of skills
nucleus

Horizontal

Diversified
Standardisation Level
Organisation of results
in between

Limited vertical
decentralisation

Innovative
Mutual
Selective decentralisation
Organisation adjustment

Support staf

Missionary
Standardisation Ideology
Decentralisation
Organisation of norms
Political
No
Organisation

No

Variable

Elaboration.
Figure 5.

The strategic apex exercises a pulling force directed to

leading. It controls decision taking and coordinated by
direct supervision. When an organisation admits to this
pulling force arises a centralised configuration that is
called entrepreneurial organisation.

Figure 6
The strategic apex finds him immediately above the
executing nucleus with little or no elements between
line managers and staff specialists.

The techno structure exercises a pulling force that is

directed to rationalising, in the ideal case by
standardisation of working processes, and it promotes
limited horizontal decentralisation by which itself gets
power) organisations that admit to this pulling power,
(generally by a all governing need to routine efficiency)
get a machine configuration with a fully elaborated line
and staff structure directed to controlling and
protecting the executing nucleus.

Trying to get autonomy, managers exercise pulling

force to balkanise the structure. To concentrate
power in their units by exclusively to themselves
directed and limited (and vertical) decentralisation.
When an organisation admits to this pulling force
(generally by splitting itself into units to serve the
diverse markets), and limits itself to control of the
results (by standardisation of results), arises the
diversified configuration.

Figure 7

Figure 8
In the headquarters there is a little staff that supports a
small
strategic apex that supervises a number of divisions
that show a machine configuration.

Members of the executing nucleus exercise a pulling

force that is directed to professionalisation to decrease
the influence that other people (colleagues as well as
line managers) exercise on their work.

Figure 9
Admitting to that creates the professional configuration.
We see complete horizontal and vertical
decentralisation of power to the executing nucleus.
Coordination is achieved by standardisation of
knowledge and skills. Techno structure and level
between apex and nucleus are small. But there are big
supporting staffs to assist the professional with much
prestige.

The supporting staff exercises a pulling force directed

to cooperation to get involved in the nuclear activities
of the organisation. An organisation that has a big need
to advanced innovation must admit to this force. Staff,
line and sometimes the grass roots level are joined to
multidisciplinary teams of experts in which internal and
external adjustment is achieved by mutual adjustment.

Figure 10
The organisation gets an innovative configuration in
which the dividing lines that characterise the
conventional organisation disappear. The diverse

elements melt into one single system of vertical and

horizontal decentralisation on a selective basis.

Ideology mainly exists in organisations of a different

type. Members are stimulated to act. Together, to think
and feel the same way. However, sometimes when
norms become the main coordinating mechanism, the
organisation gets a missionary configuration.

It is decentralisation in its purest form. Every member

is trusted to decide and act on behalf of the
organisation as a whole.

In some organisations conflicting forces pull members

from each other. When this situation dominates,
especially when no part of the organisation en no
coordination mechanism dominates, the organisation
gets a political configuration without a stable form of
centralisation or decentralisation.

Figure 11

Figure 12
The Entrepreneurial Organisation.
Structure:
simple, informal, flexible, small staff and hierarchy if any, minimal use
planning procedures or training programs.
- activities concentrated on the top manager who the organisation
personally controls by means of direct supervision, direct responsibility to
the boss, power is centralised on the boss.
Context:
- a survey able and dynamic environment;
- strong leadership, sometimes charismatic and authoritarian;
- in the beginning phase, in a crisis or a change of the organisation;
- small organisations, local enterprises.
Strategy:
- often a visionary process, in general purposive, but spontaneous and very
flexible as far as it concerns details, aggressively looking for chances, a
very personal vision of the boss reflecting his own personality;
- the boss takes care for a flexible attitude in less vulnerable niches of the
market. Certainly when clients, suppliers and other forces outside try to
exercise influence.
Advantages, Problems and dangers:
- preparing for the circumstances, a feeling of a mission; identification with
the mission, motivating charisma
but
- vulnerable and limited; too dependent on one person(he can die; no other
opinions are accepted); people dont feel committed because the boss
decides
- danger of lack of balance between strategy and execution; danger of being
committed to only strategy or execution.
8

The boss as the leading man in the organisation.

Entrepreneurship is closely related to the development of a strategic vision in
which often a new concept is designed. Strategies can be characterised as
deliberated because they are imbedded in the intentions of only one boss. But
because it mostly concerns personal strategies, details can get substance during
the development of strategies. In fact the strategy can change to. The leader can
learn by trial and error by which also new visions can arise, sometimes very fast.
In the entrepreneurial organisation, the leader is the central point. The
organisation is flexible and reacts to initiatives of the leader. The environment is
mainly favourable because the leader has chosen the right niche in the market.
Some times the environment will test the organisation. The leader must decide
adaptations and, or look for a new niche.
ENVIRONMENT <---------------- LEADER -------------------- ORGANISATION

MACHINE ORGANISATION.
Structure:
- centralised bureaucracy;
- very specialised routine work, very formalised communication in the whole
organisation, uniting tasks in a functional basis, a rather centralised
decision power, little freedom of action to the workers and their chiefs, by
that chiefs have a big span of control; Chiefs in the hierarchy have three
main tasks:
solve disturbances in the executing nucleus;
cooperation with staff analysts to introduce the norms
of the latter in the subordinated executing units;
support vertical activities: elaboration of action plans
that were sent downwards in the hierarchy and passing
feed back information upwards;
- techno structure is central, in charge of standardising of tasks but strictly
divided from the level in between, very developed; the staff analyst have a
big (informal) power
- a sharp division of: functional specialisation in the executing nucleus, a
sharp formal distinction between line and staff; a sharp distinction between
administrative structure and executing nucleus: managers seldom work
side by side with their workers;
- an extended supporting staff to reduce the amount of uncertainty; the
organisation produces as much as possible services within its own
structure in order to control this structure and act independently from the
environment;
- the strategic tops are the only generalists.
Context:
- a clearly structured and stable environment;
- a big and adult organisation;
9

rationalised work, a technical (but not automated) system oriented to

rationalisation;
external control tends to the instrumental form;
also closed system form possible;
in general, mass production or large scale service, government, enterprise
control and security have a high priority.

Strategy:
- planning is seemingly a process, but in reality strategic programming;
- resistance towards change, that has become necessary to lay upon it an
innovative configuration to revitalise, or to regress to an entrepreneurial
configuration to cause a revolution;
- changes happen by quantum leaps: long periods of stability, interrupted
by sometimes occurring strategic revolutions.
Advantages, problems and dangers:
- efficient, reliable, accurately working, consistent;
but
- obsession to control n order to ban all insecurity and to cut off the
executing nucleus from external influences, which leads to:
- human problems in the executing nucleus: by the high degree of
specialisation (efficiency) communication and coordination problems arise:
conflicts are not solved but encapsulated - that causes:
- coordination problems in the administrative centre maintaining the
structure and solving grass roots level conflicts, mostly by creating more
rules, that in turn cause:
- problems of adaptation in the strategic apex because the strategic apex is
directly solving problems at grass roots level: in times of change problems
arise and there will be a congestion at the strategic apex solving all
problems which prevents thinking about the future, new strategies etc.
- Split between policy /strategy and implementation: in most machine
organisations there is a split between policy and its implementation. The
split is based on the following assumptions:
The policy maker has all the information he needs;
The world around is stable and does not change; therefore
reformulation of the policy is not needed.
However these assumptions are mostly not realistic. That means that the
split must be ended and exactly at the moment in which the strategy must
be changed. The strategic apex must not only formulate the policy and
strategy but also implement it directly. That means that the strategist
works very closely with grass roots level and with the environment to
create a new policy and activities. That means a change of configuration.
In essence the machine organisation is not equipped for this change. For a
short time it can change into an entrepreneurial organisation or into the
innovative form.
Machine organisation as an instrument and as a closed system.
There are two types of machine organisations: instruments and closed systems.
- Instruments. By the fact that machine organisations create a hug amount
of rules, they can an easily be controlled externally. In that way, they serve
as an instrument to external influencers. External influencers make an
organisation their instrument by appointing a top manager. They give him
clear and quantifiable objectives and make him responsible for achieving
them. In this way, outsiders can control an organisation without managing

10

it. This leads to centralisation and bureaucratisation of the internal

structure: a typical machine organisation.
Closed systems. However, the obsession to control can extend itself to
master its environment by becoming closed systems immune for
influences from outside (cartels, diversify markets to avoid dependence of
certain clients, internal financing. Diversification and by that pacification of
all categories of external influencers are central issues.
Objectives of the closed system organisation: growth, enlargement of the
system; growth gives bigger rewards, power etc.

DIVERSIFIED ORGANISATION
Structure:
- market oriented divisions loosely related under a common administration
of a headquarter;
- independent operating divisions (with limited decentralisation to the level
of division manager, subjected to a system of achievement control for
standardisation of results;
- tendency to force a machine configuration to the division (external
control!) while the total diversified organisation tends to a closed system.
Context:
- market diversity especially with respect to products and services (in
contrast to client or region diversity); diversification of by products and
related products promotes the development of intermediate forms;
conglomerate as purest form of diversification;
- mostly appearing in the biggest and most adult organisations especially in
private enterprises
; however also more and more in the government sector and related areas.
Strategy:
- headquarter manages concern strategy like the portfolio of the
enterprises: the divisions manage separate enterprise strategies.
Advantages, problems and dangers:
- solves some problems of integrated (machine) structures that are divided
to functions (spread of risks, adding and dropping enterprise activities etc);
but
- conglomerate diversification is sometimes very costly and prevents
innovation; a better functioning of the capital market and the board of
commissioners might make independent enterprises more effective than
division do;
- the achievement control system increase the danger that the organisation
is not interested in social and societal aspects or begins to behave itself
irresponsible;
- although this form becomes more and more popular in the government,
the dangers in that area are even bigger because many goals cannot be
measured.
PROFESSIONAL ORGANISATION.
Structure:
- bureaucratic because by training skills are standardised for the diverse
executing professionals and at the same time decentralised; training is
determining for standardisation; there are however big differences with the
machine bureaucracy: in the machine bureaucracy, the techno structure

11

formulates the norms and leave it to the managers to enforce conformity;

in contrast, the norms of the professional organisation are developed
outside its structure in the independent associations of professionals; other
norms cannot serve the professional because their work is too complex to
be analyses and translated into fixed procedures , and results by analysts;
In essence the training of professional concerns greatly the incorporation
of categories toe diagnose the problems of the client and to adapt a
special program to them; the machine organisation has a simple objective;
after having received a stimulus, it follows a standard series of programs;
there is no diagnose; in the professional organisation , a diagnose is a
fundamental but closely defined task; one tries to look for a in advance
described case in a standardised program; for open ended diagnoses in
which a solution is searched for an unique problem the innovative
configuration is required;
- There is not much hierarchical management structure; professionals are
nearly autonomous in their work but have also a great influence on their
administration; the manager is seen as a facilitator; however the manager
can have big power. His tasks are:
solve disturbances and conflicts of competence
between specialists;
liaison between professionals inside and influencers
outside (government, organisations of clients, financers
etc)
- essential for the functioning is a system of separate specialisations in
which each professional works independently but subjected to the control
system of their professions that extends itself far beyond the organisation;
- a minimal techno structure and intermediate hierarchy that cause a large
span of control with regard to the professional work; a very extended
supporting staff on behalf of the professionals with a machine like
character;
Context:
- complex but stable;
- simple technical system;
- frequently, but not exclusively in the service sector.
Strategy:
- many to a great extend fragmentary strategies but also cohesion
promoting forces;
- mostly determined on the basis of professional evaluation and collective
decision (collegially and politically), sometimes after administrative
approval;
- total strategy very stable, but continuously changing in details;
Advantages, problems and dangers:
- advantages of democracy and autonomy;
but
- problems of coordination between the separate job areas and specialities,
possibilities for abuse of professional autonomy and resistance to
innovation;
- response of the external world to these problems often dysfunctional
(machine like);
- strong union influence increases the problems.
INNOVATIVE ORGANISATION.
The innovative organisation is directed to create new solutions, new ways of
functioning, new ways of approaching the environment, new ways to solve

12

existing and, or anticipated problems. Important is that many initiatives are

token sometimes at the cost of many disturbances. Mostly it achieves
effectiveness by being very inefficient. The innovative configuration is sometimes
necessary but it certainly not conventional according to the norms of traditional
management literature. It fully deviates from other forms of organisations and
our view about what organisations should be.
None of the configurations discussed thus far, is able to perform advanced
innovation that is required for technical advanced research organisations,
avant0garde companies, or an enterprise that produces very complex prototypes
etc. The entrepreneurial organisation can innovate but in a relatively simple way.
The machine and professional organisations are achievement types, no systems
for solving problems; they are designed to perfect standard programs and need
not to invent new ones. Also the diversified organisation doesnt promote
innovation. Advanced innovation requires a totally different configuration that is
able to join experts from different disciplines into smooth functioning ad-hoc
project groups. They are adhocracies.
Structure:
- volatile, organic, selective decentralised adhocracy; selective
decentralisation means that the power over the decisions and activities is
divided over the different places, positions and levels to meet the needs of
the essential tasks;
- specialist experts brought into action in multidisciplinary teams of staff
officers, workers and managers to realise innovation; each team
concentrates on one specific project; there is a considerable
decentralisation to and within those teams;
- coordination by mutual adjustment promoted by liaison officers,
integrating managers and a matrix structure; no unity of command;
information and decision processes are smooth and informal and not
necessarily via the hierarchical channels; Coordination must be achieved
by people who have the necessary knowledge, the experts themselves and
not only by the managers or staff officers. That means that only one
coordination mechanism is left: mutual adaptation; to stimulate this the
adhocracy uses a whole range of liaison means, liaison people ands
integrating managers, steering groups that combine the efforts of separate
project groups and so on; managers seldom give orders; instead, they
spend much time acting as liaison to coordinate the work of the teams
horizontally;
- two basic forms:
executing adhocracy: for projects based on contracts;
in an adhocracy project design and planning cannot be
separated from implementation; both types of activities
require the same skills. Therefore administrative and
executing activities melt together;
administrative adhocracy: for own projects (plants or
new activities); the executing nucleus is clearly distinct
from the administrative component; the nucleus is cut
off by which the administration can be structured as an
adhocracy; Cutting of can be done in two ways:
+ when he activities have a machine like
character and by hat
innovation in the
administrative part would impede, these can be
changed in an independent enterprise;
+ the executing nucleus can be abolished totally;
this give the organisation the opportunity to

13

concentrated on development and designing (e.g.

NASA in the Apollo project); therefore the need of
direct supervision decreases and the influence of
the managers will rest more and more on their
expertise and interpersonal skills in stead of their
formal position; also the distinction between staff
and line disappears
- the administrative component of the adhocracy exists of an organic whole
of line managers and workers who cooperate in continuously changing
relationships in ad-hoc projects. The roles of the strategic apex:
solve the problems that arise in these volatile
structures: when different experts work together
conflicts will arise: managers must try to use this
energy in a positive direction; this require social skills,
cogency and building of teams and coalitions;
control the progress of the projects so that they are
performed within the limits of the specifications,
budget and time because innovative projects are
difficult to control;
maintaining contacts with the outside world; the
adhocracy is completely dependent on the client for its
projects; therefore acquisition, maintenance of contacts
and negotiating are essential tasks;
Context:
- complex and dynamic environment, among others high tech, multiple
changes of product (by fierce competition), temporary and very big
projects;
- mostly young organisations: bureaucracy increases as the age increases;
- often a young branch of industry;
Strategy:
- mainly learning; process from the bottom up;
- mainly self-developing by a diversity of process from grass roots level up;
- more developing than ordered by the management;
- characteristic cycles of convergence and divergence in the strategic
orientation;
- model for strategy formation from grassroots level upwards:
it is important not to manage strategy formation too
much but it is more important to make patterns to
develop themselves;
strategies can get roots on different places, nearly
everybody has the capability to learn and the means to
support that capability; sometimes this happens
purposefully, sometimes spontaneously, sometimes it
arise from a cooperation; organisations cannot always
plan where strategies will develop;
such strategies become part of the organisation when
the become collective; that means when the patterns
extend themselves and influence the behaviour of the
organisation as a whole;
the processes of spread of strategies can be
purposeful, but that is not necessary; likewise, the can
be managed but that is not necessary and need not to

14

be intended; it is obvious that after a strategy is

recognised as valuable, the spread can be managed;
new strategies can arise continuously and their spread
uses to take place in periods of change as an
interruption between periods of more integration and
continuity;
managing of this process doesnt exist of inventing
strategies in advance but of recognising their rise and
intervene on the right moment; so managing means
creating a climate in which a great diversity of
strategies can grow and wait and looks what it
produces; promote valuable strategies in times of
change.
Advantages, problems and dangers:
- combines very well with democracy and less with bureaucracy and
therefore as a structure in fashion;
- effective for tasks that require innovation (it make a break through of the
ordinary practices possible)
but
- effectiveness is at the cost of efficiency;
- also human problems by lack of clarity and unjustified change to an other
configuration;
- when an adhocracy grows older and more complex it uses to change into a
professional or machine organisation;
MISSIONARY ORGANISATION.
Every organisation has its culture, its own specific way of working and behaving.
Ideology is a special kind of culture: a very well developed and deeply rooted
system of values and beliefs that districts the organisation from other ones. The
concept of ideology is used in organisational not in political sense.
Characteristics:
- a very elaborated system of values and beliefs that makes the difference
between the organisation and other ones;
- rooted in the feeling of having a mission, together with charismatic
leadership, developed via traditions, legends and reinforced by
identification;
- can be laid over a conventional configuration; in this case, it mostly
concerns an entrepreneurial configuration, followed by an innovative, next
professional and last machine configuration;
- sometimes so strong that an specific configuration arises: the missionary
organisation;
- a clear, specific and inspiring mission;
- coordination by standardising of norms (together we are strong) reinforced
by selection, socialisation an d indoctrination of members;
- small units loosely related (enclaves) and strongly centralised but with
strong normative control;
- directed towards reformation and conversion and monastery forms;
- at one hand danger of isolation, at the other one danger of assimilation
The development of an organisation ideology.
Phase I: the origin of the ideology from a missionary belief.

15

People come together because they have certain values in common that are
related to the arising organisation. Somebody could have taken the initiative to
assemble people around him. At least, the members see in the organisation a
way of realising a personal goal. Sometimes a missionary belief is added to this: a
feeling that one has come together to realise something unusual, something
exiting. Those new organisations offer much latitude; they are small, so personal
relationships can develop between the members. The members involved in its
foundation, have strong fundamental convictions and a strong drive towards
cooperation. The founders are often charismatic persons who stimulate their
followers to action and bind them together.
Of course ideologies can arise in existing organisations, but they are limited by
existing procedures and traditions, by their volume (most are already big) and
their beliefs. Very fundamental is the fact that the key to the development of an
organisation ideology is the leadership that has a deep conviction that it has to
accomplish a mission and gets the sincere devotion of the people who have to
realise it.
Phase II: development of an ideology by means of tradition and myths.
When a new organisation is founded or when a new system of beliefs develops
itself in an existing organisation, the activities exhibited and the decisions taken
create a feeling of involvement and precedents. The behaviours reinforce
themselves and the acts are imbedded by values. When these forces are strong,
an ideology arises that governs the behaviours. The ideology will be reinforced by
myths that arise around important events in the past of the organisation.
Gradually an own and unique historical conscience is formed. These myths and
historical conscience reinforce the ideology in turn.
Phase III: reinforcement of the ideology by means of identification.
There are 4 sources of identification:
- identification develops naturally: a new member feels himself attracted tot
the belief system of the organisation;
- Identification is based on selection. New members are selected on basis of
the fact that they fit into the existing beliefs, and the positions of power
are filled by people who most strongly adhere these beliefs;
- Identification can be evoked/ By a specially strong need of loyalty, an
organisation can use informal processes of socialisation and official
indoctrination in order to enforce the via natural way or selection acquired
devotion;
- Identification can be based on calculation, because identification gives
advantages.
The first source is the strongest, the fourth the weakest. Strong ideological
systems contain many people who identify naturally. This natural identification
can be reinforced by selection, socialisation and indoctrination.
Types of Missionary organisations:
-

The reformers. They want to reform the world immediately from

abolishing the government to decent dressing of dogs. These reformers
can be religious, political, social etc.
The converters. They see it as their mission to attract members and
change them; by this they want to change the world. The difference

16

between reformers and converters is that reformers concentrate on the

outside worlds and the converters on their members.
The monastry. they dont want to change the world but make possible a
unique way of life for the members.

POLITICS AND THE POLITICAL ORGANISATION

Normally an organisation is determined by the following systems of influence:
- authority;
- ideology;
- expertise
- politics.
The political system reflects power that is technically illegitimate (or better: alegitimate) not only concerning the means but also concerning the goals. Political
power in organisations is different from government power, not formally
established, generally accepted or officially recognised. Consequence of it is that
political power creates discord, evokes conflicts in which groups or individuals are
set against more legitimate systems of influence and if these systems are weak
against each other.
Political games in organisations:
- the rebellion game: the goal is resistance to authority, expertise or
ideology and sometimes to force the organisation to change; mostly
played by the lowest workers whom the formal authority is pressing most;
- the counter rebellion game played by those who posses the formal power
and fight with political and perhaps legitimate means;
- the sponsor game: to establish a power base by using superiors: the
individual relates himself with somebody of a higher status who behave
himself loyally in exchange for power;
- the alliance game: played by peers who negotiate implicit contracts to
support each other and so to establish a power base to get higher up in
the organisation;
- the kingdom game: mostly played by line managers to establish a power
base, not cooperating with peers but individually in cooperation with
subordinates;
- the budget game: openly played with rather clear established rules to
establish a power base; it looks like the latter game but it creates less
discord because the price for the victor consists of financial means and not
of positions or organisation units;
- the expertise game: improper use of expertise to establish a power base
by pretending expertise or use it in and out of season; real experts play
this game by exploiting their technical knowledge and skills emphasising
its uniqueness, crucial meaning and irreplaceability; by this they try to
prevent that their skills will be absorbed in a program; non-experts try to
make people belief that their work is the work of experts; so nobody else
has the competence to decide on it;
- the potentate game: played to establish a power base by dominating
others who dont have this power or have it to a lesser degree, using
legitimate power (in fact by using legitimate power in a illegitimate way);
- the line-against- staf game: this game is played not only to increase
personal power but also to beat the rival: line managers are opposing staff
advisers with their special expertise; both try too use legitimate power
illegitimately; it looks like rivalry between members of a family;

17

the rival sing- party game: the objective is to beat opponents; especially
when alliance or kingdom games result in two [power blocks; this game
creates most discord and results in conflicts between part of the
organisation (e.g. marketing and production), between rival sing persons
etc.;
the strategic candidate game: the objective is to change the organisation;
individuals or groups try with political means to promote the by them
desired strategic changes by bringing their candidates into attention of
others before an official nomination; this game is often combined with
building kingdoms, rival sing parties, line against staff, expertise and
potentate games;
- the alert game: insider, usually of low level, uses confidential information
to warn an influential outsider about doubtful or illegal behaviour of the
organisation or its higher managers;
- the Young Turks game: the objective is a far reaching change by putting
the legitimate power into discussion or to overthrow it; small groups of
Young Turks near the power centre but not being part of it, try to give the
organisation a different basic strategy, to put the expertise on an other
place, to change the ideology or overthrow the leadership.
In machine and missionary organisations, the sponsor and potentate games can
although they are illegitimate- go hand in hand with strong legitimate systems of
influence. Other games, like the rebellion and Young Turks one, arise in the
presence of a strong legitimate power but resist against it. They obstruct
configurations like the machine variant; rival sing party games occurs in
situations in which the legitimate power is weak, and replace it like in
professional and innovative configurations.
The politics and conflicts exist in two levels of the organisation:
- the can be present without dominating, on a meta-level above the
conventional organisation, may be as a kind of fifth column in service of
some other power who likes to undermine the organisation.
- The politics are the dominating system of influence and there are fierce
conflicts that weakened the legitimate systems of influence or just are
evoked by their weakness; this second level is called the political
organisation.
-

Types of political organisations.

The political organisation is characterised by the absence of coordination
mechanism, dominating organisation element, no clear centralisation or
decentralisation.
There are four forms of political organisations:
- Confrontation, characterised by intense, limited because the happen
between two parties (e.g. in a prison guards and people who have to take
care for re-socialisation) and short lasting conflicts: instable;
- Unstable alliance, characterised by moderate limited and possibly longlasting conflicts: relatively stable; they arise when two equally strong
systems of influence coexist (e.g. a symphony orchestra in which the
strong personal authority must be combined with the expertise of the
musicians); see also a government organisation in which one group is
concerned with professional autonomy and the other with technocratic
control of the lower echelons.
- Politicized organisation, characterised by moderate to elsewhere extending
and possibly long-lasting conflicts: relatively stable as long as it can

18

survive because of a privileged position; you can see this phenomenon in

great government organisations where the competences are visible and
controversial like many legislative and executing organisations; the
protection by the government guarantees the survival of these
organisations; but you can see it also in private enterprises.
Totally political arena, characterised by intense to elsewhere extending
and short conflicts: instable; in this type external influencers dont agree,
they try to get alliances with some persons within the organisation at the
same time coming into conflict with others; the internal activities are full of
conflicts; authority, ideology and expertise are subordinated to the political
power game; such am organisation is not able to achieve a goal; in fact is
not an organisation but a set of individual working only for themselves.

Life Cycle of Political Organisations.

1. Impulse. A necessary and sometimes sufficient condition for the arising of
a political organisation is considerable pressure stemming from influential
persons or groups to change the power system. Such a pressure can arise
spontaneously or evoked by other changes (e.g. change of owner, a new
technology) or the established power has weakened, so other influencers
try to fill the gap that exists.
2. Development. Such pressures are an attack on the existing power order.
When it does not exist, these pressure lead to battles to get the power
between the groups that compete. Because the challenge of power evokes
conflicts, a fast settlement can avoid politicisation. When a conflict breaks
out, becomes intense and leads to the confrontation form of the political
organisation, it can - when not is interfered - extend itself and develops
itself into a totally political arena. When the conflict develops itself
gradually, it can take a more stable form and continue. Any moment the
moderate conflict can flame out by which the confrontation form arises.
3. Solution. Such political conflicts usually have four consequences:
- Somebody wins and the organisation returns to its existence without
conflicts. But, when the winner does not represent the need of the
organisation to power, new confrontations can be expected if the
organisation wants to keep functioning effectively.
- The conflict destroys the organisation. Mostly, this proceeds via the totally
political arena.
This form can arise:
of itself;
during the agony of an organisation that already is
deemed to destruction by other causes (e.g. by a
hopeless out-fashioned technique or there is not
anymore a market for its products.
- The conflict continues in a moderate form by which the organisation keeps
functioning.
The unstable alliance and the politicised organisation are two moderate
forms of the political configuration
- The conflict ends up undecidedly. In that case an unstable alliance is likely
to arise. Both parties cannot win or give up but recognise that they must
moderate their conflict because of the survival of the organisation. They
reach an implicit agreement to tolerate each other. There are, of course,
organisations in which the unstable alliance in inherent like a symphony

19

orchestra or professional who must work together with government

bureaucrats. In these cases the alliance can suddenly change in a
confrontation model.
Policy in the conventional organisations.
- Entrepreneurial configuration: Because there is only one person who is
powerful and controls everything, this configuration should have a minimal
politics. However between and important outside influencers
confrontations and unstable alliances may arise. It is also possible that
young Turks challenge a chief who is gradually becoming weaker. But
these games are so incompatible with the entrepreneurial configuration
that a political configuration will arise that might change into another
stable form.
- Machine and diversified configuration. The strong formal authority systems
should counteract political activities. But the rigidity of these systems
causes mild types of conflicts because some things slip through the
meshes of the net. Political games are played that can go hand in hand
with legitimate authority: building kingdoms, the sponsor game, the
strategic-candidate game, line-staff game and potentate game/. By the
strict division in separate units promote parochialism and trials to increase
the small power base. You will also see the young Turks game and the
alert game. These games can cause the rise of a politicised organisation
form.
- Professional and innovative configurations. These configurations have
weak authority but strong expertise systems. This gives room to all
political games. The professional organisation has a relatively stable
executing nucleus in which the activities are standardised, but the
administrative structure in which professionals and managers must
cooperate to decide, is hardly stable and promotes games like strategiccandidate, kingdom and rivalizing-parties games. The transition to a
political organisation is very likely:
confrontation model (e.g. experts disagree completely);
politicised organisation;
unstable alliance (e.g. experts are confronted with
government bureaucrats);
total political arena (experts are in war with each
other).
- Missionary organisation. This type does not tolerate any political activity
because of its strong belief system and emphasis on cooperation.
Whenever games are plaid, the end of the organisation is approaching. Of
cause strategic candidates can put forward and is playing potentate a
general phenomenon when members press their ideology on outsiders. It
is possible that fierce conflicts arise about the interpretation of the
message. An ideology that is laid over another configuration can
contribute to a decrease of the political activity.
The functional role of politics in organisations.
In general, a political system in an organisation is necessary to correct some
imperfections of its legitimate systems of influence en especially to make
possible some flexibility that is obstructed by the other systems. The other
systems are called legitimate because their resources are to a certain extend
legitimate. But sometimes these resources are used to achieve unacceptable
goals (e.g. potentate game). The political system that works with illegitimate
20

means can be used to achieve legitimate goals (e.g. alert game and young
Turks).
Functions of political systems:
- Politics as system of influence can take care that in a dawinistic way - the
strongest members take the leadership positions and exclude or even
remove weak ones.
- Politics causes that all sides of a problem are taken into consideration:
managers, experts and ideologists are challenged as to the validity of their
arguments.
- Political systems often promote changes that are hold up by the legitimate
systems of influence. Internal changes are generally threatening to the
vested interest of an organisation.
- Political systems are making the preparatory work for the execution of
decisions. Managers use political methods to get their decisions accepted
by plying the strategic-candidate game in the first phase of their proposals
to prevent to be forced to play the more risky pay of battling the rebellion
when their proposals meet resistance,
If the political system can be functional, then it is also likely for the organisation
in which the political system is dominating. The political configuration is
functional when it:
- stimulates a rearrangement of power in the organisation, that has become
necessary by changes in one of its fundamental conditions of existence or
by the disruption of its vested power centre;
- corrects a preceding and dysfunctional change of the power;
- takes the form of an unstable alliance that reflects balanced and
irreconcilable forces in the organisation;
- accelerates the end of an already worn out up organisation.

CHANGE IN AN ORGANISATION.
Most types of organisations have big problems with fundamental and far-reaching
change. But there is a need for change because the world outside is continuously
changing. So the organisation is forced to change in order to survive. But it is not
possible to change continuously. Most people get mad and, or exhausted. So the
idea is that there are periods of continuity and those of change followed again by
continuity. To bring about a fundamental change an organisation must at least
partly take the form of an innovative configuration. That means that grass roots
workers, staff officers, experts and manager cooperate in working groups to solve
the problems faced, invent solutions, experiment and try them out and next
implement the newly designed solution. After a period of accustoming the new
solution is operational for some time (continuation). It is of utmost importance
that all relevant persons from grass roots level up to the highest leadership are
directly involved. A solution developed and designed at the desks of staff and
management mostly does not work because it might neglect the practice,
expertise, problems and details at grass roots level.
The change starts with making all the members of the organisation aware of the
problems or the challenge faced with. This is an important task of the
management but also of pressure groups or persons in and outside the
organisation (political systems)/ When the problems and challenge are fully
recognised, then the innovative configuration can be used for development and
implementation. After implementation and accustoming the new structure and
culture can be frozen till after some time new problems and challenges arise.

21

ORGANIZATII.
INTRODUCERE.
Exista multe forme si tipuri de organizatii. Unele sunt mici altele sunt mari; unele
au o structura foarte complexa, altele una foarte simpla. Unele au ca scop
producerea de bunuri, altele produc servicii, iar altele sunt o combinatie din
acestea doua.
Organizatiile pot fi descrise in multe feluri. Dar un singur mod de abordare nu
este de ajuns. Este mai bine sa privim organizatiile ca modele sau configuratii de
caracteristici.
Abordarea mea privind organizatiile are la baza ideile dezvoltate de Minzberg si
Miller.
Ma voi referi succesiv la urmatoarele probleme:
- elementele si membrii unei organizatii;
- esenta unei structuri organizationale;
- structura si context;
- formele fundamentale ale unei organizatii.
ELEMENTE SI MEMBRI.
Elemente.
Exista sase elemente:
1. La baza oricarei organizatii se afla muncitorii/lucratorii: oamenii care
lucreaza efectiv la producerea bunurilor. Ei sunt nucleul
2. Toate organizatiile au cel putin un varf strategic un manager cu norma
intreaga, de unde se supravegheaza intregul sitem
3. Pe masura ce organizatia creste, este nevoie de mai multi manageri pentru
lucratori, dar si de manageri pentru manageri. Astfel se creaza o linie de
mijloc a ierarhiei de autoritate, intre nucleul operativ si varful strategic.
4. Atunci cand organizatia devine mai complexa, este nevoie de obicei, de o
noua categorie de oameni: analistii. Ei indeplinesc sarcini administrative. In
mod oficial, ei planifica munca pt ceilalti, dar de fapt munca lor este de
alta natura adesea numita: de personal. Acesti analisti sunt denumiti
tehnostructura si sunt plasati in afara ierarhiei. Personalul influenteaza
doar in mod indirect ceea ce se face la nivelul ierarhiei.
5. Majoritatea organizatiilor adauga la acest fel de structura : personalul de
sprijin cantina, registratura, biroul juridic sau cel de relatii cu publicul.

22

Acest personal de sprijin, de asemenea, nu influenteaza in mod direct

munca efectuata .
6. Ideologia: este creata de obiceiurile, traditiile, credintele unei organizatii,
care marcheaza diferenta dintre o organizatie si alta. Ideologia este
scheletul structurii.
Figura 1
Membrii.
Sunt relevante doua categorii de oameni: cei din interiorul organizatiei, si cei din
afara ei.
1. Cei care lucreaza in organizatie, iau deciziile si sunt activi pot fi considerati
factorii de influenta, care formeaza un fel de coalitie interna. Se creaza un
sistem in care oamenii se intrec si se stabileste o diviziune/impartire a
puterii.
2. Si cei din afara organizatiei incearca sa o influenteze. Aceste influente
externe formeaza un camp de forte in jurul organizatiei: proprietarii,
sindicatele, alte organizatii ale angajatilor, cei care aprovizioneaza
organizatia, partenerii, competitorii, guvernul, publicul, clientii etc.
Impreuna, acestia constituie coalitia externa. Uneori, coalitia externa este
pasiva. Alte ori domina un factor de influenta sau un grup de factori de
influenta. In alte cazuri, colalitia este divizata atunci cand doreste sa
exercite o contra-presiune asupra organizatiei ( de exemplu intr-o
inchisoare, in care un grup este in favoarea inchiderii infractorilor, iar altul
in favoarea re-socializarii lor).
Figura 2.
ESENTA STRUCTURII ORGANIZATIONALE.
1.Generalitati.
Orice activitate umana organizata ridica doua cerinte fundamental diferite si
contrarii:
- Diviziunea muncii pe diferite activitati;
- Co-ordonarea activitatilor in scopul atingerii obiectivelor.
Structura unei organizatii poate fi descrisa ca:
totalitatea modalitatilor in care munca este divizata pe
activitati separate;
si
gradul de co-ordonare dintre aceste activitati.
2. Mecanismele de coordonare.
Exista 6 mecanisme de coordonare:
Figura 3.
1. Adaptare reciproca: simplul proces de comunicare informala stabileste
coordonarea.

23

2. Supraveghere directa: coordonarea este realizata datorita unei persoane

care da ordine sau dispozitii mai multor persoane care lucreaza separat
sau impreuna (seful le spune subordonatilor ce sa faca pas-cu-pas)
3. Standardizarea activitatilor: coordonarea este stabilita de diferitele
activitati ale oamenilor care muncesc separat sau impreuna (astfel de
norme sunt de obicei dezvoltate de tehnostructura nucleului operativ, cum
ar fi instructiunile de lucru, sau analizele privind forta de munca la nivelul
lucratorilor de la baza);
4. Standardizarea rezultatelor: specificarea rezultatelor diferitelor activitati
(din nou, create de tehnostructura, cum ar fi planul financiar in care sunt
specificate obiectivele la care trebuie sa ajunga subordonatii, sau
specificatii cu privire la cantitatea produsului etc);
5. Standardizarea deprinderilor, si/sau cunostintelor: diferite activitati sunt
coordonate prin educatie si instruire a lucratorilor (ca in cazul specialistilor
in medicina chirurgul si anestezistul care interactioneaza in mod automat
unul cu celalalt intr-o operatie, de o maniera standard);
6. Standardizarea normelor: normele care reglementeaza munca sunt
controlate. In general, aceste norme guverneaza intreaga organizatie,
astfel incat toata lumea functioneaza conform aceluiasi sistem de credinte
(ca in sectele religioase).
Se pare ca exista o ordine ierarhica a acestor mecanisme. Cu cat munca intr-o
organizatie devine mai complexa, cu atat modalitatile favorite de coordonare par
sa se mute dinspre adaptarea reciproca (cele mai simple mecanisme), la
supravegherea directa, impreuna cu standardizarea de preferat a procesului de
munca si a normelor sau rezultatelor pentru a se intoarce, in cele din urma, la
adaptarea reciproca. In mod paradoxal, adaptarea reciproca este cel mai bun
mecanism, atunci cand sarcinile sunt cele mai complexe.
Sunt organizatii in care s-au folosit mai multe feluri de mecanisme de coordonare.
Cu toate acestea, multe organizatii prefera folosirea unui singur mecanism care
sa prevaleze asupra celorlalte, cel putin in anumite stadii de dezvoltare.
Organizatiile care nu au preferinte tind sa genereze conflicte intre cei care se
intrec pentru a prelua vidul de putere. Sa nu uitam ca supravegherea directa
slaba poate fi un indiciu al unui sistem de autoritate slab, standardizarea redusa
indica o ideologie slaba, si asa mai departe.
Exista parapetri legati de mecanismele de coordonare. Cei mai importanti sunt:
- Specializarea : cantitatea de sarcini si cantitatea controlului asupra
lucratorilor>
Exista o diferenta intre:
* Specializarea pe orizontala: o functie are un numar limitat de sarcini bine
definite;
* Specializarea pe verticala: lucratorul nu este supus controlului cu privire
la sarcina executata.
- Oficializarea comportamentului: standardizarea procesului de lucru prin
impunerea unor instructiuni de operare, profilul functiei, reguli etc.
Structurile care se bazeaza pe una sau mai multe forme de standardizare
sunt numite birocratice, iar celelalte organice.
- Instruirea: Programele oficiale de instruire pentru formarea oamenilor pe
anumite cunostinte si deprinderi pentru executarea anumitor activitati in
organizatie si standardizarea lor.
- Indoctrinarea: programele si tehnicile prin care sunt standardizate normele
pt membrii unei organizatii, astfel incat ele sa indeplineasca nevoile
organizatiei si astfel sa fie tratate cu respect fata de deciziile luate si de
actiunile desfasurate.

24

Gruparea unitatilor: Gruparea implica coordonare prin plasarea functiilor

de profil diferit, sub aceeasi conducere, prin fortarea lor de a folosi
mijloace comune, echipament comun si sa realizeze standardele impuse si
sa faciliteze adaptarea reciproca. Exista doua baze fundamentale pentru
grupari:
Slujba/functia: o legatura a lantului procesului prin care
sunt produse bunuri sau servicii;
Piata: intregul lant specific scopului final produsul.
Marimea unitatii: numarul functiilor dintr-o unitate. Cantitatea de control
nu este folosita aici. Uneori exista unitati mici fara sefi, alteori exista unitati mari,
constituite din multe persoane, care desfasoara o munca standardizata, sub
supravegherea unui singur sef.
- Sistemele de planificare si control sunt folosite pentru a standardiza
rezultatele:
Sistemele de planificare a actiunii definesc rezultatele
unor activitati specifice inainte ca acestea sa fie
realizate;
Sistemele de controlare a realizarilor: specifica
rezultatele dorite ale unui set de activitati (de ex
vanzarea sa creasca cu 10%).
- Instrumente de legatura: mecanisme folosite pentru realizarea ajustarilor
reciproce din interior si cu alte unitati. Acestea variaza de la functii de
legatura, prin grupuri de legatura, manageri interim, pana la
structuri/matrice de legatura.
- Descentralizarea este legata de puterea de decizie. Cand toata puterea se
concentreaza pe o functie, numim aceasta structura centralizata. Atunci
cand puterea este impartita asupra unui numar mare de indivizi, vorbim
despre o structura relativ descentralizata.
Descentralizarea pe verticala: delegarea puterii formale
asupra managerilor de linie la nivele mai coborate ale
ierarhiei;
Descentralizare pe orizontala: masura in care puterea
formala si informala este transferata de la ierarhia de
linie la non-manageri, cum ar fi lucratori, analisti si cei
care sunt personal de sprijin.
Pe langa aceasta, mai putem face distinctia intre:
Descentralizare selectiva: impartirea puterii functie de
diferitele hotarari, la diferitele functii ierarhice;
Descentralizarea paralela: puterea de decizie este
plasata intr-un singur loc din organizatie.
Se pot distinge sase forme:
+ descentralizare verticala puterea este investita varfului
strategic;
+ descentralizare orizontala limitata (selectiva) varful
strategic imparte puterea cu tehnocratia care standardizeaza
munca tuturor colaboratorilor;
+descentralizare verticala limitata (paralela) puterea
majoritatii deciziilor re unitatile lor de linie este delegata
managerilor unitatilor respective care se orienteaza pentru
piata specifica;
+ descentralizare orizontala majoritatea puterii se afla la
nivelul nucleului de executie la firul ierbii;
-

25

+ descentralizare selectiva verticala si orizontala puterea

diverselor decizii este impartita diferitelor functii din
organizatie, pe manageri, functionari de personal, lucratori,
care muncesc impreuna in echipe la diverse nivelei de
ierarhie;
+ descentralizare pura puterea este mai mult sau mai putin
impartita intre toti membrii organizatiei.
5. Structura si context.
Durata si marimea:
- Cu cat o organizatie este mai veche, cu atat mai formal este
comportamentul sau; organizatiile mai vechi isi repeta
comportamentul, devin mai previzibile si, prin aceasta mai
susceptibile de formalism.
- Cu cat o organizatie este mai mare, cu atat este mai formalizat
comportamentul sa: aceasta inseamna ca daca functiile si unitatile sunt
foarte specializate, elementele administrative sunt foarte dezvoltate.
- Structura reflecta durata de viata a unei ramuri a industriei.
Sisteme tehnice:
- Cu cat sunt mai reglementate de catre un sistem tehnic cu cat se
controleaza mai mult activitatea lucratorilor cu atat se formalizeaza mai
mult activitatile iar activitatea nucleului executiv devine mai birocratica.
Sistemele tehnice promoveaza rutina, care la randul ei genereaza
specializare si formalism, care duce la birocratizarea nucleului executiv.
- Cu cat este mai complex sistemul tehnic, cu atat este mai extins
personalul profesional si de sprijin. Tehnologia de varf cere experti si cu cat
este nevoia mai mare, cu atat mai multa influenta vor avea si se vor
dezvolta/crea mai multe mecanisme de legatura.
- Automatizarea muncii nucleului executiv transforma o structura birocratica
intr-una organica. Cand rutina birocratica este automatizata, relatiile
sociale se schimba. Regulamentele se refera acum la masini, si nu la
oameni. Prin aceasta, obsesia controlului dispare si prin aceasta o mare
parte a managerilor si analistilor de care era nevoie pentru control dispar.
Functiile lor sunt preluate de experti de personal, iar acest lucru face ca
tendinta de standardizare in scopul controlului sa dispara si ea.
Mediu:
- Cu cat mediul este mai dinamic, cu atat este mai organica structura
organizatiei. Atunci cand mediul se dinamizeaza schimbarile necesare
produsului miscarea de personal mare, situatia politica instabila
organizatia nu permite standardizare. Trebuie sa ramana flexibila prin
coordonare de catre conducerea directa sau prin ajustare reciproca.
Aceasta inseamna o structura mai organica (de ex armata contra razboiului
de gherila)
- Cu cat este mai complex mediul, cu atat structura unei organizatii este
mai descentralizata: nu toate informatiile necesare pentru a lua decizii pot
fi adunate/stocate in mintea unei singure persoane.
- Cu cat diversitatea pietei este mai mare, cu atat este mai mare tendinta
de a divide pe unitati/sectoare care sa se adreseze pietelor respective
pentru a obtine beneficii cat mai mari.
Totusi, daca nucleul executiv nu se poate divide, atunci divizarea pe
sectoare/unitati este imposibila.
- Un mediu extrem de ostil impune o organizare centralizata a structurii.

26

Puterea :
- Cu cat controlul extern este mai puternic intr-o organizatie, cu atat
structura este mai centralizata si mai formala. Cele mai eficiente moduri
de control ale unei organizatii din afara sunt:
Responsabilizarea conducerii/sefului superior pentru
actiunile sale;
Stabilirea unor norme clare carora sa te supui.
Mai mult, controlul din exterior face ca organizatia sa fie extrem de atenta
in ceea ce priveste actiunile sale.
- O coalitie externa divizata duce la o coalitie politica interna, si vice-versa.
Conflictele dintr-o coalitie se raspandesc catre cealalta pentru ca un grup
de factori de influenta incearca sa se sprijine unul pe celalalt.
- Miscarile datorate modei si tendintelor favorizeaza structura si cultura
momentului, chiar daca acestea sunt importante pentru subordonati. In
cazul ideal, parametrii de plan sunt alesi in concordanta cu cerintele
duratei, marimii, sistemelor tehnice si mediului. De fapt, miscarile la moda
joaca rolul de a stimula organizatiile pentru a-si folosi parametrii de plan
populari la momentul respectiv.
6. Configuratii.
Schema:
Figura 4.
Combinarea tuturor elementelor mentionate mai sus duce la urmatoarele 6
configuratii:
Configuratie
Organizatie
antreprenoriala
Organizatie de
mecanizate
Organizatie
profesionalizata
Organizatie
diversificata
Organizatie
inovativa
Organizatie de
misionari
Organizare
politica

Mecanism
principal de
coordonare
Conducere
directa

Element esential
al organizatiei

Tipul de
descentralizare

Varf strategic

Standardizarea
procesului de
munca
Standardizarea
deprinderilor
Standardizarea
rezultatelor

Tehnostructura

Ajustare
rciproca
Standardizarea
normelor
Nu

Personal de
sprijin
Ideologie

Centralizare
verticala si
orizontala
Descentralizare
orizontala
limitata
Descentralizare
orizontala
Descentralizare
verticala
limitata
Descentralizare
selectiva
Descentralizare

Nu

Variabila

Elaborarea.

27

Nucleu executiv
Nivelul de mijloc

Figura 5.

Varful strategic exercita o forta de atragere la

conducere. El controleaza luarea deciziilor si este
coordonat de conducerea directa. Atunci cand o
organizatie recunoaste aceasta forta de atractie apare
o
configuratie
centralizata
numita
organizatie
antreprenoriala.

Varful strategic se afla imediat deasupra nucleului

strategic cu elemente putine sau deloc, intre linia de
manageri si specialistii de personal.

Tehnostructura exercita o forta de atractie care este

directionata spre rationalizare, in cazul ideal, prin
standardizarea proceselor de lucru si ea promoveaza o
descentralizare orizontala limitata, prin care da putere
organizatiilor care se supun acestei forte de atragere,
(in general printr-o nevoie de a guverna totul pentru a
rutina eficient) sa obtina o configuratie mecanica cu o
linie sofisticata si o structura de personal directionata
catre control si protejarea nucleului executiv.

Incercand sa obtina autonomia, managerii exercita o

forta de atractie, pentru a balcaniza structura prin
concentrarea puterii in unitatile lor prin descentralizare
directionata si limitata (si verticala) catre ei. Atunci
cand o organizatie admite forta de atractie (in general
printr-o divizare in unitati care sa deserveasca diverse
piete) si se limiteaza la controlarea rezultatelor (prin
standardizarea
rezultatelor),
apare
configuratia
diversificata.

Figura 6

Figura 7

Figura 8

In cartierele generale exista un personal de

sprijinire a varfului strategic, care supervizeaza
un numar de segmente care arata o configuratie
mecanica.

Membrii nucleului executiv exercita o putere de

atragere care se indreapta spre profesionalizare, pentru
a scadea influenta altor persoane (colegii si managerii
de linie) o exercita asupra muncii lor.

Figura 9
Admiterea acestui fapt creaza configuratia profesionala.
Observam o descentralizare completa pe verticala si
orizontala a puterii nucleului executiv. Coordonarea se
realizeaza prin cunostinte si deprinderi. Tehnostructura
si diferenta dintre varf si nucleu sunt mici. Dar
personalul de sprijin este numeros, pentru a sprijini
profesionalizarea.

28

Personalul auxiliar exercita o forta de atractie

directionata inspre cooperare pentru a implica nucleul
in activitatile organizatiei. O organizatie care are nevoie
de inovatii avansate trebuie sa admita aceasta forta.
Personalul, colegii si, cateodata, cei de la firul ierbii
sunt organizati in echipe multi-disciplinare de experti in
care ajustarile interne si externe sunt realizate prin
intelegere reciproca.

Figura 10
Organizatia capata o configuratie inovativa, in care
dispar diferentele de nivel caracteristice unei organizatii
conventionale. Diverse elemente se topesc intr-un
singur sistem de descentralizare pe verticala si
orizontala, pe o baza selectiva.

Ideologia exista, in general, in organizatii de alt tip.

Membrii sunt stimulati sa fie activi. Sa gandeasca si sa
simta in acelasi fel, impreuna. Cateodata, totusi, atunci
cand normele devin principalul mecanism de
coordonare, organizatia ia o configuratie misionara.

Avem de a face cu descentralizare in forma pura.

Fiecarui membru i se incredinteaza sarcina de a decide
si de a actiona ca din partea intregii organizatii.

In unele organizatii, forte conflictuale atrag membrii

dintr-o parte in alta. Cand aceasta situatie domina, mai
ales atunci cand nici-o parte a organizatiei si nici-un
mecanism de coordonare nu e dominant, organizatia ia
o configuratie politica, fara a avea o forma stabila de
centralizare sau descentralizare.

Figura 11

Figura 12
ORGANIZATIA ANTREPRENORIALA.
Structura:
-

simpla, informala, flexibila, personal putin si ierarhizare scazuta sau deloc,

folosire minima a procedurilor de planificare si a programelor de instruire
activitati concentrate la nivelul conducerii superioare, care controleaza prin
suvraveghere directa, raspunderea directa a sefului.
puterea este centralizata la nivelul sefului.

Contextul:
- supraveghere calificata si dinamica a mediului;
- conducere puternica, cateodata carismatica si autoritara;
- in faza de inceput, in criza sau schimbare a organizatiei;
- organizatii mici, intreprinderi locale.
Strategia:
- adesea un proces vizionar, in general avand un scop, dar spontan si flexibil
in ceea ce priveste detaliile, in cautare febrila de posibilitati, o viziune
foarte personala a sefului, reflectandu-i propria personalitate;
29

seful are grija sa fie foarte flexibil in partile mai putin vulnerabile ale pietei,
cu siguranta atunci cand clientii, cei care aprovizioneaza si alte forte din
afara, incearca sa-l influenteze.

Advantaje, probleme si pericole:

- gata pentru orice imprejurare, cu sentimentul misiunii
- se identifica cu misiunea, carisma motivanta
dar
- vulnerabil si limitat, prea dependent de o persoana (poate muri nici-o
alta opinie nu este acceptata), oamenii nu simt angajarea, pentru ca seful
hotaraste
- pericolul dezechilibrului intre strategie si executie, pericolul de a fi angajat
numai in strategie, sau numai in executie.
Seful ca om care conduce organizatia.
Intreprinderea este strans legata de dezvoltarea unei viziuni strategice in care
adesea se proiecteaza un nou concept. Strategiile pot fi caracterizate ca
deliberate, pentru ca ele sunt incluse in intentiile unui singur sef. Dar deoarece se
refera mai ales la strategii personale, detaliile pot deveni etapele unor strategii.
De fapt si strategiile se pot schimba. Seful poate invata din incercari si esecuri,
pot apare noi previziuni, cateodata foarte rapide.
In organizatia antreprenoriala, seful este punctul central. Organizatia este
flexibila si reactioneaza la initiativele sefului. Mediul este in principal favorabil,
deoarece seful alege segmentul cel mai potrivit al pietei. Cateodata mediul va
pune la incercare organizatia. Seful trebuie sa decida ce adaptari trebuie
adoptate, sau sa caute alte segmente ale pietei.
MEDIU <---------------- SEF ---------------------- ORGANIZATIA

ORGANIZATIA MECANICISTA.
Structura:
- birocratie centralizata;
- munca de rutina foarte specializata, comunicare foarte formalizata in
intreaga organizatie, sarcini unite printr-o baza functionala, puterea de
decizie destul de centralizata, putina libertate de actiune pentru muncitori
si sefi, prin aceasta sefii au o gama larga de mijloace de control. Sefii
ierarhici au trei mari sarcini:
sa rezolve deranjamentele din nucleul de executie;
sa coopereze cu analistii de personal pentru
introducerea normelor de catre acestia in unitatile
subordonate;
sa sprijine activitatile pe verticala: elaboreaza planuri
de actiune care sunt trimise mai jos, si pasaeaza feedbackul in sus;

30

tehnostructura este centralizata, avand ca sarcina standardizarea

sarcinilor, dar strict divizata pe nivele, si foarte dezvoltata; analistii de
personal au o putere (formala) mare
o stricta diviziune a: specializarii functionale a nucleului executiv, o
distinctie clara intre personal si sefii de linie; o distinctie clara intre
structura administrativa si linia de executie si personal: managerii lucreaza
rar umar la umar cu muncitorii;
un personal auxiliar/de sprijin numeros pt a reduce cantitatea de
incertitudine; organizatia produce cat mai multe servicii posibile in cadrul
structurii sale, pt a controla aceasta structura si a actiona independent de
mediu;
varful strategic este format numai din generalisti.

Contextul:
- un mediu clar structurat si stabil;
- o organizatie mare si matura;
- munca rationala, un sistem tehnic (dar nu automatizat) orientat spre
ratiune;
- controlul extern tinde catre o forma instrumentala;
- posibil forma de sistem inchis;
- in general, productia de masa sau servicii la scara larga, guvern,
intreprindere;
- controlul si siguranta au mare prioritate.
Strategia:
- planificarea pare a fi un proces, dar in realitate este vorba de programare
strategica;
- rezistenta la schimbare, care a devenit necesara, pentru a introduce o
configurare inovativa in scopul revitalizarii, sau spre a regresa catre o
configuratie antreprenoriala, pt a crea revolutia;
- schimbarile au loc prin salturi de calitate: lungi perioade de stabilitate,
intrerupte cateodata de revolutii strategice.
Avantaje, probleme si pericole:
- eficienta, pe care te poti baza, lucru corect, consistent;
dar
- obsesie pentru control in scopul eliminarii insecuritatii, si reducerea
nucleului executiv de influentele externe, care duc la:
> probleme cu oameni, la nivelul nucleului executiv: printr-un inalt grad de
specializare (eficienta); apar probleme de comunicare si coordonare
conflictele nu sunt rezolvate ci incapsulate, ceea ce cauzeaza:
> probleme de adaptare la varful strategic, deoarece varful strategic rezolva
problemele direct la firul ierbii: atunci cand apar probleme de schimbare si
exista o congestionare la varful strategic rezolvarea tuturor problemelor care
impiedica prospectarea viitorului, strategii noi etc.
- prapastie intre politica/strategie si implementare: in majoritatea
organizatiilor mecanice, exista o prapastie intre politici si implementare.
Prapastia are la baza urmatoarele presupuneri:
creatorul de politica are toate informatiile de care are nevoie;
lumea din jur este stabila si nu se schimba; de aceea
reformularea politicii nu este necesara.
Totusi aceste presupuneri sunt in majoritatea lor ne-realiste. Acest lucru
inseamna ca aceasta prapastie trebuie eliminata si in acelasi timp trebuie
schimbata strategia. Varful strategic nu numai ca trebuie sa formuleze

31

politici si strategii, ci si, indirect, sa le implementeze. Aceasta inseamna ca

strategul trebuie sa lucreze impreuna cu nivelul de la firul ierbii, pt a crea
noi politici si activitati. Aceasta inseamna o noua configuratie. In esenta,
organizatia mecanicista nu este echipata pentru aceasta schimbare. Pe
termen scurt se poate transforma intr-o organizatie antreprenoriala sau
intr-una inovativa.
Organizatia mecanicista ca instrument si sistemul inchis.
Exista doua tipuri de organizatii mecaniciste: instrumente si siteme inchise.
- Instrumente.
Deoarece organizatiile mecaniciste genereaza un mare
numar de reguli, ele pot fi cu usurinta controlate din afara. In felul acesta,
ele servesc drept instrumente pt factorii externi de influenta. Factorii de
influenta externi transforma un astfel de organizatie in instrument, prin
numirea unui manager de varf. Ei ii traseaza obiective clare si
cuantificabile si il fac raspunzator de realizarea acestora. In acest fel, outsiderii pot controla organizatia, fara a o conduce efectiv. Acest lucru duce
la centralizarea si birocratizarea structurii interne: o organizatie tipic
mecanicista.
- Sisteme inchise. Cu toate acestea, obsesia pentru control se poate extinde
de la a stapani mediul pana la a-l face imun la factorii din afara (cartel,
diversificarea pietelor pentru a evita dependenta de alti clienti, finantare
interna). Diversificarea, si prin aceasta pacificarea tuturor factorilor externi
de influenta, sunt probleme centrale.
Obiectivele unui sistem inchis: cresterea marirea sistemului. Cresterea
aduce recompense mai mari, putere etc.
ORGANIZATIA DIVERSIFICATA
Structura:
- Unitati orientate catre piata, cu o slaba legatura, sub o administratie si
cartier general comune;
- Unitati care actioneaza independent (cu descentralizare limitata la nivelul
managerului, subiect al unui sistem de realizare a controlului pentru
standardizarea rezultatelor);
- Tendinta de a impune o configuratie mecanicista (control extern!), in timp
ce intreaga organizatie diversificata tinde catre un sistem inchis.
Contextul:
- Diversitate de piata, in special produse si servicii (spre deosebire de
diversitatea clientilor sau regionala); diversificare prin produse si produse
derivate ceea ce
promoveaza crearea unor forme intermediare:
conglomerate ca forme foarte pure de diversitate;
- Apare mai ales in organizatiile cele mai mari si mai adulte, in special in
intreprinderile private; de asemenea din ce in ce in mai multe sectoare
guvernamentale si zone legate de acestea.
Strategia:
- Cartierul general se refera la strategie ca portofoliu al intreprinderii:
sectoarele isi creaza strategii separate.
Avantaje, probleme si pericole:
- Rezolva unele probleme ale structurilor integrate (mecaniciste) care sunt
impartite pe functii (extinderea riscului, activitati adaugate sau eliminate
din intreprindere etc);
dar

32

Diversificarea este cateodata prea scumpa si impiedica inovatia; o

functionare mai buna a pietei de capital si comitetul de comisari ar putea
crea intreprinderi independente mai eficiente decat cele de sector;
Realizarea sistemului de control fie mareste pericolul ca organizatia sa nu
se intereseze de aspectele sociale si de societate, fie incepe sa se
comporte responsabil;
Desi aceasta forma devine din ce in ce mai populara la nivel
guvernamental, pericolele din zona respectiva sunt inca mai mari deoarece
multe dintre scopuri nu pot fi masurate.

ORGANIZATIA PROFESIONALA.
Structura:
- Birocratica, deoarece se standardizeaza instruirea deprinderilor pentru
diversi profesionisti executori; in acelasi timp descentralizata; cu toate
aceste, exista multe diferente intre aceasta si organizatia mecanicista: in
cea mecanicista, tehnostructura formuleaza normele si lasa la alegerea
managerului sa le aplice; in organizatia profesionala, insa, ele se formeaza
in afara organizatiei in asociatii profesionale independente. Alte norme nu
pot fi de folos organizatiei profesionale, deoarece munca lor este prea
complexa pt a fi analizata si tradusa in procedee fixe, care sa fie analizate
de analisti. In esenta, instruirea profesionistilor priveste in mare
incorporarea categoriilor in care trebuie diagnosticate problemele clientului
si adaptarea unui program special. Organizatia mecanicista are un obiectiv
simplu; dupa primirea unui stimul, urmeaza o serie standard de programe;
nu exista niciun diagnostic; in organizatia profesionala, diagnosticul este
fundamental, dar ca sarcina bine stabilita; se incearca prognosticarea unui
caz intr-un program standardizat; pentru diagnosticele nedefinite in care
se cauta solutia doar pt o singura problema este nevoie de configuratia
inovativa.
- Nu are o structura manageriala ierarhica; profesionistii sunt aproape
anonimi in munca, dar au o mare influenta asupra administratiei;
managerul este vazut ca un intermediar; totusi managerul poate avea o
mare problema. Sarcinile lui sunt:
Unele deranjamente si conflicte de competenta intre
specialisti;
Legatura dintre profesionisti in interior, si factori de
influenta in exterior (guvern, organizatii clientelare,
finantatori etc)
- Esential in functionare este un sistem de specialitati separate in care
fiecare profesionist lucreaza independent, dar este supus unui sistem de
control al profesionistilor care se extind dincolo de organizatie;
- O tehnostructura minima si ierarhie intermediara care duce la un control
extins cu privire la munca profesionistilor; un personal administrativ
numeros, din partea profesionistilor cu un caracter mecanicist;
Contextul:
- Complexa dar stabila;
- Sistem tehnic simplu;
- Frecvent, dar nu exclusiv in sectorul servicii.
Strategia:
- Multe strategii fragmentate, dar si forte care promoveaza coeziunea;

33

Determinata mai ales pe baza evaluarii profesionale si a deciziei colective

(colegi si factori de determinare a politicilor), cateodata dupa aprobarea
administrativa;
- Strategia in intregul sau foarte stabila, dar detalii in continua schimbare.
Avantaje, probleme si pericole:
- Avantajele democratiei si autonomiei;
dar
- Probleme de coordonare intre diferitele sectoare de meserii si specializari,
posibilitati de aparitie a abuzului de autonomie profesionala si rezistenta la
inovatie;
- Raspuns la factorii externi pentru probleme de disfunctionalitate (ca la cea
mecanicista);
- Influenta unui sindicat puternic face ca problemele sa se inmulteasca.
-

ORGANIZATIA INOVATIVA.
Organizatia inovativa este indreptata spre crearea de noi solutii, noi modalitati de
functionare, noi feluri de abordare a mediului, noi posibilitati de rezolvare a
problemelor existente si a celor anticipate. Important este faptul ca de multe ori
exista initiative care genereaza nemultumiri. In majoritatea cazurilor se ajunge la
eficacitate prin ineficienta. Configuratia inovativa este cateodata necesara, dar
cu siguranta nu este conventionala in sensul normelor de care vorbeste literatura
traditionala in ceea ce priveste managementul. Ea se indeparteaza categoric de
alte forme de organizatii si de parerea noastra despre cum ar trebui sa arate o
organizatie.
Nici una dintre configuratiile despre care am discutat pana acum nu este capabila
sa lucreze cu inovatiile cerute de o organizatie cu cercetari tehnice avansate,
companiile de avangarda sau intreprinderile care produc prototipuri foarte
complexe etc. Organizatia antreprenoriala poate avea inovatii, dar acestea sunt
relativ simple. Organizatiile de tip mecanicist si profesional sunt forme de
realizare a unor deziderate si nu sisteme de rezolvare a problemelor. Ele sunt
destinate perfectionarii programelor standard si nu au nevoie sa inventeze altele
noi. De asemenea, organizatia diversificata nu promoveaza inovatia. Inovatiile
avansate cer o cu totul altfel de configuratie, capabila sa reuneasca experti din
diferite arii de discipline, care sa functioneze lin in grupuri intocmite ad-hoc.
Acestea sunt adhoc-cratiile.
Structura:
- adhoc-cratii volatile, organice, selectiv-descentralizate. Descentralizarea
selectiva inseamna puterea de decizie si activitatile impartite pe locuri,
functii si nivele pt a indeplini nevoile sarcinilor esentiale;
- experti specializati adunati in echipe multidisciplinare de functionari,
lucratori si sefi in scopul realizarii inovatiei. Fiecare echipa are un anume
proiect specific. Exista multa descentralizare in aceste echipe;
- coordonare prin ajustare reciproca promovata de functionarii de legatura,
managerii de integrare si structuri matrice. Nu exista unitate de comanda.
Procesul de informare si luare de decizii este lin si informal si nu
necesarmente ierarhic. Coordonarea trebuie realizata de oameni care sa
aiba cunostintele necesare, expertii insisi si nu prin manageri sau ofiteri de
personal. Aceasta inseamna ca avem de a face cu un singur mecanism de
coordonare adaptarea reciproca. Pentru stimulare, adhoc-cratia foloseste
un intreg lant de mijloace de legatura, oameni de legatura si manageri de
integrare, grupuri de manevra care combina eforturile diferitelor grupuri
care se ocupa de diferite proiecte si asa mai departe. Managerii rareori dau
ordine. In loc de aceasta, ei petrec mult timp actionand ca veriga de
legatura pentru coordonarea muncii echipelor pe orizontala.

34

Doua forme de baza:

Adhoccratie executiva: pentru proiectele bazate pe
contract; intr-o adhoccratie, schita de proiect si
planificarea nu pot fi separate de implementare;
ambele tipuri de activitati cer acelasi fel de deprindere.
De aceea activitatile administrative si executorii merg
impreuna;
Adhoccratie administrativa: pentru proiecte proprii
(planuri sau activitati). Nucleul executiv este clar
separat de componenta administrativa; aceasta
separare poate fi realizata in doua moduri:
+ cand activitatile au un caracter masinist si
daca inovatia in administratie ar fi o piedica,
atunci aceasta se poate transforma intr-o
antrepriza independenta;
+ nucleul administrativ poate fi desfiintat total;
aceasta ii da posibilitate organizatiei sa se
concentreze pe dezvoltare si proiectare (de ex
NASA in proiectul Apollo); de aceea nevoia de
supraveghere directa descreste si influenta
managerilor va ramane mai ales in expertiza si
deprinderi interpersonale, in loc de functia sa
formala; dispare de asemenea distinctia dintre
personal si colegii de nivel;
- Componenta administrativa a adhoccratiei consista dintr-un intreg organic
de manageri de linie si lucratori care coopereaza intr-o relatie de continua
schimbare a proiectelor ad-hoc. Rolurile varfului strategic sunt:
Sa rezolve problemele care apar in aceste structuri
volatile; cand lucreaza experti diversi apar conflicte
managerii trebuie sa utilizeze aceasta energie intr-o
directie pozitiva ceea ce necesita deprinderi sociale,
claritate si construirea de echipe si coalitii;
Sa controleze progresul realizat in limitele specificate,
buget si timp, deoarece proiectele inovative sunt greu
de controlat;
Sa mentina legatura cu lumea din exterior.
Adhoccratiile sunt complet dependente de clienti
pentru proiectele lor, de aceea achizitia, mentinerea
contactului si negocierea sunt sarcini esentiale.
Contextul:
- Mediu complex si dinamic, printre altele tehnologie de varf -, dese
schimbari ale produsului (prin competitie stransa), proiecte temporare si
foarte mari;
- In majoritate organizatii tinere birocratia creste cu varsta;
- Adesea o ramura tanara a industriei.
Strategia:
- In special de invatare procesul de jos in sus;
- In special de auto dezvoltare prin diversificarea procesului, de la baza in
sus;
- Mai mult dezvoltata decat ordonata de la varf;
- Cicluri caracteristice de convergenta si divergenta in orientarea strategica;
- Modelul de formare a strategiei de la baza la varf:
-

35

Este important ca strategia sa nu fie prea

condusa/controlata este mai important sa creezi
modele care se pot dezvolta;
Strategii care se pot implementa in diferite locuri,
aproape toti au capacitatea de a invata si mijloacele de
a-si sustine aceasta capacitate. Cateodata acest lucru
apare spontan, alta data se intampla dinadins, alta
data apare din cooperare; organizatiile nu pot
intotdeauna sa prevada cum vor evolua strategiile;
Asemenea strategii devin parte integranta a
organizatiei atunci cand devin colective. Aceasta
inseamna ca modelele se extind si influenteaza
comportamentului organizatiei ca intreg;
Procesele de raspandire a strategiilor poate fi impus,
dar acest lucru nu este necesar. De asemenea poate fi
condus, dar nu este necesar si nu e nevoie sa fie
inventat. Este evident ca daca strategia este
recunoscuta ca valoroasa, poate fi raspandita prin
actul managerial;
Pot apare incontinuu noi strategii, iar raspandirea lor
tinde sa aiba loc in perioadele de schimbare, ca o
intrerupere in perioadele de integrare si continuitate;
Conducerea acestui proces nu inseamna inventarea
strategiilor in avans, ci recunoasterea aparitiei lor si
interventia la momentul oportun. Astfel ca,
managementul consta in crearea unui climat propice
pentru diversificarea strategiilor si in asteptare si
observarea evolutiei lor ce produc ele; promovarea
strategiilor valoroase in momentele de schimbare.
Avantaje, probleme si pericole:
- Combina foarte bine democratia cu birocratia scazuta si de aceea este o
structura la moda;
- Eficienta pentru sarcinile care cer inovatie (insemnand o abatere de la
posibilele practici obisnuite);
dar
- Competenta in deficitul eficientei;
- Apar probleme umane/sociale datorita lipsei de claritate si schimbarilor
nejustificate a configuratiei;
- Atunci cand o adhoc-cratie imbatraneste si devine mai complexa, se
preschimba de obicei intr-o organizatie profesionala sau mecanicista.
ORGANIZATIA MISIONARA.
Fiecare organizatie are cultura sa, felul ei specific de lucru si comportament.
Ideologia este un fel special de cultura: un sistem de valori si credinte bine
inradacinat si bine dezvoltat care distinge o organizatie de alta. Conceptul de
ideologie este folosit in sens organizational si nu politic.
Caracteristici:
- Un sistem foarte elaborat, de valori si credinte care face diferenta dintre o
organizatie si alta;

36

Sentimentul inradacinat ca ai o misiune, impreuna cu o conducere

carismatica, dezvoltat prin traditie si legende si intarit prin autoidentificare;
Poate fi condusa de o configuratie conventionala. In acest caz, consista in
principal dintr-o configuratie antreprenoriala, urmata de una inovativa,
apoi profesionala si in cele din urma mecanicista;
Cateodata atat de specifica, incat apare ca o noua configuratie cea
misionara;
Misiune clara, specifica, inspiratoare;
Coordonata prin standardizarea normelor (impreuna suntem puternici),
intarita prin selectarea, socializarea si indoctrinarea membrilor;
Unitati mici slab legate (enclave) si puternic centralizate, cu un puternic
control normativ;
Indreptata catre reforma si conversie si forma monacala;
In pericol de izolare, pe de o parte, si de asimilare, pe de alta.

Crearea unei ideologii organizationale.

Faza I: originea ideologiei in credinta misionara.
Oamenii se strang laolalta pentru ca au valori comune legate de organizatia in
dezvoltare. Poate cineva a avut initiativa de a strange cativa oameni pe langa el.
Cel putin, membrii vad in organizatie un mod de a-si indeplini un scop personal.
Cateodata, la aceasta , se adauga credinta: un sentiment ca oamenii se strang
laolalta ca sa realizeze ceva neobisnuit, sau existent deja. Aceste noi organizatii
ofera multa libertate ele sunt mici, astfel incat legaturile interpersonale se
realizeaza usor. Membrii implicati in fondarea ei au convingeri fundamentale
puternice si o mare deschidere spre cooperare. Fondatorii sunt adesea persoane
carismatice care-si stimuleaza discipolii spre actiune si legaturi stranse.
Bineinteles ca si in organizatiile existente pot apare ideologii, dar ele se limiteaza
la proceduri si traditii, volumul (adesea mare) si credintele existente.
Fundamental este faptul ca factorul cheie in dezvoltarea unei ideologii in
organizatie il constituie conducerea, care are convingerea ferma ca trebuie sa-si
indeplineasca misiunea si e sincer devotata poporului care urmeaza sa o
realizeze.
Faza II: crearea ideologiei cu ajutorul traditiei si miturilor.
Atunci cand se creaza o noua organizatie si se creaza un nou sistem de credinte,
activitatile si deciziile luate creaza un sentiment de implicare si precedent.
Comportamentele se impun, iar actele se afirma prin valoare. Cand fortele sunt
puternice, apare o ideologie care guverneaza asupra comportamentelor.
Ideologia va fi intarita de miturile care apar in jurul evenimentelor din trecut,
importante pentru organizatie. Gradat se formeaza propria si unica constiinta.
Aceste mituri, precum si constiinta istorica, intaresc la randul lor, ideologia.
Faza III: intarirea ideologiei prin identificare.
Exista patru surse de identificare:
- Identificarea creata in mod natural cativa membri se simt atrasi de
sistemul de credinte al organizatiei;

37

Identificarea se bazeaza pe selectie. Sunt selctionati noi membri pe baza

faptului ca ei corespund credintelor existente, si functiile de putere sunt
completate cu oamenii care adera cel mai mult la aceste credinte;
- Identificarea poate fi evocata de o nevoie puternica de loialitate, o
organizatie care foloseste procese de socializare si indoctrinare oficiala
pentru a se intari pe cale naturala sau prin selectarea celor devotati;
- Identificarea se poate face calculat, deoarece identificarea aduce avantaje.
Prima sursa este cea mai puternica, a patra cea mai slaba. Sistemele puternice
de ideologii cuprind oameni identificati pe cale naturala. Aceasta identificare
naturala poate fi intarita prin selectare si indoctrinare.
-

Tipuri de organizatii misionare:

-

Reformiste. Acestea doresc reformarea imediata a lumii prin abolirea

guvernelor sau dresarea lor. Acestea pot fi religioase, politice, sociale etc.
Convertoare. Ele se vad ca avand misiunea de atragere a membrilor si
schimbarea lor. Astfel ei doresc sa schimbe lumea. Diferenta dintre
reformisti si convertisti este ca reformistii se concentreaza pe lumea din
afara, iar convertistii pe cei din interior.
Monahale. Acestea nu doresc sa schimbe lumea ci sa sa creeze un mod
unic de viata pentru membrii ei.

ORGANIZATIA POLITICA SI POLITICILE

In mod obisnuit, o organizatie este determinata de urmatoarele sisteme de
influenta:
- autoritare;
- ideologice;
- experte
- politice.
Sistemul politic reflecta puterea care, tehnic este nelegitima (sau mai bine zis alegitima), nu numai in ceea ce priveste mijloacele, ci si cele privitoare la scopuri.
Puterea politica dintr-o organizatie, difera de cea a guvernului, stabilita ne-oficial,
acceptata in general si recunoscuta oficial. Consecinta acestui fapt este aceea ca
puterea politica creaza discordie, induc conflicte in care grupuri sau indivizi se
aseaza impotriva unor sisteme de influenta mai legitime si daca aceste sisteme
sunt slabe, unul impotriva celuilalt.
Jocurile politice din organizatii:
- jocul de rebeliune: scopul este rezistenta la autoritate, expertiza sau
ideologie si cateodata fortarea organizatiei spre schimbare. Jucat mai ales
de lucratorii de la nivelul cel mai de jos, pe care autoritatea oficiala ii
apasa cel mai mult;
- jocul de contra-rebeliune jucat de cei care detin puterea oficiala si care
lupta cu mijloace politice si posibil legitime;
- jocul aliantelor jucat de colegi, care negociaza implicit contracte prin care
sa se sprijine reciproc si astfel isi creaza o baza de putere de la care sa
ajunga mai sus in organizatie;
- jocul crearea imperiului jucat mai ales de managerii de linie pentru a-si
stabili o baza, nu prin cooperare cu colegii, ci individual, in colaborare cu
subordonatii;

38

jocul de contabilitate jucat deschis cu reguli destul de clar, stabilite

pentru crearea unei baze de putere. Seamana cu cel de al doilea joc, dar
creaza mai putina discordie, pentru ca victoria consta in mijloace
financiare si nu de functiile sau sectii ale organizatiei;
- jocul de expertiza folosirea expertizei pentru a stabili o baza de putere,
pretinzand expertiza sau folosirea ei in timpul, si in afara sezonului.
Expertii reali joaca acest rol prin exploatarea cunostintelor si deprinderilor
lor tehnice, subliniind individualitatea, importanta lor cruciala si
imposibilitatea lor de a fi inlocuiti. Prin aceasta ei incearca sa impiedice ca
deprinderile lor sa fie absorbite de un program. Ne-expertii incearca sa ii
faca pe oameni sa creada ca munca lor este munca expertilor, astfel ca
nimeni altcineva sa nu aiba competenta de a decide asupra ei;
- jocul de-a monarhul jucat pentru a stabili o baza de putere prin a-i
domina pe ceilalti, care nu detin aceasta putere, sau o au intr-o mai mica
masura, folosind puterea legitima (de fapt folosind puterea legitima intr-un
mod ilegal);
- jocul sefii de linie-impotriva-functionarilor de personal acest joc este jucat
nu numai pentru a creste puterea personala, ci si pentru a-l invinge pe
rival. Managerii se opun consilierilor de personal. Ambele parti incearca sa
foloseasca puterea legitima in mod ne-legitim. Arata ca rivalitatea intre
membrii unei familii;
- jocul rivalilor obiectivul acestui joc este sa fie invins rivalul, mai ales
atunci cand jocul de alianta sau de imperiu are ca rezultat formarea a doua
blocuri. Acest joc creaza multa discordie si are ca rezultat conflicte intre o
parte a organizatiei ( de ex marketing si productie), intre cantareti etc;
- jocul candidatului strategic al carui obiectiv este de a schimba
organizatia. Indivizii sau grupurile incearca, cu mijloace politice, sa
promoveze prin schimbari strategice dorite, sa-si aduca candidatul in
atentia celorlalti inaintea unei numiri oficiale. Acest joc este adesea
combinat cu cel de construire a unui imperiu, rivalii, etc;
- jocul alert insiderul, de obicei la nivel scazut, foloseste informatia
confidentiala pentru a avertiza un autsider de influenta despre
comportamente dubioase sau ilegale din organizatie sau managerii ei
superiori;
- jocul lupii tineri obiectivul este de a produce o schimbare profunda prin
punerea in discutie a puterii legitime sau rasturnarea ei. Un mic grup de
lupi tineri de pe langa puterea centrala, dar care nu fac parte din putere,
incearca sa dea organizatiei o noua baza strategica, sa plaseze expertiza in
alta parte, sa schimbe ideologia sau sa rastoarne conducerea.
In organizatiile mecaniciste si misionare, jocurile de sponsor si monarh desi
nelegitime merg mana in mana cu sistemele de influenta legitime. Alte jocuri,
cum ar fi de rebeliune sau lupii tineri apar in prezenta unei puteri legitime
puternice careia li se opun. Ele obstructioneaza configuratiile la fel ca in varianta
mecanicista. Cantaretii rivali apare in situatiile in care puterea legala este slaba
pt a o inlocui cu configuratia profesionala si inovativa.
Politicile si conflictele exista la doua nivele ale organizatiei:
- ele pot exista fara sa fie dominante, la un nivel deasupra organizatiei
conventionale, poate ca un fel de a cincea roata la caruta altei puteri,
care vrea sa submineze organizatia.
- Politica constituie un sistem dominant de influenta si exista conflicte acute
care slabesc sistemele legitime de influenta, sau sunt create de
slabiciunea lor. Al doilea nivel este numit organizatie politica.
-

39

Tipuri de organizatii politice.

Organizatia politica se caracterizeaza prin absenta unui mecanism de
coordonare, element organizatoric dominant, centralizare sau descentralizare
clara.
Exista patru forme de organizatii politice:
- Confruntari - caracterizate prin lupte intense, limitate intre doua parti (de
exemplu intr-o inchisoare gardienii si cei care trebuie sa se ocupe de resocializare), si conflictele de lunga durata, instabile;
- Aliante instabile caracterizate prin conflicte moderate limitate si posibil,
conflicte de durata relativ stabile. Ele apar atunci cand doua sisteme de
influenta la fel de puternice coexista (de exemplu o orchestra simfonica in
care o autoritate personala puternica trebuie sa se combine cu expertiza
muzicienilor). Vezi de asemenea organizatia guvernamentala in care un
grup se preocupa de autonomie profesionala si altul de control tehnocrat al
esaloanelor inferioare.
- Organizatia politizata caracterizata prin conflicte in unele parti moderate,
in altele extinse si posibil de lunga durata. Este relativ stabila atata vreme
cat poate supravietui datorita situatiei sale privilegiate. Acest fenomen se
poate observa in organizatii guvernamentale mari, unde competentele
sunt vizibile si controversate, ca in multe organizatii legislative si
executive. Protectia de catre guvern garanteaza supravietuirea acestor
organizatii. Dar pot fi observate si in intreprinderile private.
- Arena politica totala caracterizata prin conflicte intense extinse si scurte.
Instabila. In acest tip, factorii externi de influenta nu cad de acord, ei
incearca sa obtina aliante cu unele persoane din interior, in acelasi timp
intrand in contradictie cu altele. Activitatile interne sunt pline de conflicte.
Autoritatea, ideologia si expertiza se subordoneaza jocului puterii politice.
De fapt nu este o organizatie ci un set de indivizi care muncesc numai
pentru ei.

Ciclul de viata al organizatiilor politice.

1. Impuls. Cateodata o conditie necesara si suficienta pentru aparitia unei
organizatii politice este consideraa a fi presiunea din partea unor persoane
sau grupuri influente de a schimba sistemul puterii. O asemenea presiune
poate apare spontan sau poate fi initiata de alte schimbari (ex schimbarea
proprietarului, o noua tehnologie) sau puterea a slabit, sau alti factori de
influenta incearca sa umple golurile existente.
2. Evolutie. Astfel de presiuni constituie atacuri la ordinea de putere
existenta. Atunci cand nu exista, aceste presiuni conduc la lupte pentru
impartirea puterii intre grupurile care se intrec. Deoarece provocarea
puterii creaza conflicte, o asezare rapida a lucrurilor evita politizarea.
Atunci cand izbucneste un conflict, devine intens si duce la o forma de
confruntare cu organizatia politica, poate, daca nu se intervine, sa se
extrinda si sa devina o arena politica. Atunci cand conflictul evolueaza
gradat, el poate lua o forma mai stabila si mai continua. In oricare moment
insa, conflictul moderat se poate imflama si deveni confruntare.
3. Solutie. Asemenea conflicte politice au de obicei patru consecinte:
Cineva castiga si organizatia se intoarce la felul ei de existenta, fara
conflicte. Dar daca castigatorul nu reprezinta nevoia de putere a

40

organizatiei, nu ne putem astepta la noi confruntari daca organizatia

doreste sa functioneze eficient.
Conflictul distruge organizatia. In cele mai multe cazuri, aceasta
duce la arena politica totala. Aceasta poate apare:
de la sine
in timpul agoniei organizatiei care este deja spre
desfiintare din alte cauze (ex tehnologie depasita sau
lipsa de piata pentru produs)
- Conflictul continua intr-o forma moderata prin care organizatia continua sa
functioneze.
Alianta instabila si organizatia politizata sunt doua forme moderate ale
configuratiei politice.
- Conflictul se stinge fara a se ajunge la un rezultat clar. In acest caz poate
apare o alianta instabila. Nici una dintre parti nu poate castiga sau renunta la
lupta si recunosc ca trebuie sa stinga conflictul pt ca organizatia sa
supravietuiasca. Ambele ajung la un acord de toleranta una fata de cealalta.
Exista desigur organizatii in care alianta instabila este inerenta, ca intr-o
orchestra simfonica sau intre profesionistii care trebuie sa lucreze impreuna
cu birocrati guvernamentali. In aceste cazuri, alianta poate deveni brusc un
model de confruntare.
Politici in organizatiile conventionale.
Configuratia antreprenoriala. Deoarece aici exista o singura persoana care
este puternica si controleaza totul, aceasta configuratie trebuie sa aiba un
minim de politica. Totusi pot apare confruntari si aliante instabile intre factori
externi importanti de influenta. Este de asemenea posibil ca lupii tineri sa-si
provoace seful, care devine din ce in ce mai slab.
Dar aceste jocuri sunt atat de imcompatibile cu configuratia antreprenoriala,
incat apare o organizatie politizata care se poate schimba intr-o alta forma
stabila.
Configuratia mecanicista si diversificata. Sistemele puternice de autoritate
oficiala ar trebui sa contracareze activitatile politice. Dar rigiditatea acestor
sisteme genereaza tipuri de conflicte moderate, deoarece unele lucruri scapa
printre ochiurile plasei. Sunt jucate acele jocuri politice care merg mana in
mana cu autoritatea legitima crearea imperiului, jocul sponsorului, jocul
candidatului strategic, jocul de-a sefii si functionarii de personal, jocul de-a
monarhul. Prin stricta impartire in unitati separate se promoveaza
parohialismul si se incearca dezvoltarea bazei de putere. Pot fi vazute de
asemenea si jocul lupii tineri si cel alert.
Configuratiile profesioniste si inovative. Aceste configuratii au o autoritate
slaba dar sisteme puternice de expertiza. Acest lucru nu permite aparitia prea
multor jocuri politice. Organizatia profesionista are un nucleu executiv relativ
stabil, cu activitati standard, dar structura administrativa in care profesionistii
si managerii trebuie sa coopereze la luarea deciziilor. Nu este prea stabila si
de aceea promoveaza jocuri ca rivalii, crearea imperiului, candidatul strategic.
Tranzitia catre o organizatie politica poate fi:
o model tip confruntare (ex expertiii nu sunt deloc de acord unii cu
ceilalti)
o organizatie politica
o alianta instabila (expertii sunt in razboi unii cu ceilalti)
Organizatia misionara. Acest tip nu tolereaza nici un fel de activitate politica,
deoarece are un sistem puternic de credinte si accent pe cooperare. Ori de cate
41

ori se initiaza vreun joc, sfarsitul organizatiei este aproape. E posibil sa apara
conflicte puternice la interpretarea mesajului. O ideologie suprapusa pe alta
configuratie poate duce la diminuarea activitatii politice.
Rolul functional al politicii in organizatii.
In general, un sistem politic este necesar intr-o organizatie pt a corecta unele
imperfectiuni legitime ale sistemului de influenta. Insa cateodata aceste resurse
sunt folosite pt a realiza scopuri inacceptabile (jocul de-a monarhul). Sistemul
politic care functioneaza cu mijloace legale poate fi folosit pt realizarea scopurilor
legale (jocul alert si lupii tineri)
Functii ale sistemelor politice:
- politica ca sistem poate avea grija ca, conform teoriei darviniste, cei
puternici sa preia functiile de conducere si sa-i excluda pe cei slabi
- politica face ca toate laturile problemei sa fie luate in considerare.
Directorii, expertii si ideologii sunt provocati sa-si valideze argumentele
- sistemele politice promoveaza adesea schimbari care sunt sustinute de
sisteme legitime de influenta. Schimbarile interne sunt amenintate in
general de interesul organizatiei
- sistemele politice pregatesc terenul pt punera in executie a deciziilor.
Managerii folosesc metode politice pt ca deciziile sa fie acceptate jocul
de-a candidatul in prima faza a propunerilor, pt a evita sa fie fortate sa
joace jocuri mai riscante, cum ar fi batalia sau rebeliunea
- este schimbata asezarea puterii din organizatie
- se corecteaza o schimbare de putere precedenta care nu a functionat
- ia forma unei aliante instabile care reflecta forte echilibrate si
ireconciliabile din organizatie
- accelereaza sfarsitul unei organizatii deja uzate
SCHIMBAREA IN ORGANIZATIE
Majoritatea tipurilor de organizatii au probleme atunci cand trebuie schimbat
ceva in mod profund si radical. Organizatia este nevoita sa se schimbe pt a
supravietui.
Majoritatea oamenilor, in astfel de situatii, innebunesc sau obosesc. Ideea este,
deci, ca in astfel de reforme/schimbari, exista perioade de continuitate si
perioade de schimbare, care alterneaza. Pt a aduce schimbare intr-o organizatie
trebuie cel putin partial, ca aceasta sa ia forma unor inovatii. Aceasta inseamna
ca lucratorii de jos, cei de personal, expertii si managerii trebuie sa coopereze
impreuna in echipe pentru a rezolva problemele ce li se pun in fata. Trebuie sa
inventeze solutii, sa le experimenteze si sa le aplice. Dupa o perioada de
acomodare, noua solutie va functiona pentru o bucata de timp. Este de
importanta primordiala ca persoane relevante de la toate nivelele sa lucreze, pt
ca altfel practica, experienta, problemele si detaliile se neglijeaza.
Schimbarea incepe cu constientizarea tuturor membrilor organizatiei de
problemele existente si confruntarea cu acestea. Aceasta este o sarcina
importanta pe care o are conducerea, dar si grupurile de presiune sau persoanele
din afara organizatiei (sistemul politic). Atunci cand problemele si provocarea
sunt cunoscute pe deplin, se poate folosi configuratia inovativa pentru dezvoltare
si implementare. Dupa implemenatre si acomodare, noua structura si cultura pot
ingheta pana ce apar noi probleme si provocari.

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