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Sect 1
Job View - Systems Engineering is what a person with the titled position of "Systems
Engineer" does and has as his/her job description, responsibility and/or role Role
A key part of the Technical Assessment process is the use of the results of Technical
Design Reviews. Such reviews and the assessments that result from them are one of
the keys to a knowledge-based acquisition process. A recent GAO survey of over 70
major DoD programs concluded that:
1.3
A process is a sequence of steps or activities performed for a given purpose. A
process converts an input (such as requirements) to a desired output (such as
defined work products) through a set of structured activities. To execute a process,
it takes resources such as trained people, funds, facilities, equipment, tools and
methods. Processes are constrained by various management and legal and
regulatory directives and requirements. identifies "what" has to be done but not the
details of "how" to do it. Standardized processes are essential for:
Clarity in communicating taskings
Controlling the overall technical effort
Designing systems solutions
'Realizing' products that make up the system
"Realization" is a formal term used to precisely quantify the desired end-state of
Systems Engineering activities.
Which of the following statements about the various Technical Processes used in
Systems Engineering is correct? They are used for designing systems and for
product realization.
Which of the following statements about the various Technical Management Processes used in Systems
Engineering is correct? They are key to managing the overall technical effort.
Let's look at a simplistic (you'll find out why later!) example of Systems Engineering Technical
Processes in action, starting with the three Technical Processes used to design a system. These
processes are:
1.Stakeholder Requirements Definition Process : Requirements for DoD systems come from various
diverse constituencies (generically categorized as Acquirer Requirements Acquirer Requirements
Acquirer Requirements may be in the form of requirement statements from a customer, user or
operator; or be expressed as a set of assigned/allocated specifications developed previously. and Other
Interested Party Requirements Other Interested Party Requirements
These types of requirements include those of parties who have some interest in the system, such as
those providing life cycle support functions; OSD management or other government agencies; and
laws, regulations, treaties, policies, etc. which may affect the program or project. ). Together these
requirements comprise the set of Stakeholder RequirementsStakeholder requirements
These are requirements that represent what stakeholders of a system need or expect of the system
products. They are comprised of "Acquirer Requirements" and "Other Interested Party Requirements". ,
which also include Derived Requirements Derived Requirements
Derived Requirements are those that are not explicitly stated in the set of Stakeholder Requirements,
yet are required to satisfy one or more specific Stakeholder Requirements. Derived Requirements are
generated based on an operational or technical analysis of a Stakeholder Requirement in order to
clarify the requirement or make it achievable. For example:
Stakeholder Requirement: A missile must have a fly-out distance of 2 kms and hit a target having a
Radar Cross Section the size of a tennis ball.
Derived Requirement: The missile shall be aimed within 2 degrees of the target so that the warhead
terminal seeker can lock on and perform the terminal intercept. . These sets of requirements are
ultimately transformed into Technical Requirements Technical Requirements
Measures of Effectiveness (MOEs) give definition to the operational capabilities essential to mission
accomplishment. They represent the metrics by which satisfaction with products produced by the
technical effort will be measured. KPPs, established as part of the JCIDS process, are special cases of
MOEs. Typically if a system cannot satisfy its KPPs, its development should cease. are also initially
identified.
2.Requirements Analysis Process : Technical Requirements are then analyzed in various ways to
determine an optimal functional architecture Functional Architecture
This is an arrangement of functions and their sub-functions and interfaces (internal and external) that
defines the execution sequencing, conditions for control or data flow, and the performance
requirements to satisfy the requirements baseline. . Interfaces are defined in more detail. Performance
parameters are allocated. Important additional Technical Requirements (called Derived Technical
RequirementsDerived Technical Requirements
These are technical requirements that are further refined from a primary source requirement or a
higher-level derived requirement. Derived Technical Requirements are requirements that result from
the analysis of Technical Requirements, which is done as part of the Requirements Analysis Process or
Architecture Design Process. ) are identified. Work products Work Products
A work product is any artifact--material or electronic--generated during the conduct of the activities
and tasks of a process, including the desired outputs. are baselined.
3.Architecture Design Process : Using the outcomes from the Stakeholder Requirements Definition
Process and the Requirements Analysis Process, alternative design solutions are developed. More
Derived Technical Requirements may be identified as well. These design solutions are evaluated to
determine which are acceptable within cost, schedule and technical constraints. A design or a physical
architecture Physical Architecture
This is a hierarchical arrangement of people, product and process solutions; their functional and
performance requirements; their internal and external interfaces; and their physical constraints. It
forms the basis for the design. is established.
Outcomes of the Architecture Design Process typically include a set of Solution-Specified Requirements
Solution-Specified Requirements
These are the requirements that characterize and specify the functions and performance of the design
solution. They are expressed in the System Specification, subsystem specifications,
verification/validation criteria, various end product specifications and requirements for Enabling
Products. , a key component of which is the System Specification System Specification
This is a type of program-unique specification that describes the requirements and how they will be
verified for a combination of elements that must function together to produce the capabilities that
fulfill a mission need, including hardware, equipment and software. . These requirements are baselined
and become part of a Technical Data Package (TDP) A Technical Data Package (TDP)
A Technical Data Package (TDP) provides a comprehensive description of a given system element. The
TDP is used for the Implementation Process and is retained and placed under configuration
management and baselined throughout the life of the product.
Implementation Process : If subsystems do not need to be developed, then, using appropriate
elements from the TDP, the product is made, bought or reused. This may involve hardware fabrication,
manufacturing, software coding or purchase from outside sources. No matter what their source, some
degree of low-level verification and validation is performed to make sure that 'good' products are
implemented. Some supporting documentation may be developed.
5.Integration Process : At some point, implementation is completed. End product components are
assembled and integrated. As part of this, integrated components are verified and validated as
appropriate so as to ensure that only 'good' products actually get assembled and integrated.
6.Verification Process : Using criteria established as part of the Architecture Design Process and various
plans Various Plans
Key among these plans is the Test and Evaluation Master Plan (TEMP). The TEMP, one of the outcomes
of the Technical Planning Process, provides top-level details of systems-level verification
(Developmental Testing) and validation (Operational Testing). Specific test scenarios and scripts are
provided elsewhere in more detailed test plans. , the end product is verified. This ensures that it
conforms to its 'design-to' requirements and has been "built right".
7.Validation Process : Using criteria established as part of the Architecture Design Process and various
plans, the end product is validated. This ensures that it conforms to its Stakeholder Requirements and
is the "right product".
8.Transition Process : The end product either: (1) moves up a level (e.g., from subsystem to system) in
the physical architecture of the system for more development as needed; (2) it transitions to the next
acquisition life cycle phase; or (3) the End Product is delivered successfully to the user.
Technical Control Processes . These are:
1.Requirements Management Process : Used heavily as the three design Technical Processes iterate
and interact, it ensures that all of the generated Technical Requirements and Derived Requirements
can ultimately be traced back to user-defined capabilities and needs.
2.Interface Management Process : Used to support the Requirements Analysis Process (where many
interfaces are initially defined) as well as the Integration Process. Interface Management ensures
interface definition and compliance among system elements and for interoperability with other
systems.
3.Risk Management Process : Is a core process which underlies all others. It identifies, analyzes,
mitigates and tracks program technical risks.
4.Configuration Management Process : Ensures that baselines Baselines
Typically these include the following: Functional Baseline: Documentation describing system and
subsystem functional characteristics and the verification required to demonstrate the achievement of
those specified functional characteristics. Allocated Baseline: Documentation that designates the
Configuration Items (CIs) making up a system, and then allocates the system function and
performance requirements across the CIs (hence the term 'allocated baseline'). Product Baseline: The
approved technical documentation which describes a system's Configuration Item during the
production, fielding/deployment and operational support phases of its life cycle. are established,
controlled and kept consistent. Configuration Management is a key player with the Requirements
Management, Interface Management and Technical Data Management Processes.
5.Technical Data Management Process : A wide variety of data and information Data and Information
The term "data" as used in Technical Data Management includes technical data; computer software
documentation; or representation of facts, numbers, or datum of any nature that can be
communicated, stored and processed to form information required by a contract or agreement to be
delivered, or accessed by, the Government.
Information, on the other hand, is generally considered as processed data. The form of the processed
data is dependent on the documentation, report, review formats or templates that are applicable.
Of course, one needs wisdom to use either data or information most effectively. Unfortunately, that is
not one of the by-products of Technical Data Management! is produced as outcomes of various process
activities. Technical Data Management plans for it; acquires it; provides access to it; manages it; and
protects data and information of a technical nature needed to support the total life cycle of a system.
Technical Planning Process : This management process is the lynchpin of the entire Systems
Engineering process and ultimately, initiates the overall effort. Various key plans, such as the Systems
Engineering Plan (SEP) Systems Engineering Plan (SEP)
The SEP is a "living" "go to" technical planning document and the blueprint for the conduct,
management, and control of the technical aspects of the government's program from concept to
disposal. While a government plan, once a contract is awarded, it is expected that the SEP will be
updated to reflect the winning contractor(s)' technical strategy and System Engineering approach. ,
the Test and Evaluation Master Plan (TEMP) Test and Evaluation Master Plan (TEMP)
The TEMP is an important document in that it contains the required type and amount of integrated test
and evaluation events, along with their resource requirements. The TEMP focuses on the overall
structure, major elements and objectives of the T&E program, and it must be consistent with the
Systems Engineering Plan (SEP). and various other plans Other Plans
A number of "other plans" exist. Some of them frame the actual program's implementation of Technical
Management Processes. For example: Interface Management Plan; Requirements Management Plan;
Risk Management Plan; Configuration Management Plan; Data Management Plan, among others.
Others are so-called specialty plans which include: Electromagnetic Compatibility/ Interference
(EMC/EMI) Control Plan; Human Systems Integration (HSI) Plan; Producibility Plan; Programmatic
Environment, Safety, and Occupational Health Evaluation (PESHE); Security Plan; Information Support
Plan; Modeling & Simulation (M&S) Plan; Corrosion Prevention Plan, etc.
Many of these plans are discussed in various sections of the Defense Acquisition Guidebook (DAG). In
some cases, specific formats are suggested and in other cases, plan formats depend on local
command policies and regulations. Some plans are required by statute, and details about them are
provided via tabular format as enclosures to the DoD 5000-series of acquisition directives. are key
outcomes of the Technical Planning Process.
7.Technical Assessment Process : This process provides visibility to 'where we are' and 'where we are
going' in terms of the application of Technical Processes. Key tools used in Technical Assessment
include Technical Reviews Technical Reviews
Technical Reviews are an important oversight tool. They are used to review and evaluate the state of
the system and the program, re-directing activity after the review if found necessary. Technical
Reviews are key decision events used to measure technical progress and maturity in system
development as well as to assess various programmatic issues. , Earned Value Management (EVM)
Earned Value Management (EVM)
Earned Value Management is a tool that allows visibility into contractual technical, cost, and schedule
planning, performance, and progress. This visibility provides insight to contract performance, but also
provides the necessary data points to statistically estimate probable completion costs. EVM helps to
ensure that cost, schedule and technical aspects of the contract are truly integrated. and Technical
Performance Measurement (TPM) Technical Performance Measurement (TPM)
This is the technique of predicting the future value of a key technical parameter of the higher-level end
product under development, based on current assessments of products lower in the system structure.
In the DoD, these key technical parameters are typically related in some way to Key Performance
Parameters (KPPs) as well as Measures of Effectiveness (MOEs). .
8.Decision Analysis Process : This is a cross-cutting process that provides a rational, repeatable basis -both formal and informal -- for evaluating and selecting alternatives when a decision must be made. It
operates within the program's trade space Trade Space
Trade Space is the set of program and system parameters, attributes and characteristics required to
satisfy some aspect of system performance. Decision-makers define and refine the development
system by making trade-offs with regard to cost, schedule, risk and performance---all of which fall
within the "trade space".
Technical Processes get applied recursively to each system element, from the top to the bottom. This
continues until the lowest system products are defined to the point where they can be implemented
(i.e., bought, built or reused) and realized.
Meanwhile, Technical Management Processes are controlling all these Technical Processes and ensuring
their effective application.
There are eight Technical Processes that are used for designing and realizing systems.
5.Transition: Moves a system element to the next development stage or, for the End Product, to the
user
Systems Engineering Technical Management Processes are used to control the application of the
Technical Processes and to help ensure that they're effectively used. The eight Technical Management
Processes are:
1.Technical Planning: Ensures the proper application of Systems Engineering processes
2.Requirements Management: Provides traceability of system and subsystem requirements, ultimately
back to user-defined capabilities and needs
3.Interface Management: Ensures interface definition and compliance among system elements,
including other systems
4.Risk Management: Examines the technical risk of deviating from program plans
5.Configuration Management: Establishes and maintains the consistency of a product's attributes with
its requirements and configuration information
6.Technical Data Management: Plans for, acquires, accesses, manages, protects and uses data of a
technical nature in order to support the total life cycle of a system
7.Technical Assessment: Measures technical progress and the effectiveness of plans and requirements
8.Decision Analysis: Provides the basis for evaluation and selection of technical alternatives when
decisions need to be made
1.4
Additionally, standards play key roles in the following areas:
They provide a baseline of the "what's" and "why's". This provides a basis for assessing and
improving an organization's policies and procedures.
They are used by developers Developers
Although the 'developer' is cited here as reflective of the defense industry, in some situations, the DoD
is both the 'acquirer' and the 'developer'. to:
Establish and standardize internal processes
Direct usage by suppliers and subcontractors
Assess internal and supplier capabilities
Develop Systems Engineering technical plans
They are used by acquirers to:
Understand the developer's Systems Engineering activities
Determine and assess developer capabilities
They are used by countries to: Provide an industry segment with a set of national practices.
NOTE: DoD acquirers need to be familiar with standards that developers may use. This is so they can
properly evaluate the developer's proposals relative to Systems Engineering submitted as part of the
contracting process. However, the DoD does not generally contractually impose any particular SE
standard on developers.
These Systems Engineering standards differ primarily in their depth and breadth of coverage.
ISO/IEC 15288 (which is identical to IEEE Std 15288) has the greatest breadth (25 system life cycle
processes including post-deployment ones) but the least depth of coverage. It is useful for top-level
planning, primarily at the organizational level. This standard is designed to be used by an organization,
a project within an organization, or an acquirer and a supplier via an appropriate agreement.
EIA 632 defines the set of requirements for engineering a system. The processes in EIA 632 describe
'what to do' with respect to the processes for engineering a system. These are at the next level down
from the ISO/IEC 15288 level of system life cycle processes.
IEEE 1220 defines a Systems Engineering process. It gives the next level of detail below the process
requirements described in EIA 632. The process is described more at the task or application level.
IEEE 1220 has the greatest depth of coverage for its limited scope but the least breadth. EIA-632 falls
between the other two standards.
Key commercial Systems Engineering standards include _____. EIA 632, IEEE 1220 and ISO/IEC 15288
The scope, breadth and life cycle applicability of the various Systems Engineering commercial
standards such as EIA 632, IEEE 1220 and ISO/IEC 15288 are consistent. False
Standards are by design useful for helping a project implement Systems Engineering. They provide a
set of processes that, if performed by qualified persons using appropriate tools and methods, will
provide a capability for effective and efficient engineering of systems.
Maturity models (e.g., the CMMI) are by intent useful for determining the capability and/or maturity of
an organization to perform Systems Engineering. A maturity model is used to assess, from an
organizational perspective, how well processes have been established and instituted and how well they
are being followed.
1.5
Broad categories of system models include:
1.A generic dictionary type of definition that provides some insight but limited usefulness
for actually engineering a particular system
The notion behind this system model is that every system consists of:
1.One or more End Products that will perform the intended operational functions expected
by the customer and be within the constraints set by other stakeholders
2.A set of Enabling Products that perform life cycle service functions required for the End
Product to operate effectively
Each End Product will have its unique and common set of Enabling Products that will
enable the End Product to be designed, realized, deployed, operated, maintained and,
when the End Product has finished its useful life, to be properly disposed.
Enabling Products also include training products that will enable the operators and
maintainers of the system to perform their missions.
End Products and Enabling Products can be further characterized as outlined below.
End Product :
Defined as those products required to enable the End Product to be developed, produced,
tested, deployed, utilized, supported and disposed of
May need to be developed or may already exist and thus constrain Constrain
For instance, the size and operation of nozzles and clamping devices used for air-to-air
refueling have been standardized over many years within the Air Force and Navy tanker
fleets. Existing aircraft use these nozzles and clamping designs. New aircraft must
accommodate them as well. Similar considerations regarding so-called Ground Handling
Equipment (GHE), used to service aircraft, may apply as well. the End Product
Each End Product has its own set of Enabling Products
Enabling Products are determined by End Product life cycle requirements
Must be available to support End Product life cycle functions
An End Product can be:
1.Self-contained in terms of its use and operations
2.Items that have no use outside a larger end product, but that are developed as an end
product of a subsystem
Examples: An engine or radio for an aircraft; a power train or braking system for a tank;
switches or transducers for a communications module; a solar panel or transmitter for a
satellite
Enabling Products perform non-operational functions of the system. Some examples
include:
Development Plans and schedules; engineering policies and procedures; automated tools;
models; qualified engineering and management personnel
Manufacturing Policies and procedures; manufacturing facilities; jigs, special tools and
equipment; production processes; manufacturing and procurement personnel
Test Test plans, policies and procedures; models and mockups; special tools and test
equipment; test facilities and sites; simulation or analytical models; inspection procedures
and test personnel
continue with examples of generic Enabling Products:
Operations/Deployment: Plans, policies and procedures; packaging materials; storage
facilities; special handling and transportation equipment; installation procedures and
environmental permits; deployment instructions; and installation personnel
Training/Utilization: Plans and schedules; simulators and training models; courses and
materials; special training facilities, ranges and trainers
Support: Policies and procedures; tools and repair equipment; support facilities and
handling equipment; maintenance manuals; maintenance management systems; special
diagnostic equipment; repair personnel
Retirement: Plans, schedules and procedures; refurbishment facilities; environmental
permits and disposal sites; equipment for disposal/recycling of spent products; qualified
disposal personnel
Planning and managing the Systems Engineering effort by:
Identifying products to be engineered
Assigning work packages
Making cost estimates
Assessing risks and opportunities
Organizing IPTs and facilitating teamwork
Orchestrating technical reviews
Defining and structuring specifications, including interfaces
Creating system structure (level-by-level development and product realization)
Identifying and developing enabling products
1.6
A SEP is prepared by the Program Management Office and is one of the expected outcomes
of the Technical Planning Process.
Contracting considerations include:
Formally evaluating Systems Engineering during the source selection process
Assessing a contractor's Systems Engineering past performance and demonstrated
process maturity level as part of source selection considerations
Using various contract types (e.g., incentive or award fees) to promote Robust Systems
Engineering
The Systems Engineering Plan is first required at program initiation at Milestone B. False
"Rules for Robust Flying" found posted anonymously in a aircraft squadron ready room:
Regarding flying near the edges of the flight envelope:
1.Try to stay in the middle of the air.
2.Do not go near the edges of it.
3.The edges of the air can be recognized by the appearance of ground, buildings, sea,
trees and interstellar space. It is much more difficult to fly there.
A robust (or resilient) design is a flexible and adaptable one that is tolerant of end product
failure points and/or operating conditions and accommodates human interaction with the
system. In robust design, errant excursions outside the operating 'flight envelope' of an
end product do not necessarily result in catastrophic consequences.
Use of Open System Architectures---key to flexible and adaptable designs---is another
characteristic of robust Systems Engineering.
An Open System Architecture (OSA) is appropriate for some module interfaces and is
emphasized by DoD policies. An OSA uses commercial or non-proprietary (i.e., open
system) standards Standards
The DoDAF is used to formally document a program's architectures via a series of highlyformatted 'viewpoints'. One of these is the Standards Viewpoint (StdV). The StdV
articulates applicable operational, business, technical and industry policies, standards,
guidance, constraints, and forecasts that will be employed on a given program.
More information about the DoDAF and the GIG Technical Guidance Federation is available
in References. for selected Key Interfaces. Potentially, this allows multiple vendors to
implement different modules which may be totally different internally, but which externally
function equivalently in their parent system End Product.
Helping to answer questions about the probability of meeting requirements for system
performance
Selective use as part of the verification and possibly, the validation processes
During production, using M&S to make the manufacturing process more efficient
Predicting maintenance and repair levels anticipated during system operation
Which of the following is characteristic of Open Systems Architectures (OSAs)? They
facilitate technology and software upgrades over a system's life.
'Ethics' is related to morality, but the two terms are not synonymous.
Ethics: The rules or standards governing the conduct of a person or the conduct of the
members of a profession
Morality: Concern with the distinction between good and evil or right and wrong; right or
good conduct
Executive Order 12731
Avoiding financial conflicts impacting duty performance
Not using information for private financial gain
Prohibition on solicitation for financial gain
Not using public office for financial gain
Avoiding inappropriate outside employment
Good faith discharge of financial obligations
Adhering to equal opportunity laws
Disclosing waste, fraud, abuse and corruption to appropriate authorities
Avoiding the appearance of non-ethical behavior
Essential considerations that affect the conduct of Systems Engineering within a DoD
program include:
Systems Engineering Plan (SEP): A detailed formulation of actions that should guide all
technical aspects of an acquisition program. It is established early in the program and
updated at each subsequent milestone and as needed. It is a living document, tailored to
the program, and a government technical roadmap that supports program management.
Robust Systems Engineering: Refers to the use of a disciplined Systems Engineering
approach in conjunction with a robust (or resilent) product design. A "robust design" is
one that:
Encompasses design and process flexibility which can rapidly, safely and affordably
accommodate change