ACCURACY

Accuracy is the closeness of a measured value to the true

value.
For example, the measured density of water has become more
accurate with improved experimental design, technique, and
equipment.
Density of H2O at 20 C
(g/cm3)
1
1.0
1.00
0.998
0.9982
0.99820
0.998203

ACCURACY
Percent error is used to estimate the accuracy of a
measurement.

Percent error will always be a positive.

What is the percent error if the measured density of titanium (Ti)
is 4.45 g/cm3 and the accepted density of Ti is 4.50 g/cm 3?

PRECISION
Precision is the agreement between repeated measurements of the
same sample. Precision is usually expressed as a standard deviation.
For example, the precision of a method for measuring arsenic (As) was
determined by measuring 7 different solutions each containing 14.3 g/L of
As.
Measured
Concentration
(g/L)
18.4
13.6
13.6
14.2
16.0
13.6
17.8

Average = 15.3 g/L

Standard Deviation = 2.1 g/L
What is the true concentration of As in this experiment?
14.3 g/L
Estimate the accuracy of this method.

How precise is this method?

2.1 g/L

ACCURACY AND PRECISION

Describe the accuracy and precision of these 4 targets.

Accurate, and
precise

Precise, but
not accurate

Accurate, but
not precise

Not accurate,
and not
precise

ERRORS
Systematic (or determinate) errors are reproducible and
cause a bias in the same direction for each measurement.
For example, a poorly trained operator that consistently makes
the same mistake will cause systematic error. Systematic error
can be corrected.
Random (or indeterminate) errors are caused by the natural
uncertainty that occurs with any measurement.
Random errors obey the laws of probability. That is, random
error might cause a value to be over predicted during its first
measurement and under predicted during its second
measurement. Random error cannot be corrected.

INTERPOLATION AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

By convention, a measurement is recorded by writing all exactly
known numbers and 1 number which is uncertain, together with
a unit label.
All numbers written in this way, including the uncertain digit, are
called significant figures.

For example, the blue line is 2.73 cm long. This measurement

has 3 significant figures. The first 2 digits (2.7 cm) are exactly
known. The third digit (0.03 cm) is uncertain because it was
interpolated or estimated 1 digit beyond the smallest
graduation.

INTERPOLATION AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

What is the volume of water in this graduated cylinder? Always
measure the volume of a liquid at the bottom of the meniscus.
The units are mL.

The volume of water is 52.8 mL. The 52 mL are exactly known,

and the 0.8 mL is uncertain because it was interpolated or
estimated 1 digit beyond the smallest graduation.

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES AND ZEROS

Zeros between nonzero digits are significant. That is, 508 cm
has 3 significant figures.
Leading zeroes merely locate the decimal point and are never
significant. That is, 0.0497 cm equals 4.97 x 10-2 cm and has 3
significant figures.
Trailing zeros are significant as follows: 50.0 mL has 3
significant figures, 50. mL has 2 significant figures, and 50 mL
has 1 significant figure.
Datum
(grams)

Number of
Significant
Figures

Datum
(milliliters)

Number of
Significant
Figures

10,034
1.908
0.32
0.00046
150
0.0000160

5
4
2
2
2
3

150.
0.705
0.054
5.86 x 10-7
3040
0.0000730

3
3
2
3
3
3

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES, ADDITION, AND SUBTRACTION

When adding or subtracting do NOT extend the result beyond
the first column with a doubtful figure. For example,

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES, ADDITION, AND SUBTRACTION

What is 16.874 + 2.6?

What is 16.874 - 2.6?

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES, MULTIPLICATION, AND DIVISION

When multiplying or dividing the answer will have the same
number of significant digits as the least accurate number used
to get the answer. For example,
2.005 g / 4.95 mL = 0.405 g/mL
What is 16.874 x 2.6?

What is 16.874 / 2.6?

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES AND CALCULATIONS THAT REQUIRE

MULTIPLE STEPS
An average is the best estimate of the true value of a
parameter.
A standard deviation is a measure of precision.

Averages and standard deviations require several steps to

calculate. You must keep track of the number of significant
figures during each step. Do NOT discard or round any figures
until the final number is reported.

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES AND CALCULATIONS THAT REQUIRE

MULTIPLE STEPS

2 Significant
Figures

Significant Figures

1 Significant Figure

1 Significant Figure

2 Significant Figures

1 Significant Figure

0 Significant Figures

 What is average and standard deviation for the following 3

measurements of the same sample?

SOURCES
American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association,
Water Environment Federation. 1995. Standard Methods for the Examination
of Water and Wastewater. 19th ed. Washington, DC: American Public Health
Association.
Barnes, D.S., J.A. Chandler. 1982. Chemistry 111-112 Workbook and
Laboratory Manual. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts.
Christian, G.D. 1986. Analytical Chemistry, 3rd ed. New York, NY: John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Frisbie, S.H., E.J. Mitchell, A.Z. Yusuf, M.Y. Siddiq, R.E. Sanchez, R. Ortega,
D.M. Maynard, B. Sarkar. 2005. The development and use of an innovative
laboratory method for measuring arsenic in drinking water from western
Bangladesh. Environmental Health Perspectives. 113(9):1196-1204.
Morrison Laboratories. 2006. Meniscus Madness. Available:
http://www.morrisonlabs.com/meniscus.htm [accessed 25 August 2006].