Questions from Last Lecture

Are geologists licensed like doctors? Yes There is

a provincial license and only licensed geoscientists
can certified geoscience work.
What units are m/a? (Meters per year; a=year)
Explain the Unit Runoff concept?
What is the base level in a graded stream?

Unit Runoff / Discharge

What is the average discharge of the Ottawa River
at the Carillon Dam (~Montreal)?
Flow = 1940 m3 sec-1
Drainage Area = 146,300 km 2

What is the annual average UNIT discharge of the

Ottawa River?
Unit Discharge = Flow/Drainage Area
Unit Discharge = flow m3 a-1 / Drainage Area (m2)
Unit Discharge = 0.42 m a-1

Think of unit runoff like precipitation (m/a)

2

Base Flow and Channel Formation

Learning Objectives:
1. GROUNDWATER: definition, importance and distribution
2. Groundwater reservoirs
3. Dacys Law & Groundwater movement & flow
4. Problems with using groundwater resources
5. Geologic features associated with groundwater

Hydrologic cycle (reminder)

Distribution of Earths water
1. Oceans: 97.2%
2. Freshwater: 2.8%

2a. glaciers: 2.15%

2b. groundwater: 0.62%
2c. Other: 0.03%
lakes: 0.009%
soil moisture: 0.005%
atmosphere: 0.001%
streams: 0.0001%

Todays lecture

Definition, importance and distribution

Groundwater is a major economic resource
Percentage of population reliant on groundwater for domestic use
~ 25-40% in Canada
(~9-14 million people)
~70% in Maritimes

Definition, importance and distribution

Groundwater: the water that lies
beneath the ground surface.
Hydrosphere's fresh water:

1. Glaciers (~77%)
2. Groundwater (~22%)
~ 15% of total precipitation infiltrates
ground and ends up as groundwater
Groundwater is slow moving, but not static:

recharges (rain)
discharges (feeds rivers)

Definition, importance and distribution

Misconception: groundwater is found in underground lakes and rivers
(true but quite rare)

Groundwater reservoirs

Groundwater found in pores of soil and sediment + fractures of bedrock

pores

fractures
dry soil

saturated soil

Solid
Water
Air

Groundwater reservoirs

Controls on availability of groundwater

Porosity (): percentage of voids or pore space (vs. total volume).
Determines how much groundwater can be stored.
= f(grain roundness, sorting, and cementation) texture
( rounded, sorted = high porosity)

Measurement of Porosity
Volume of sand column = 1000mL
Column contains sand plus porosity
In dry sand the porosity is filled with air

Replace all the air with water

Porosity = volume water / total volume

Groundwater reservoirs

Controls on availability of groundwater

Permeability or Conductivity: capacity of a rock or sediment to transmit a
fluid. Function of pore SIZES and INTERCONNECTIVITY.

How much water can you get from

a material? Yield of Water
Sand Experiment
Porosity =
Water Yield =

Gravel Experiment
Porosity =
Water Yield =

Best Groundwater reservoirs

Porosity and permeability
Shale

Granite

Quartz sandstone

Fractured crystalline rock

Best Groundwater reservoirs

low

Shale

Porosity

high

Granite

low

Permeability

high

Quartz sandstone

Fractured crystalline rock

Groundwater reservoirs

Sediments

Rocks

Total Storage (% void space)

% that CAN drain by gravity

% that CANNOT

Distribution of groundwater
unsaturated
zone

water table
1. Unsaturated zone
zone of
voids filled by water and air;
saturation
infiltration and percolation
water is under suction (negative
pressure) due to capillary forces
water cannot be pumped by wells
2. Water table: upper limit of
zone of saturation; surface of
3. Zone of saturation
the water level in the ground
zone where all of the voids in soil,
sediment and rock are completely
filled with water
water is under + pressure and can
be extracted by wells

Distribution of groundwater
unsaturated
zone

water table
zone of
saturation

Pressure vs. atmos. P

undersat. zone

P < atmos. P; H2O under P

water table

P = atm. P

sat. zone

P > atmos. P; H2O under + P

Variations in the water table

depth varies seasonally and yearly
slope of water table usually ~ conforms to

Groundwater reservoirs
What factors control infiltration?
1. Precipitation (qty / time)

2. Slope

3. Geologic Material

4. Vegetation

Groundwater reservoirs
Where is groundwater stored?
Aquifer: permeable rock strata or sediment that stores and
transmits groundwater. (e.g.: sand, gravel)
Acquitard: semi-permeable rock layer ( retards water) confining layers
(barriers to flow;
Aquiclude: impermeable rock layer ( excludes water) e.g.: shale)

Groundwater reservoirs
AQUIFERS
Unconfined aquifer: aquifer uncapped by a confining layer;
groundwater is not under pressure; top of aquifer (water table)
moves freely up and down.
Confined aquifer (syn.: artesian aquifer): aquifer sandwiched in
between two confining layers (usually inclined to allow recharge);
groundwater is under pressure and level of projected water table
(pressure or potentiometric surface) is above the top of the aquifer.
Well: a hole (usually lined) drilled into the ground to penetrate
an aquifer (goal : extract water).
Non-flowing artesian well: when the water table (pressure
surface) of a confined aquifer rests BELOW the ground level

Flowing artesian well: when the water table (pressure

surface) of a confined aquifer rests ABOVE the ground level

Groundwater reservoirs

non-flowing
(pressure surface)

Groundwater movement
General pattern of movement
recharge discharge
(high)
(low)

Balance between:
1. potential energy
(high to low elevations)
2. pressure
(weight of water above)
Velocity in order of cm/day
Faster near surface

Groundwater movement
Henry Darcy (French engineer) equation to calculate fluid velocity
through a porous media (circa 1850).
Darcys Law states that if permeability remains uniform, the velocity
of groundwater will increase as the slope of the water table (hydraulic
gradient) increases.

v groundwater velocity
K hydraulic conductivity (related to permeability)
porosity
i hydraulic gradient = driving force

Groundwater movement
Sample calculation #1

Calculate groundwater flow

velocity (v) using Darcs Law:

K h
v i

(w.t. of confined aquifer)

h = 10
h=8

L = 50

K 105 m / s for sand

0.30 for sand
h (10 8) 1
i

L
50
25

v 1.3x10-6 m / s 42 m / y
Source: Freeze and Cherry, 1979. Groundwater. P48.

Groundwater movement
Exchange of water between groundwater and streams depends on the
positions of the water table (w.t.) with respect to the stream bed
Two basic types of interactions:
1. gaining streams:
gain water from the inflow
of groundwater through the
streambed

w.t. HIGHER than stream bed

2. losing streams:
lose water to the groundwater
system by outflow through the
streambed
w.t. LOWER than stream bed

Groundwater movement
Sample calculation #2

Plan view
Lake
Getsitall
Elevation = 108 m (above sea level)

3 km

Lake
Leakalot

Elevation = 133 m (above sea level)

Q: If contaminant spills in L. Leakalot,

how long will it take to get to L. Getsitall?

Groundwater movement
Sample calculation #2 (continued)
Cross-section

133 m

108 m
Bedrock

K h
v i

L
K

K 10 m / s for sand
0.30 for sand
h (133 108)
i

8.3x104
L
3000

3 km

v 2.7x10-7 m / s 8.76 m / y

L
v
t

L
t
v

L
3000 m
t
342 y
v 8.76 m / y

Groundwater Contamination
Other sources and types of
contamination include:
Highway road salt
Fertilizers
Pesticides
Chemical and industrial
materials
Bacteria and viruses

Problematic issues associated with groundwater

Problems associated with groundwater withdrawal
Sewage contamination: sewage often becomes purified as it passes
through tens of meters of an aquifer composed of sand or permeable
sandstone.
In extremely permeable aquifers, such as coarse gravel or
fractured bedrock, groundwater may travel long distances
without being cleaned.

Problems associated with groundwater withdrawal

To ensure a continuous supply
of water, a well must penetrate
below the w.t.

Before heavy pumping

Excessive pumping of
wells can cause:
drawdown (lowering) of the w.t.
cone of depression in the w.t.

After heavy pumping

Problematic issues associated with groundwater

90 000 domestic wells in Eastern Ontario

Problems associated with groundwater withdrawal

Treating groundwater as a nonrenewable resource
in many places the water available to recharge the aquifer
falls significantly short of the amount being withdrawn
Hydrologic mass balance is out of Balance!

Which can lead to

Subsidence: ground sinks when water is pumped from wells faster
than natural recharge processes can replace it.

Problematic issues associated with groundwater

Subsidence caused by withdrawal

1925
San Joaquin Valley, CA

1955

1977

Problems associated with groundwater withdrawal

Saltwater contamination: excessive groundwater withdrawal
causes saltwater to be drawn into wells

Features associated with groundwater

Distribution of hot springs and geysers

Any observations on the geographic distribution?

Geothermal map

Features associated with groundwater

Geysers: intermittent surface
emission of hot water
Water erupts with great
force, often rising 30-60 m
into the air
Occur when complex
network of fractures in hot
igneous rock

Groundwater heats,
expands, changes to
steam, and erupts

Features associated with groundwater

Yellowstone Natl.Park

Features associated with groundwater

Erosional features
Caves: large underground cavity
Karst topography: feature created when ground or surface water
dissolves rock; typically forms in limestone bedrock
Equations:

H2O + CO2 H2CO3 H+ + HCO3(carbonic acid)

(bicarbonate)

CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O Ca2+ + 2HCO3

Source of CO2 ?

(found in
hard water)

controlled by climates and fracture networks

dissolution rates of 4-5 mm/yr

Features associated with groundwater

Karst topography (caves, sinkholes, etc.)

Features associated with groundwater

Karst topography and sinkholes

Features associated with groundwater

Depositional features
Groundwater is often mildly acidic
dissolves rock (particularly limestone CaCO3)
Recall:
CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O Ca2+ + 2HCO3

If CO2 is allowed to escape, reaction reverts and CaCO3 deposits

Formation of:
stalactite
stalagmite
column/pillar

Features associated with groundwater

Formation of caves

* video

Carlsbad Caverns Natl. Park, NM

Features associated with groundwater

Limestone (CaCO3) deposits of Mammoth Hot Springs (Yellowstone, Ntl. Park)
Travertine: CaCO3 deposited by surface or groundwater (hot springs, geysers, caves)

Release of CO2 (agitation, hot water T)

triggers precipitation of calcium carbonate

Check out Geology in Action

http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_detailpage&v=LWrklFuYnb0

Summary
1. GROUNDWATER is widely distributed and a key source of
potable water for many people.
2. Groundwater is in the porosity of the rock or soil
3. Groundwater movement controlled by gradient and hydraulic
conductivity of the porous media (Darcys Law).
4. Groundwater can dissolve carbonate rocks leading to sink
holes and other geologic features.
5. Excess usage of groundwater is depleting the resource in many
areas or contaminating it with chemical / biological wastes.