Effectiveness of Anti-lock Braking Systems

in Automobiles

Doug Bays
Vikrant Shah

Abstract
Anti-lock brake system (ABS) is believed to decreases stopping distances and
increase driver control of the vehicle in heavy braking situation. On one hand ABS
exhibited exceptional performance on test tracks. On the other hand, it has not been
proven as effective in reduction of crashes on roads. Numerous researches have been
done to evaluate the ABS and have yielded positive and negative observations. This
report studies various tests that were conducted and compares the test track performance
of ABS with the real world statistics. In this report we also discuss the theoretical
expectations and design limitations of an ABS and how the observations compare to
these. After a detailed study, we also recommend certain improvisations on ABS which
would be worth further research.

Contents
Table of Contents

Executive Summary

ii

Introduction

Understanding Brake Systems

Physics of Braking

Drum Brakes

Disc Brakes

Anti-locking Brakes

Theoretical Expectations of ABS

Evaluation of the Effectiveness of ABS

10

Criteria

10

Test Track Performance

11

Real World Performance

16

Possible Improvisations

18

Conclusion

19

Glossary
Works Cited
Appendix A
Appendix B

21
23
I
II

Executive Summary
Anti-lock Braking System (ABS) has been developed to prevent wheel lock up.
This allows the driver to retain steering control of the automobile and reduces the
stopping distance. After being introduced to the car market in 1985, ABS has not proved
its expected performance in everyday road conditions. This paper discusses the
performance of ABS on the test track and in the real world.
Brakes are energy conversion devices which slow, stop, or hold a car in place and
are vital to driving an automobile. The two main types of brakes are drum brakes and
disc brakes. ABS is an enhancement to existing brake systems. This paper discusses
ABS on a disc brake system. ABS prevents wheel lock by detecting wheel slip and
accordingly reducing the brake pressure on the rotor allowing the tire to roll. While the
tires are rolling, the friction between the road and the tire is static friction. While the tires
are locked, the friction between the road and the tires is dynamic friction. This is
significant because the coefficient of static friction is typically 25% greater than dynamic
friction; thus, ABS reduces stopping distances. Also, since the tires are rolling, the driver
has complete steering control.
To evaluate the effectiveness of ABS, we have classified the performance into
two categories: test track and real world. To evaluate the test track performance, we
studied Cuddermans dissertation and Forkenbrock and others research. Cudderman
tested 6 vehicles with and without ABS and varied the braking force applied, vehicle
speed before braking, tire inflation pressure, and steering input before and after applying
the brakes. He found that the ABS design was biased to be more effective at higher
speeds and lower steering angles. He also found that ABS performance was affected by
its design. There was significant degradation in the performance with parameters other
than those recommended. Forkenbrock et al. studied 9 vehicles with and without ABS on
18 different stopping conditions. They discovered that ABS reduced stopping distances
on all surfaces except grass and loose gravel. They also found that ABS performed better
when the car was heavily loaded, which shows the effect of ABS design.
For the real world performance, we used a comprehensive report published by the
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). The NHTSA compared 5
types of crashes on good and bad surfaces for vehicles with or without ABS. The

ii

statistics showed both positive and negative results for the performance of ABS, and thus,
it was not possible to draw any concrete conclusions from them.
We can see that ABS performs much better in the controlled environment on the
tracks than in real life. One of the theories that tries to explain this discrepancy is that
drivers tend to drive more recklessly relying on ABS. Another explanation is that some
drivers do not know how to use ABS properly and can be alarmed by the foot sensation
causing undue panic.
Comparing all of the results, we see that ABS cannot prevent all accidents as
many believe. Since there are instances when ABS is less effective than traditional
brakes, we would like to suggest an intelligent system which can detect if ABS should be
on or off. Also, we might see better real world statistics if all cars used ABS and all
drivers knew how to use ABS. In conclusion, ABS can be effective only if it is used
within its design parameters and its limitations are well understood.

iii

Introduction
Americans love speed. Today, the most viable source of speed is cars. Cars are
also the most convenient and popular mode of transportation in America. This luxury
and convenience is not cheap; it comes with the price of danger. In the US, there are 190
million drivers driving 221 million cars*, each exposed to possible accidents. Thus,
safety in cars is and will always be a prime concern.
Automobile engineers and scientists work on safety issues every day. They have
managed to develop steel belted tires, airbags, traction control, seatbelts, side impact door
beams, disc brakes, and anti-lock braking systems which have significantly reduced the
potential danger on the roads. Despite these provisions, 38,309 Americans died last year
from automobile accidents [NHTSA, 2002]. Furthermore, it is estimated that 40% of all
deaths occur due to tire skidding [Crouse, 1997]. In poor traction conditions, when the
driver stomps on the brake, wheels lock up and skid. While the tires are skidding, the
driver completely loses steering control. Without control of the car, it is very likely to
crash and cause serious injury.
To overcome this danger, the anti-lock braking system (hereafter ABS) has been
designed to prevent wheel lock up. Thus, ABS prevents tires from skidding and allows
steering control. With control, one may be able to steer away from a potential hazard.
This can save lives and make a huge impact on car safety, which is the ultimate purpose
of ABS.
ABS has been rigorously tested to live up to the consumers expectations. ABS
has been proven very effective in test track conditions. Furthermore, it has been
successfully used in the extreme braking conditions of car racing, where ABS was first
showcased. When ABS hit the regular consumer market, the same results were not
evidenced. Various statistics from the safety institutes around the country have found
ABS to be less effective than the manufacturers claim which are based on their test track
perfomance [NHTSA, 2002]. Statistics prove that drivers are 30% more likely to be rearended if they have ABS installed [Evans, 1996]. Furthermore, other statistics show that
*

According to the World Almanac & Book of Facts 2003 edited by Ken Park, there are 787 vehicles per
1000 people in America and 677 registered drivers per 1000 people. According to the 2000 US census,
there are 281,421,906 people in America. After multiplying the numbers, they yield 221,479,040 vehicles
and 190,522,630 registered drivers in America.

65% of all fatal car accidents involve vehicles with ABS [NHTSA, 1998]. These
contrary remarks are the backbone of this research.
The purpose of our research is to evaluate the effectiveness of ABS. We will start
by discussing the basic principles that are involved in braking. We will then describe a
typical brake system in an automobile and the major braking systems in current
automobiles: drum brakes, disc brakes and ABS. We will only discuss brake systems
used in light moving vehicles (i.e. cars); we will not talk about Air Brakes and Electric
Brakes. We will not address the effectiveness of ABS in trucks and other commercial
vehicles; neither will we discuss parking brakes. Next, we will develop criteria to
evaluate effectiveness of ABS in terms of braking distance, steering control, number of
accidents prevented and necessary driving skills. Using these criteria, test-track
performance, and real-world statistics, we will evaluate the effectiveness of ABS.
Finally, we will try and find alternative ways to improve the efficiency of ABS.

Understanding Brake Systems

What are brakes? According to Crouse, A brake is an energy conversion device
that is used to slow, stop, or hold a car in place [1983]. To make worthwhile use of a
car, brakes are as necessary as its engine. Driving a car without brakes is like skydiving
without a parachute.
Before we begin our discussion on ABS, it is imperative to understand the physics
of a brake system. Furthermore, it is important to understand the development of various
braking systems.

Physics of Brakes
The physics of brakes are relatively simple. Consider a typical vehicle weighing
3000 lb, moving at 60 miles/hr. It has a kinetic energy * (see footnote) given by:
Kinetic energy = (Weight of car)*(velocity)2
29
In this case, it is approximately 361,204 ft-lb [Thiessen, 1987]. Let us assume this car
stops in 4 seconds. Thus, the stopping power needed is given by:
*

All italicized words are defined in the glossary.

Power = Kinetic Energy

Time
In this case, the braking power is approximately 165 HP. The same car which accelerates
to 60 miles/hr in ten seconds needs approximately 66 HP. Hence, the brake system needs
to be able to extract energy much faster than the engine needs to generate it. Typical
braking systems do this by friction. Thus, the brakes convert the kinetic energy of the car
to heat energy generated by the friction. Since brakes generate heat energy, it is
necessary to cool the brakes to maintain a reasonable temperature. In fact, under heavy
braking conditions, the brakes can reach temperatures of 500F. If the brakes do not
cool, they can render themselves much less useful; this is called brake fade, potentially
the worst problem with brakes besides complete failure [Crouse, 1983].

Figure 1: Typical Friction forces on a car

For brakes to be applied there must be a source of energy to apply the braking
force. These sources of energy may be electric, hydraulic, mechanical, or pneumatic. In
most cars, the brake pedal is applied mechanically by the foot of the driver, and the pedal
is pivoted on a support bracket above the pedal. The pivoting action allows a pushrod to
be pushed linearly in and out of its master cylinder. This pushes brake fluid into the
brake lines which provide the necessary force to the brake shoes or pads. Since the brake
fluid is nearly incompressible, it creates the force by filling a gap with fluid, and pushing
a piston into the brake pad or shoes.
As seen in Fig. 2, there is a power booster which is an electronic assist for
braking. This allows the brake pedal to be more sensitive. In other words, drivers do not
have to use as much foot force as they would without the booster.
3

Figure 2: Schematic of components of a hydraulic brake system [Heller 1985].

After a driver applies the brake, the driver may want to release the brakes. All the
driver needs to do is simply release the brake pedal. This releases the pressure off the
brake fluid and thus takes the forces off the brake pads/shoes.

Drum Brakes
There are several types of drum brakes: short-shoe or long-shoe and internal or
external. According to Norton, virtually all automobiles use long-shoe internal brakes.
As the name implies, they use internal shoes that expand against the inside of the drum.
Norton states, Generally, two shoes are used, pivoted against the ends of an adjusting
screw and forced against the drum by a hydraulic cylinder. Springs pull the shoes away
from the drum when not activated. Also, the automobile wheels are connected directly to
the brake drum [2000].
Crouse defines a drum brake as a brake in which curved brake shoes press against
the inner surface of a rotating metal drum to produce the braking action. When the fluid
from the brake lines enters a drum brakes wheel cylinder, the fluid expands the wheel
cylinder and forces the brake shoes to be driven into the drum. As seen in the figure 3,
there are two concentric pads which push outward onto the drum as pressure is applied.
The springs help retract the pads when no pressure is applied. This is how a drum brake
is applied and retracted.

Figure 3: Schematic of a drum brake [Technical, 1991]

Drum brakes are used less in automobiles today, but they are still widely used for
other applications such as paper mills [Lunder, 1998], horizontal bridge trolleys, and
overhead cranes [Chizmar, 2001]. Drum brakes have many advantages over their
counterpart, the disc brakes: simple design, inexpensive, and no eccentric loading.
They also have their disadvantages: limited drum diameter, limited thermal capacity, high
moment of inertia for large drums, and no minimum coefficient of friction.
Depending on their application, they should be used accordingly. For non-automotive
applications, cost is usually the deciding factor. For automotive uses, thermal capacity is
the deciding factor [Chizmar, 2001].
Since drum brakes have lower thermal capacity than disc brakes, they have the
problem of brake fade. Brake fade occurs when heat develops inside the drum. Drum
brakes do not have the ability to be cooled as quickly as the disc brake. The drum acts as
an insulator to the air causing an increase in temperature of the brake assembly, and
higher temperatures cause a deterioration of the coefficient of friction between brake
drum and lining. Engineers have tried to fix this problem by creating cooling systems to
the drums. Despite the cooling systems, the drum brakes tend to be less effective than
disc brakes. Furthermore, brake fade can occur when a car goes through water. Water
makes its way inside the brake drum and settles between the drum and lining surfaces
resulting in a loss of friction. The water cannot escape easily because it is surrounded by
the drum [Crouse, 1983]. These problems have led engineers to develop disc brakes.

Disc Brakes
There are different types of disc brakes available for automobiles; the three most
common ones are the fixed caliper, floating caliper and the sliding caliper. Essentially all
varieties contain a rotor and a caliper. The rotor is attached to the wheel and rotates with
it while the calipers consist of a pad and a plate assembly operated by hydraulic
cylinders.

Figure 4: A simple disc brake and the principle of disc brakes [Remling, 1983]
A typical fixed caliper brake assembly consists of a caliper assembly that remains
stationary when the brakes are applied. When the brakes are applied, hydraulic fluid is
forced into the cylinder bores; because of the fluid pressure, the pistons are pushed onto
the rotor. Thus, the pressed calipers retard the motion of the rotor and slow it down
[Remling 1985].
The disc brakes have four main advantages: self cleaning action, effectiveness in
straight line stops, heat dissipation, and ease of maintenance. Self cleaning action is the
mechanism in which water and other dust is automatically thrown out the rotor, and thus,
6

the use is not affected by the weather conditions. Effectiveness in straight line stops
refers to the fact that since disc brakes clamp, they are more stable and less likely to pull
to one side. The rotor, being a thin pitted disc, is exposed to more air and dissipates heat
more effectively. Thus, it reduces the heat fade in the brakes. The shoes of the calipers
can be very easily replaced without having to open the wheel and are thus easy to
maintain [Heller, 1985].
These advantages of the disc brakes come at a cost of other disadvantages.
Primarily, the materials used to make the rotors are expensive and increase the cost of
disc brakes. Secondly, the calipers are perpendicular to the rotor and their tendency of
lateral movement does not provide self energizing action. Thus, the calipers need a larger
force to push against the rotors which requires a power assist unit in the system.

Anti-Lock Braking System

ABS is not a different type of brake but an enhancement on existing brakes. ABS
is generally installed on disc brakes, so we will not address drum brakes in this section.
However, the physics and inner workings of ABS would be identical on either system.
The most important characteristic in braking is the coefficient of friction between
the tires and the road. Experimentally it has been found that the coefficient of static
friction is more than that of the dynamic friction. When the wheels are rolling without
any slip, the point of contact between the tire and the road is stationery for that instant.
Thus the ground sees the point of contact on the tire as static so the friction is static
friction. But when the wheels lock up, there is a relative motion at the instantaneous
point of contact between the tire and the road surface and so the effective friction force,
which is due to dynamic friction, is less. Thus, the most effective braking power is
delivered right before the wheels completely lock up. In an emergency braking scenario
when the driver stomps on the brakes, it is very easy to lock the wheels and put the car
into a slide. Thus, since the friction force opposing the motion of a sliding car is less, the
braking distance required to stop the car would be more. Also when a car is sliding, there
is very little or no steering control available to the driver to change the direction of the
car. In an attempt to prevent such a scenario, the ABS was developed.

Drivers accustomed to snow and ice, by experience, know that on such roads
pumping the brakes helps to decrease stopping distance and maintain some level of
steering control. When the brake pedal is pressed, the friction resists the motion until the
point when the wheel locks up. When the pedal is released, the retarding force is taken
off the wheels and they begin to roll without slipping. This is exactly the principle that
goes into the working of ABS. Basically ABS detects if one of the tires is slipping and
then accordingly reduces the braking force on that tire.

Figure 5: ABS components in a car [Nice, 2003]

As illustrated in Fig. 5, ABS has two to four (depending on the type of ABS) speed
sensors that are fitted onto the wheels. The speed sensors measure the angular velocities
of the wheels. ABS also has a microprocessor sitting somewhere on the car which uses
the angular velocities of the wheels in complicated algorithms to estimate the velocity of
the vehicle. By comparing the wheel speed and the vehicle speed it decides whether a
tire is slipping. If the controller finds that a tire is slipping, it momentarily takes the
pressure off the brake pad on that wheel. It does this by using a pump valve system
which blocks the hydraulic pressure in the lines and releases it as required.

Figure 6: ABS pump and valves [Nice, 2003]

The idea of ABS is not new. ABS was first developed and patented in 1936.
However, in 1936, computer systems on cars were nonexistent. It was not until onboard
computers that ABS became commonplace. Today, 82% of all cars come equipped with
ABS [ODonnell, 2003]. The capabilities of ABS far exceed that of a human. ABS can
pump the brakes 18 times per second, compared to a maximum of 5 times per second for
professional drivers. The rapid pumping keeps the pressure on the rotor close to the
threshold of lock up. This allows the drivers to stay in lateral control of a vehicle.
Therefore ABS has two main advantages; the best braking force is applied no matter how
hard the pedal is applied, and the car does not lock up and lose control. Conversely the
disadvantages of ABS are high cost (at least $400 greater), more components which can
fail, and a more complicated system.
There are two kinds of anti-lock brakes: all-wheel and rear-wheel. All-wheel
ABS is found on cars and some light trucks and is designed to help a driver steer the
vehicle and be more stable during emergency braking situations. Rear-wheel ABS is
found exclusively on light trucks and is designed to prevent the rear wheels from locking
up so that the vehicle doesn't skid sideways [America, 2003].

Theoretical Expectations of ABS

One of the vital sources we found about ABS was research conducted by
Cudderman, while obtaining his doctorate in the Mechanical Engineering Department
here at the University of Texas at Austin. After extensive research he has come up with
some important conclusions about what can be expected from ABS.

In his dissertation, Cudderman [2001] describes the limited potential of ABS. In

the worst case, the minimum limiting potential is the rolling friction of a vehicle.
Theoretically ABS could shut off the braking system and the only force opposing the
motion of the vehicle would be the rolling friction (plus drag and other such effects). The
upper limit to ABS would be the maximum friction that a given combination of tire and
road conditions can provide. Cudderman shows that the difference between the static and
rolling friction could produce a theoretical gain of about 25 percent on dry asphalt or
concrete.
In an interview with Dr. Longoria [2003], a specialist of Vehicles Dynamics
Research and Control at the University of Texas at Austin, we learned that many factors
go into making a system like ABS. He explained that in the practical working of ABS,
the microprocessor compares the velocity Vc of the car with the speed of the wheels Vw
which is computed using Vw = angular velocity of wheels times the radius of the wheel.
With todays technology it is possible to accurately measure the angular velocity of the
wheels and thus get the wheel speed, but there is no such direct mechanism to compute
the velocity of the car. Different ABS systems use different algorithms to predict the
velocity of the car. Using the speed of other wheels, the speed of the car before braking,
and expected coefficients of friction from the road surface, the algorithms calculate an
expected value of the vehicle speed at that point. One such model is attached in appendix
A. Dr. Longoria emphasized that a lot of assumptions go into designing an ABS and that
the change in parameters like tire type, tire size, and road conditions could very
significantly affect the performance of ABS.

Evaluation of the Effectiveness of ABS

To evaluate the effectiveness of ABS, we will begin by setting up criteria which
should guide the analysis. We will discuss test track performance and compare that to the
real world performance.
Criteria
To setup a criterion for evaluating the ABS, we will first classify the performance
into two categories: test track performance and real world statistics which compare the

10

automobiles with and without ABS. To make this evaluation we will use the research of
qualified researchers in this field.
For evaluating the test track performance, we found two reports which were
within the scope of our research. The first one, Cuddermans dissertation, focuses on the
effects of different variables on stopping distances. The variables he uses for his
evaluation are:
(1) Braking force applied,
(2) Vehicle speed before braking,
(3) Tire inflation pressure, and
(4) Steering input before and after applying brakes.
The second research uses the various road surfaces and conditions and compares the
stopping distances with and without ABS in various scenarios.
For the real world statistics we will present the data for the following five crash
types for automobiles with and without ABS:
(1) Rollovers,
(2) Side impacts with parked vehicles or fixed objects,
(3) Frontal impacts with parked vehicles or fixed objects
(4) Frontal impacts with another motor vehicle in transport, and
(5) Pedestrian-involved crashes.
We will discuss these statistics for varying road conditions and quality, the
number or percentage of accidents attributed to ABS, and type of crashes (such as fatal or
nonfatal).

Test Track Performance

This section will discuss the observations and conclusions that we found about the
performance of ABS in test-track conditions. We will start by presenting Cuddermans
research. Cudderman performed experiments to evaluate the effectiveness of ABS. He
studied six vehicles with and without ABS to discern the effects of the braking force
applied, vehicle speed before braking, tire inflation pressure, and steering input before
and after applying the brakes [2001].

11

Cudderman varied the applied braking force because the performance of ABS is
dependent on the brake pedal force. He also varied the vehicle speed before braking
because its effect on the ABS is another important safety consideration. Another
parameter Cudderman varied was tire inflation pressure which can affect the slip
characteristics and it is important to know whether tire pressures other than those
recommended degrade the ABS performance [2001]. From these criteria, he made
observations described in the following paragraphs.
An ideal ABS can only give a maximum theoretical improvement of 25% which
is the difference of static and dynamic coefficients of friction. In the test conducted, ABS
braking had an improvement of 1-17%. This emphasizes the differences in design of
ABS and shows that good systems already have benefits close to the theoretical
maximum while others have room for more improvement. The locked-wheel braking and
ABS braking for one vehicle on a particular surface is not proportional to that of a
different vehicle on the same surface.
The braking performance was a strong function of the braking force up to a
threshold where ABS begins to pump the brakes. So the ABS and non-ABS braking was
the same in this range. The ABS braking with the braking force beyond the threshold
improved or degraded the performance negligibly; this is what was expected.
Braking was significantly affected by the speed at which the vehicle was moving,
and the braking friction found to vary with vehicle speed. Similarly, even in the case of
ABS, the braking advantage increased with increasing vehicle speed. This result was
unexpected because non-ABS braking tends to have an opposite trend. Thus, increased
ABS performance at high speed is an indicative of the fact that the designs might have
been biased for highway safety.
The ABS performance was found to be optimum at the recommended tire
pressures. For higher and lower inflation pressure, there was degradation in ABS
performance, but Cudderman did not find the reduction in performance to be very
significant. The ABS advantage varied by 1-6% among the various vehicles studied.
As a reference, Cudderman tested the decelerations for a car as a function of the
steering angle without any form of braking and found significant longitudinal
decelerations. The average longitudinal deceleration increased by 30% for locked-wheel

12

braking, while for ABS braking it increased by more than 45%. The important thing is
that there is no steering control with locked wheels. In general, it was found that with
higher steering angles there was a decrease in longitudinal deceleration which can be
attributed to the fact that tires have higher friction in the longitudinal direction.
Cudderman also made a comparison with respect to the time when the brakes
were applied after a steering maneuver was performed. He found that after an emergency
steering input, the deceleration decreases by about 20%, but one of the cars didnt show
this decrease. This is indicative of the effects of the computer algorithm on the effect of
braking [2001].
The second set of research that we studied was performed by Garrick
Forkenbrock, Mark Flick and W. Riley Garrot. They studied nine vehicles on eighteen
stopping conditions to determine the stopping distances and the stability in these
scenarios. Another parameter that they varied was the load on the vehicle, i.e. whether it
was the weight of just one driver or the maximum gross vehicle weight rating
recommended by the manufacturers. To make a quantitative evaluation of the
performance they came up with the following index [Forkenbrock et al, 1999]:
ABS Stopping distance improvement =

where: SDABSdisabled
SDABS

SD ABSdisabled SD ABS
100%
SD ABSdisabled

= disabled-ABS stopping distance (panic or best effort)

= ABS-assisted stopping distance.

Forkenbrock et al. used two types of nonABS braking scenarios: panic stop which is
when the driver completely presses the bake pedal and lets the wheels lock up and best
effort which refers to the driver trying to modulate the brake pedal force in an attempt to
get better braking characteristics. In order to eliminate the differences in driving skills,
they used the same driver in all the scenarios. Forkenbrock et al. also applied some
braking distance corrections to account for the differences in test speeds and actual
speeds [1999]. Refer to appendix B for more details.
Forkenbrock et al designed test tracks with varying characteristics to account for
the different possibilities of a real world scenario. Fig. 7 is a schematic of a few of their
test pads.

13

(a) ABS Test Pad #2

(b) ABS Test Pad #3

(c) Offset Transition

(d) J-turn Maneuver

Figure 7: Schematics of ABS Test Pads [Forkenbrock et al, 1999].

Test pad 1 was an asphalt road with a Jennite strip to simulate the stop bar at
intersections. Test pad 2 as shown in Fig. 7 (a) simulates a pedestrian crossing. Test pad
3 as in fig. 7 (b) simulates a road with pot holes on both tires. Fig. 7 (c) shows the
schematic of another test pad which simulates a sudden transition to a surface of very low
coefficient of friction. Other test pads simulated scenarios like a J-turn, high speed single
lane change in a collision avoidance manner, braking on gravel, or grass.
The observations in the various scenarios were as follows:
1) Straight Line Stops on Uniform Coefficient Surfaces:
i.

Concrete ABS showed significant advantages in the stopping distance on dry

and wet polished concrete.

ii.

Jennite Once again, ABS had the shortest stopping distances on wet Jennite for
each of the vehicles studied.

2) Straight Line Stops on Off-Road Surfaces:

14

i.

Grass ABS didnt show any significant improvement in the stopping distance on
grass; in fact many lightly loaded ABS vehicles had an increase in stopping
distance. This was once again an indication of the quality of the ABS on its
effectiveness.

ii.

Loose Gravel On loose gravel, the shortest stopping distances in all the nine
vehicles were observed on the vehicles without ABS. Thus, braking on loose
gravel was a case where ABS was definitely found to fail. The stopping
distances increased by an average of 30%, but the driver still had steering
control of the vehicle.

3) ABS Test-Course Braking On all the test-pads ABS had the shortest stopping
distances. However, in some lightly loaded vehicles, the panic stops had shorter
stopping distances; another indicative of the effects of quality of the system.
4) Braking in a Curve The braking distances of the vehicles on Jennite curves were
found to be shorter with the ABS brakes. Forkenbrock et al also found that none of
the test vehicles yawed out of control.
5) J-turn Stopping Maneuver In general ABS prevented the vehicles from yawing out
of control. However the loading of the vehicle made a significant difference on the
stopping difference and the lateral shifts of the car.
6) Single Lane Change Stopping Maneuver In a situation where a driver sees an
obstacle, it may be imperative to change lanes to avoid a collision. A drivers first
reaction will most likely be to slam on the brakes and turn away from the obstacle. If
a vehicle is not equipped with ABS, the car will continue on a straight path. For
vehicles equipped with ABS, the car has an opportunity to swerve out of the lane,
putting the car onto a more difficult to drive condition such as a ditch or grassy side
of the road. Therefore, ABS vehicles were the only cars tested for this condition.
Consequently a numerical comparison could not be made in this scenario, rather only
qualitative observations were made. In many cases, the ABS vehicles did laterally
slide out of control. ABS is not expected to provide any lateral force and so this only
depends on the capabilities of the vehicles.

15

Table 1: Summary of ABS Stopping Distance Benefits/Disadvantages

[Forkenbrock et al, 1999].
Test Surface
Dry Concrete Straight Line
Wet Polished Concrete
Wet Asphalt Straight Line
Wet Jennite Straight Line
Grass Straight Line
Loose Gravel Straight Line
ABS Test Pad # 0
ABS Test Pad # 1
ABS Test Pad # 2
ABS Test Pad # 3
Wet Asphalt / Wet Epoxy Split-mu
Dry Asphalt Curve
Wet Jennite Curve

Benefit / Disadvantage (Percentage)

Lightly Laden
Fully Laden
9.8
12.7
16.7
23.1
11.4
17.2
17.6
26.6
-7.1
6.9
-30
-24.6
7.6
11.6
6.2
10.3
6.1
10.9
4.6
-7.9
11.3
11.4
11.9
19.5
-18.9
32.4

Table 1 summarizes the above observations. In general, we found ABS to

effectively decrease stopping distances. However, in a few cases, the stopping distances
were increased. For those cases of increase stopping distances, the vehicles still kept
lateral control.

Real World Performance and Crash Statistics

Comparing the real world performance with the test track performance is vital. If
ABS works great on the track but puts people in danger on everyday roads, it would not
serve their purpose and will be taken off the market.
Since ABS has been sold for so long, there have been no new tests. The last
significant ABS test was completed in August of 1998. This test was conducted because
section 2507 of the Highway Safety Act of 1991 directed the National Highway Traffic
Safety Administration (hereafter NHTSA) to initiate regulation of additional brake
performance standards, including ABS for all passenger vehicles weighing less than
10,000 pounds [NHTSA, 1998]. This report was made in conjunction with the National
Center for Statistics and Analysis, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, and
U.S. Department of Transportation. These are the most credible groups to publish reports
and statistics for this purpose. The report we will be using is DOT-HS-808-758 which is
titled Analysis of the Crash Experience with Vehicles Equipped with Antilock Braking
Systems.
16

From the report, we need to explain the criteria that were used to make the report
understandable. First, the NHTSA recognized that not all crashes could be used. They
also recognized that there is a need to separate the crashes into categories for more
specific evaluation. They avoided using crashes in which it was unclear whether ABS
would have made a difference in the outcome such as sideswipes, head-on collisions,
unidentified crashes, and pile-ups. Vehicles that included drivers who were under the
influence of alcohol or who fell asleep at the wheel were also not used. Finally, crashes
that were on roads other than the determined conditions were left out. The only two
categories of crashes considered were good and bad. Good includes dry, paved, and
free of debris. Bad includes wet, snowy, gravel, or unpaved. Any crashes that fit neither
of the categories were not included.
The five types of crashed that were studied are rollovers (ROLL), side impacts
with parked vehicles or fixed objects considered loss of control (SIDE), frontal impacts
with parked vehicles or fixed objects considered run off the road (ROR), frontal impacts
with another motor vehicle in transport considered did not stop in time (FRONT), and
impacts with a pedestrian (PED).
To begin the discussion of real world statistics, we will start with a specific
category, fatal crashes of all vehicles. We distinguish the group of all vehicles because
the statistics are broken down into all-wheel ABS and rear-wheel ABS for cars and
trucks, and we are mainly interested in the overall effect of ABS.
Table 2: Fatal Crash Statistics: Percentage Change in Number of Crashes for ABS
Vehicles [NHTSA, 1998]
Type of Crash
ROLL
SIDE
FRONT
ROR
PED

Good Surfaces
41.32
47.59
4.72
-11.43
9.82

Bad Surfaces
-14.69
52.71
-51.84
-16.9
-47.47

We are primarily concerned with the overall effect of ABS performance; therefore
we will consider the effectiveness of ABS over traditional brakes for all crashes and all
vehicles.

17

Table 3: Overall Crash Statistics: Percentage Change in the Number of Crashes for ABS
Vehicles [NHTSA, 1998]
Type of Crash
ROLL
SIDE
FRONT
ROR
PED

Good Surfaces
18.75
7.22
-19.99
-14.04
-10.97

Bad Surfaces
15.18
7.97
-55.09
2.24
-35.183

There are a lot of numbers in the Tables 2 and 3. Unfortunately, no clear

conclusion can be made from the tables. There are instances where fatal crashes are
increased by ABS and there are instances where ABS decreased fatal crashes. The same
can be said for overall crashes. So NHTSA conducted a significance test. They did this
by setting a null hypothesis that ABS is not effective and tried to reject this null
hypothesis. From the significance test, they were not able to come to any significant
conclusion about ABS [NHTSA, 1998].

Possible Improvisations
After surveying the data, we feel that we have enough knowledge about the
subject to brainstorm some improvisations. Our first improvement of ABS would be to
have all drivers use and understand their brake system. Comparing the real world
statistics of fatal crashes with overall crashes, we see that ABS improves safety for three
categories in the fatal crashes but only two categories for overall crashes. Since fatal
crashes tend to occur in high speed collisions, ABS seems to be geared toward improving
highway safety. We feel that reducing the number of fatalities is more important than
overall crashes. Obviously, we want crashes to go down; however, saving a broken an
arm is much less important than saving a life. Therefore, if all drivers use ABS, we
believe that we would not see a change in overall crash numbers but a decrease in crash
severity.
Besides all automobiles having ABS, there are other possibilities that may
decrease the dangers of driving. In certain situations, such as lightly packed snow and
loose gravel, ABS is less safe than traditional brakes. In these situations when the driver
locks the wheels, a small hill of dirt, grass, gravel, or snow develops in front of the tire
which offers additional resistance to motion, but since ABS does not lock up, the wheels

18

keep rotating and hills never develop. In these situations, it would be much safer if the
car had the technology to determine the road type and deactivated the ABS.
On a side note, many newer and more expensive cars have a switch that makes the
car headlights automatic. The car headlights turn on when the light is less than adequate
to drive without headlights. This feature frequently turns the lights on when a person is
traveling under a bridge or any time the light is less than adequate, increasing the driver's
vision. In addition, the light can still be controlled manually if something is not working
properly. This same idea could be used for ABS brakes. The ABS switch could be easily
accessible and have three settings similar to the headlights: on, off, and automatic. When
automatic is activated, the ABS system would be able to turn on and off in an instant
much like the automatic headlights. Finally, in situations where the car is not responding
to road conditions properly, the ABS could be manually overridden.

Conclusion
Whether a car is equipped with ABS or not, the facts remain the same. 38,309
Americans died in 2002 from car accidents, and 40% of those accidents were due to tire
skidding. After analyzing the previous data, we can draw several conclusions about the
effectiveness of ABS. With the skid-stopping ABS in place, there have been no
significant changes in driver safety and survival rate. We found that ABS is not generic.
The ABS has to be customized for the individual car. For many systems, there is a lot of
potential improvement for the adaptation of ABS onto the cars. Also in the early stages
of development, ABS was expected to be installed on every car in the future. The future
is now, and only 82% of new cars come equipped with ABS. Thus, we see that ABS is a
luxury that has not fulfilled its potential.
The main advantages of ABS are that drivers keep control of vehicle, cause fewer
accidents, and, at times, have better stopping power. Also ABS is seen to perform better
than traditional brakes at higher speeds. This leads to an increase in highway safety,
which probably makes ABS worth the extra money because the highway is where
emergency braking is most often used.
There are many theories that try to explain why we do not see the statistical
improvement. One theory is said that ABS tends to make drivers drive less cautiously.

19

Another explanation is that all drivers do not know how to use ABS properly. Some
drivers can be alarmed by the foot sensation which causes undue panic causing them to
drive off the road.
Americans will always love speed, and as long as there are cars on the road, there
will be people who drive fast and lose control. Therefore, regardless of the braking
system, drivers should attempt to make safety their first priority. The ones who ignore
this suggestion will keep causing accidents. Having ABS will not prevent many
accidents with a reckless driver. Thus, ABS can be used effectively only if it is used
within its design parameters and its limitations are well understood.

20

Glossary
Brake Fade: A temporary reduction of braking effectiveness, caused by overheating
from excessively hard and long braking, or by water reducing the friction between the
braking surfaces [Crouse, 1983].
Dynamic Friction: See friction.
Friction: Friction is resistance to sliding. Whenever there is relative motion between
any two objects in contact, there is friction. Essentially friction is the opposition to
motion. As the applied force on an object increases the opposing friction increases up to
a certain value after which the object starts moving. Friction is quantified using a
coefficient of friction . The force of friction is given by Ffriction = N. In general, you
need more force to start moving than to keep moving; i.e. static > kinetic. Thus the
friction just before you begin to move is called static friction and the one just after you
start moving is called dynamic friction. There is one more type of friction called rolling
friction. It refers to the friction of a rolling object and is significantly lesser than the
dynamic friction.
Jennite: Jennite is the trade name of a coal tar emulsion asphalt sealer [Forkenbrock et al,
1999].
J-turn: J-turn is a maneuver in which the driver suddenly and severely turns the steering
wheel followed by a quick brake application [Forkenbrock et al, 1999].
Kinetic energy: Kinetic energy is defined as the energy of motion. It is the energy
needed to get to a particular velocity or even slow down from a given velocity to rest. In
a typical car less than 10% of the total energy is stored in the rotating parts [Thiessen,
1987].
Longitudinal Direction: It refers to the direction along the length of the tire as opposed
to its width.
Pumping: In our case, pumping refers to action of rapidly pressing the brake pedal and
releasing it in an attempt to have more traction on the road.
Rolling Friction: See friction.
Self-energizing: It is the fact once the drum brakes are engaged; we need less pressure to
keep them engaged because the brake shoes pull themselves into the drum. (If you have

21

noticed, while your parking brakes are engaged, you can quite easily go in reverse but not
drive forward because of the self-energizing action.)
Slip: Slip is a term used to refer to the relative motion between the tire surface and the
road. In the case of no-slip, there is no relative motion between the tires and the road
even when the car is in motion.
Static Friction: See friction
Steering Angle: It is the angle that the tires make with the frame of the car when turning.
Steering Control: It is the ability to maintain directional control of the car.

22

Works Cited
America Brakes for Safety, http://www.abs-education.org/educ/brochure.htm (ABS
Education Alliance, accessed on 12 November 2003).
Abbott, Sheldon L., Automotive Brakes (Encino, CA: Glencoe Publishing Company,
1977).
Chizmar, Lawrence, Jr., Replacement of Drum Brakes with Caliper Disc Brakes, Port
Technology International, 11th edition (2001), pp. 99-102.
Crouse, William Harry, Automotive Brakes, Suspension, and Steering (New York:
McGraw Hill, 1983).
Cuderman, Jerry Ferdinand, Performance of Passenger Vehicle Anti-Lock Braking
Systems: An Experimental Study (Austin: The University of Texas at Austin, 2001).
Evans, Leonard and Peter H. Gerrish, Antilock brakes and risk of front and rear impact
in the-vehicle crashes, Accident Analysis and Prevention, vol. 28, no. 3 (1996), pp. 315323.
Forkenbrock, Garrick, Mark Flick, and W. Riley Garrot, A Comprehensive Light
Vehicle Antilock Brake System Test Track Performance Evaluation, Brake Technology
and ABS/TCS Systems, SP 1413 (1999).
Heller, Carl T., Automotive Braking Systems (Reston Publishing Company Inc., 1985).
Kelley, Ken, As Easy as ABS: Brakes Hit U.S., Roads & Bridges, vol. 35, issue 8
(August 1997).
Longoria, Raul, Associate Professor at The University of Texas at Austin (Austin: 4
November 2003), personal interview.
Lunder, Ed, Clutches and Brakes get a Grip on Torque, PTdesign (June 1998),
pp. 44-47.
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Analysis of the Crash Experiences of
Vehicles Equipped with Antilock Braking Systems: An Update, DOT HS 808 758,
(Springfield, VA: Department of Transportation, August 1998).
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Traffic Safety Facts 2002: A
Compilation of Motor Vehicle Crash Data from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System
and the General Estimates System (U. S. Department of Transportation, 2002).
Nice, Karim, How Anti-Lock Brakes Work, http://auto.howstuffworks.com/anti-lockbrake.htm (Atlanta, GA: HowStuffWorks, Inc., accessed on 12 November 2003).

23

Norton, Robert L., Machine Design, an Integrated Approach, 2nd ed. (Englewood Cliffs,
N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 2000).
O'Donnell, Jayne, Anti-lock brakes fall out of favor with some automakers regulators,
USA Today (23 August 2003).
Remling, John, Brakes (John Wiley & Sons, 1983).
Selected Motor Vehicle Statistics, World Almanac & Book of Facts (New York: Gareth
Stevens Publishing, 2003)
Technical Training and Education: Drum Brake Service, Motor Age (October 1991).
Thiessen, Frank J., Automotive Braking Systems (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall,
1987).

24

Appendix A
An example of an ABS Braking model (Matlab Simulink demo)

Appendix B

Stopping Distance Correction

To make the experiments manageable, many a time the speeds used were lesser
than those that would have been observed in real world. Accordingly, the actual stopping
distances of the vehicles was adjusted to represent the actual distances that would have
been observed if the braking was performed at the real world speeds [Forkenbrock et al,
1999].

s =
where: s

v t2arg et
v

2
actual

s actual

= corrected stopping distance,

vtarget = target initial vehicle velocity,

vactual = actual initial vehicle velocity, and
sactual

= actual stopping distance.

II