Questions from Last Lecture

Niagara Escarpment: What is its geology?

Clay Mineral Formation What is the chemical
alteration process?
What is the relative weathering rate of common
minerals?

GEO 1111 - Streams

Niagara Escarpment: What is its geology?

GEO 1111 - Streams

An Example of Clay Mineral Formation

Clay minerals are the most abundant product of weathering and
they are formed when Silicate minerals decompose by hydrolysis
2KAlSi3O8 + 2H+ + 9H2O >> Al2Si2O5(OH)4

+ 2K+

+ 4H4SiO4

Orthoclase feldspar+ acid + water>> clay + potassium + soluble silica

The ions released from silicate minerals in the weathering process are
sodium, potassium, calcium, iron, and magnesium ions. They are carried
away by rain and river waters or become important soil nutrients.

GEO 1111 - Streams

Mineral Stability

GEO 1111 - Streams

Water, Hydrology, Streams, and Rivers

GEO 1111 - Streams

Learning Objectives
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Hydrologic cycle
Residence time of water in a system
Streams and rivers
Streams functions; hydraulic parameters and load
Particle Transport and Stokes Law
Base level and graded steam concepts
Floods and flood control

GEO 1111 - Streams

Hydrologic Cycle
Hydrologic cycle - the movement of water between the ocean (hydrosphere),
air (atmosphere), and land (lithosphere).
PROCESSES:

Energy source: Sun

evaporation
precipitation
infiltration
evapotranspiration

runoff

streams
GEO 1111 - Streams

Annual Water Balance

Stream Runoff = Input Losses
Input = rain and snow
Losses =evapotranspiration

Storage
changes in volume of soil water
or lake or river water

GEO 1111 - Streams

Annual Water Balance

Stream Runoff = Input Losses

Input = rain and snow
Losses =evapotranspiration
Storage changes in soil or lake

Unit runoff concept

can be scaled with catchment size
Like precipitation in mm/a (a=year)

Typical values in Ottawa Area

Input 800 mm/a (total rain & snow)
Evapotranspiration 350 mm/a
Runoff 450 mm /a
GEO 1111 - Streams

Water Balance

Inputs & Outputs per time

Steady State: Inputs equal outputs
Steady State: No increase in reservoir size
Residence time = volume/flux per time
Example
V= 106m3
Input =2*106m3 a-1
Residence time = 0.5a
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Why is residence time important?

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Annual Water Balance

What is the average discharge of the Ottawa
River at the Carillon Dam (~Montreal)?
Flow = 1940 m3 sec-1
Drainage Area = 146,300 km 2
Unit Discharge = Flow / Drain area= 0.42 m a-1

How does the annual discharge compare with

the Mackenzie? The Fraser? The Amazon?
How does the unit discharge compare?
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Residence Time of Water in Pink

Lake, Gatineau Park?

Catchment Area = 2km2

Precipitation = 800 mm/a
Evaporation = 500 mm/a
Lake Volume = 1*107m3
Residence time = Volume /Input

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Residence Time of Water in Pink

Lake, Gatineau Park

Catchment Area = 2km2 = 2*106 m2

Precipitation = 800 mm/a =0.8 m/a
Evaporation = 500 mm/a= 0.5 m/a
Lake Volume (V) = 1*107m3
ALWAYS CHECK YOUR UNITS!
Do a dimensional analysis
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Residence Time of Water in Pink

Lake, Gatineau Park

Catchment Area = 2km2 = 2*106 m2

Precipitation = 800 mm/a =0.8 m/a
Evaporation = 500 mm/a= 0.5 m/a
Lake Volume (V) = 1*107m3
Residence time = Volume /Input
Input (I) = (Precip-Evap)*Catchmt Area
Input = (0.8m-0.5m)*2*106 m2 =0.6*106 m3
Residence time = V/I = (10/0.6)=16.6 a
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Some Water Residence Times

Water in atmosphere?
A few days

Water in Lake Ontario?

6.4 to 9 years

Groundwater in a deep aquifer?

100s to 1000s of years

Sea water in Ocean?

~3200 years
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What happens when .

Water input greater than output?
Water level in river / lake rises
Flooding
Ships can hold more cargo and do not ground in channels

Water loss greater than precipitation input?

Water levels drop, salinity rises,
Soil dries up and wind-born soil transport increases
Agricultural crop failure

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A Drought Example
Average Precipitation is 80 cm/a & Evaporation
is 60 cm/a
What is the runoff?
The soil water contains 20 cm water equivalent
How many years will the water in the soil last if
the temperature rises 5oC and P is 80 and E is 85
cm/a?

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Streams and Rivers

Streams are any flowing body of water
Rivers are major branches of a stream system

Fraser River, BC

Stoney Creek, Texas

Stream distribution f (plate tectonics, climate system)

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Hydrologic Cycle
Distribution of Earths water

1. Oceans: 97.2%
2. Freshwater: 2.8%
2a. glaciers: 2.15%
2b. groundwater: 0.62%

2c. other
lakes: 0.009%
soil moisture: 0.005%
atmosphere: 0.001%
streams: 0.0001%

So, why do we care?

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Importance
Streams are major geological agents of
change in landscapes (transfer material
from the highs to the lows plane out
relief)
Streams provide pathways for
inland colonization of continents
e.g. Jacques Cartier
Lewis and Clark
Most cities are built on
floodplains of rivers
Source of drinking water

Agriculture
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Importance
Streams / rivers are
also excellent
playgrounds

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Stream system components

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Drainage basins
Some terminology:
Drainage basin: total area drained by
a stream and its tributaries
Tributary: small stream flowing into a
larger one (contributes)
Drainage divide: ridge of high ground
dividing one drainage basin from another
(red line imaginary!)

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Drainage basins
Largest drainage
basin of N. Am.?

Ottawa River drainage basin

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Stream system components

Headwaters
Mouth

Longitudinal profile: cross-sectional

view of the stream bed (red line)

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Stream system components

Headwaters
Mouth

The three basic parts of a stream:

1. valleys: sloping area around

the stream
2. channels: bottom of valley,
where water flows
3. floodplains: flat area in valley
level with top of channel. Portion
of the valley that can be flooded

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a) gradient (L): height/distance (cm-m/km)

in L downstream.

b) discharge (Q): Q (m3/s) = U (m/s) x A (m2)

Q downstr. - from collection of tributaries
c) depth (d) & width (w): channel size downstr.;
also, A = friction; larger streams have higher U

width m
depth m

Hydraulics and channel geometry

velocity m/s

From upstream to downstream

discharge m3/s

d) velocity (U): average U downstr.; less bed

roughness, higher Q, larger channels
(overcome the lower L)
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Stream Processes

Streams job = plane out relief via channelized flow (most efficient)
Accomplished through:
1. erosion
2. transport
3. Deposition

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What controls erosion vs. transport vs. deposition?

a) hydraulic parameters

b) stream morphology
c) material (eroding into
and/or transporting)

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How is sediment transported ?

Streams erode and transport colossal amounts of sediments;
continents oceans

Modes of sediment transport

Bedload along the bed
Saltation periodically
lifts off into the flow
Suspension in the fluid
Solution dissolved load
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What keeps a particle suspended?

Stokes Law describes the forces
Force of (1) buoyancy and (2) frictional and form drag due to flow

Force of gravity
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Particles settle when FG>(FB+FD)

Force of Buoyancy and Force of drag due to flow

Force of gravity
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Forces on a Particle in Flowing Water

Force of Gravity on Particle p
Gravity Force = mpg = Vp Dpg

Fluid Buoyancy Force = VpDf g

Force G-B = Vp(Dp-Df)g
Force Difference between
gravity and buoyancy
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Particle settling in Flowing Water

Force of Frictional drag due to flow

Particle is dragged along by

flow so drag force is in the
direction of flow velocity

Fluid Drag Force

Drag = 0.5 C Df Rp2 W2
Df is fluid density
Rp is particle radius
W is water velocity
C Drag coefficient
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A Simple Experiment

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Water Velocity and Particle Transport

Particles settle when FG>(FB+FD)

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Base level and graded streams

Interplay between erosion, transport, and deposition f(base level)

Base level: level below which a

stream cannot erode
e.g. sea level, lake level, dam

Altitude above
sea level (m)

Longitudinal
profile
Graded stream: equilibrium state
where channel geometry and
hydraulic parameter enable the
stream to transport its load with
neither deposition nor erosion.
Distance from headwaters of river (km)
Source
Mouth
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Base level and graded streams

Changes in base level result in an
adjustment in the longitudinal profile

1) Increase in base level

longitudinal prof. adjusts by: deposition

2) Decrease in base level

longitudinal prof. adjusts by: erosion
transport
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Channel pattern
Braided if interlacing network of channels

Braided rivers
rapid and irregular discharge
higher slopes
erodible banks
rapid channel migration
abundant coarse sediment
in-channel bars (lense of sediment)

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Channel pattern
Meandering rivers
lower and more regular discharge
lower slopes
cohesive banks
slower more regular channel migration
abundant fine sediment

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Channel pattern

well developed levees

build-up of river banks floods

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Channel pattern
Flow in meandering
channels

Cross-channel flow
(secondary flow)
+
Downstream flow
Helicoidal flow pattern

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Channel pattern
Flow in meandering
channels

Cross-channel flow
(secondary flow)
+
Downstream flow
Helicoidal flow pattern

point bar deposits

along inner bank
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Channel pattern
Consequence of secondary flow =
POINT BAR deposits

point bar deposits

along inner bank

* animation
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Floods - when streams leave their beds

Flood when discharge > stream capacity
stream overflows its banks
NATURAL process

Causes rapid snow melt

ice-jam
...
Contributing factors:
low infiltration rate
topography
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Floods - when streams leave their beds

Impacts One of the most
deadly and destructive geologic
hazards; Why?

Artificial levee breach New Orleans

(Hurricane Katrina, August 2005)
GEO 1111 - Streams

Ice-jam
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Floods
Flood consequences
HUMAN impact
life loss, disease, water contamination

MATERIAL impact
destruction or damage of
property and infrastructures

LANDSCAPE modification
erosion (high discharge)
sedimentation (reduced velocity
channel invades floodplain)
channel avulsion
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Alberta Floods
June 19-22 2013

>200mm rain in two days

Snow cover & Saturated ground
Steep watershed no storage
4 deaths, 100k evacuees
$>1B flood damage

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Flood Control Techniques

Winnipeg, Manitoba
floodplain of Red River

Controls artificial levees

dams
channelization
Natural Storage Areas
Live elsewhere
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Video Reviewing Hydrologic Cycle

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ts19O41k
wDA

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Summary of Key Concepts

1. Streams / Rivers transport water, solutes and sediment
2. Water runoff (Flow) is the difference between water inputs and
evapotranspiration (if at steady state)
3. Unit runoff allows discharge to be calculated and flows to be
scaled in different catchments
4. Water Residence time is average time a water molecule is in the
lake, river, stream, atmosphere etc
5. Stokes Law describes the settling of particles in streams and
other moving fluids. (gravity vs buoyancy and drag)
6. Flooding is the most damaging and dangerous direct impact of
excess flow
Streams are loci of human habitation.
Extreme events are difficult to predict and control.
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Your Input Survey!

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Next Lecture
Groundwater

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