The modern transient network analyser and its

role in analysis and design of electrical systems

W.M. Ritchie, M.Sc, and J.T. Pender, B.Sc, C.Eng., M.I.E.E.

Indexing terms: Network analysers. Transient analysers

Abstract
The complementary functions of the transient network analyser and the digital computer are examined and
further consideration is given to the most appropriate spheres of application of the analyser. A description is given
of the design of a new versatile solid-state analyser and its use in a specific investigation of overvoltages due to
transmission-line energisation.
1

Introduction

As early electrical networks became more complex, analysis

by unaided conventional calculation became progressively more
approximate, requiring considerable system reduction and simplified
component representation to be feasible. The steady-state network
analyser was developed to reduce the labour involved in investigating
actual and possible operating problems in power-supply systems and
predicting the effect of extensions. Small static generators and other
small electrical components were used in a physical model to represent
the important parameters of complex networks.1' 2
A further development in this approach to network analysis was
the transient network analyser (t.n.a.), with facilities for switching
and generating other surges. The component parts of the t.n.a. were
designed to give a better approximation to the high-frequency characteristics of electrical equipment, and the output was displayed on an
oscilloscope to give time resolution.3'4 Finally, the digital computer
was developed to a degree which allowed large electrical networks to
be modelled and analysed mathematically.
The digital x;omputerv,haslai:geJ.y-suipjei!sededlhe'aetwQrlt analyser
for routine analysis of power-system networks. For some aspects of
transient analysis the transient version of the network analyser remains superior, and developments in solid-state circuitry, printedcircuit technology, miniaturisation and unit construction have combined to make the modern t.n.a. a relatively cheap, transportable and
versatile instrument.5 Although its main application is in powersystems analysis it has further use in problem solving, analysis and
design in other electrical and analogous systems and associated plant.
2

The complementary functions of the digital

computer and the t.n.a.

The modern large multipurpose digital computer is widely

used for power-systems analysis, and a considerable range of effective
programs exists, each of which only requires the appropriate data to
be inserted to perform a study for a given set of conditions in any system. Consequently, the use of the appropriate digital program is the
most economic way of obtaining answers to most steady-state and
transient-stability problems and some fast-transient problems, particularly if they are of a routine nature. However, if a trend is being
investigated, such as one due to intentional changes in system parameters for design or operational reasons, the number of computer
runs required may make the cost considerable.
For fast-transient investigations using a digital computer, two
related and relatively simple methods of solution can be used.
These are the Schnyder-Bergeron graphical technique6 which is
based on the mathematical method of characteristics, and the Bewley
lattice-diagram technique based on reflection and refraction coefficients for travelling waves when they reach discontinuities in the system.7 When 3-phase system configurations are being considered the
individual surge impedances must be replaced by appropriate surgeimpedance matrices.8 A useful additional mathematical technique is
to describe surge propagation along a multiconductor line in terms of
Paper 8033 P, first received 17 th January and in revised form 29th
1977

September

Mr. Ritchie was with A. Reyrolle & Co. Ltd., Hebburn, Tyne & Wear, England,
and is now with Kennedy & Donkin, Consulting Engineers, Premier House,
Woking, Surrey GU21 IDG, England. Mr. Pender is with the Department of
Electrical Engineering, University of Stratchlyde, Royal College Building,
204 George Street, Glasgow G1 1XW, Scotland

PROC. 1EE, Vol. 125, No. 2, FEBRUARY 1978

natural propagation modes.9 Both the Schnyder-Bergeron and latticediagram methods have considerable limitations when dealing with
frequency-dependent parameters.
A further technique used in digital fast-transient studies is based on
the modified Fourier transform. The advantage of this approach lies in
the facility with which the frequency dependence of system parmeters can be taken into account. The method involves the use of
Fourier transforms to allow the calculation of the system response
over an appropriate frequency range.10
By combining the lattice technique with the Fourier-integral
approach some account may be taken of the frequency dependence of
system parameters and of earth-resistivity effects.
There are distinct advantages, often complementary to those inherent in the use of a digital computer, to be obtained in some investigations from the use of an analogue device such as the t.n.a. The
operator of an analyser gains immediate feedback from the powersystem model when any parameter is altered, and since such alterations
can be performed in rapid succession, considerable assistance is
"obtainedunnmderstartding the--nature1 ofthe ^problem.being investigated. *
This advantage can be reinforced in the modern t.n.a. by automatic
methods of rapidly scanning a complex system for possible adverse
situations and automatic recording of the worst conditions. It is possible to achieve great speed and economy in solving some complex
problems in this way.
As with digital-computer techniques there are inherent difficulties
associated with accuracy and cost when considering the use of the
t.n.a. for transient studies. Transient switching operations involve
building a model system or portion of a system and opening or closing
switches placed at the appropriate positions. Line and cable models
are approximated by ladder networks of lumped elements in the form
of 7r-sections. An artificial line of this type behaves in exactly the
same way as an actual line with completely distributed parameters for
a particular frequency, but it has a bandwidth approximately equal to
the natural frequency of a 7r-section. High-frequency components of a
transient which exceed this bandwidth are attenuated, thus introducing
some error in the high-frequency response. Flexibility in building a
variety of systems is achieved by using decade resistance, inductance
and capacitance units, but cost limits the size of network which can be
feasibly represented. A useful technique is to decide the maximum
time of interest for a transient, then to calculate the distance to a
position in the system which a reflected travelling wave would return
to the switching position at the limit of the time of interest. Any system plant connected at or slightly beyond a radius equal to this distance can be represented by a resistance equal to its surge impedance,
and nothing is required beyond this radius.
There are considerable difficulties in building accurate physical
models of e.h.v. transmission plant with the correct response to highfrequency transients, although some ingenuity has been shown in this
field11 and equivalent circuits can usually be made as adequate as the
mathematical models incorporated in computer programs. Accurate
knowledge of the high-frequency characteristics of the actual plant is
often the main problem, rather than representation. Earth-path
penetration based on Carson's equations can be quite well represented
by a frequency-dependent R-L ladder network.
When comparing the various methods available for transient
analysis12 one should consider the accuracy of the method, the
economic efficiency and the ease of application. The weighting of
these factors will vary from case to case and there is no overall best
method. If a transient analyser is available, one can easily and rapidly
129
0020-3270/78/8033-0129 $1-50/0

Most transients are isolated events which occupy a very short

time. In order to simulate and study such transients on the t.n.a. the
operation is arranged to occur repetitively in a model system, and by
triggering an oscilloscope timebase with a synchronous signal, regularly
superimposed oscilloscope traces give a steady waveform of the
response. If the waveshape is not required a digital voltmeter is
adequate to record the transient response at any position. The components used to build the model networks, which can be of various
degrees of sophistication, have been described elsewhere,Sl "' I 3 > 14
and one form of model transmission line is illustrated later, but the
core of the t.n.a. consists of the active sections containing the
electronic devices which energise the model networks and perform
switching functions.
The active and control units in early analysers used thermionic
devices, and in most cases they operated at a frequency of the order
of 1 kHz, although the ERA analyser2 could operate at variable frequency. The limitations encountered in operating a t.n.a. of this type,
such as fixed operating frequency and repetition rate, poor reliability
of thermionic valves and inadequate facilities for altering circuits, have
caused the design philosophy to be modified and increased flexibility
to be achieved. A modern design, illustrated in Fig. 1, has an operating
frequency which is infinitely variable over the range 10 Hz - 10 kHz
and a variable repetition rate of 1-99 cycles of the operating frequency. This facility allows frequency scaling to be employed, thus
allowing greater flexibility in the use of existing power-system models,
an example being improvement in the representation of the distributed
parameters of transmission lines and cables of different lengths.
Variable-frequency operation is also useful for frequency-scanning a
system, thereby obtaining an indication of whether or not harmonic
problems are liable to occur.
Comparable capacity to that of the earlier counterpart has been
achieved with a fourfold reduction in size by the use of integratedcircuit technology and the compact patch-panel arrangement shown in
Fig. 1. In this arrangement the various analyser components are connected to columns and the rows form busbars; the required system
configuration is obtained by inserting connecting pins at the appropriate positions. Beryllium-copper plated contacts used throughout the
patch panel have given no trouble during extensive use in the prototype. Modular construction allows the capacity of the analyser to be
extended as required.

Fig. 1

New transient network analyser

1 oscillator unit
2 generator unit
3 master timer unit
47 switch units
8 monitoring selection
9 patch panel
10 variable passive units
11 model transmission-line units

modify the sequence and time at which circuit-breaker poles close or

open, introduce additional circuit elements and faults and immediately
observe the behaviour of the system. When only a digital computer is
available, both the lattice and Schnyder-Bergeron methods applied to
overhead-line problems give results which are probably adequate for
most engineering studies. For some cases, e.g. transient induction in
adjacent cables where parameters such as propagation constants, surge
impedances and modal matrices are frequency dependent to a considerable degree, it is desirable to use the Fourier method.
In general, however, t.n.a. studies are most effective when an
unknown or improperly understood effect is being investigated, and
digital studies are most effective for routine analysis or for obtaining
accurate results when the effect is reasonably well understood. A
useful and economic approach to the solution of some complex problems is to use the rapid-scanning facility of the t.n.a. to identify network conditions which pose a problem, then to investigate methods of
overcoming the problem, also on the t.n.a., and finally to obtain an
accurate solution using the digital computer.

Development in t.n.a. design

o ?^ ui
> o

master timer

switch control
circuits

i I"

I I.

switch control
circuits

I If

I;
I*

I 'i

'<-> [electronic switches

i

switch control
circuits

'

I '
w-t

' <*> electronic switc

i

L_

3-phase generator 1

model power system

L_

Fig. 2

T.N.A. block diagram

a angle information
b cycle information

130

PROC. IEE, Vol. 125, No. 2, FEBRUARY 1978

A block diagram of the t.n.a. is shown in Fig. 2. The 3-phase

sinusoidal output of the oscillator is applied to the generator units and
the master timer. In each generator unit, phase-angle control is
obtained from frequency-independent passive phase-shifting circuits,
the outputs from which supply integrated-circuit power amplifiers
through automatic gain- and amplitude-control circuits. The three
power amplifiers act as a 3-phase voltage source with a maximum voltage of 10 V r.m.s. The master timer unit derives control information
for the electronic switches from its 3-phase sinusoidal input. This
information, which is fed to two sets of information busbars, is in two
forms:
(a) cycle-control pulses obtained by counting a train of pulses which
is synchronised to the operating frequency and which can be
terminated by setting the digital counter at the required repetition rate, and (b) point-on-wave control signals which are a set
of 6-phase sinusoidal voltages.
The electronic switch-control circuits select the appropriate signals
from the information busbars and operate on them to produce the
switch-control signal. The technique described enables the switch controls to be calibrated in cycles and degrees of the operating frequency
irrespective of its value.
In order to study large numbers of system-operating conditions the
basic t.n.a. can be modified for automatic operation, a proposed
scheme being described in Section 6. In the meantime the effectiveness
of the analyser has been improved by a technique which provides continuously variable automatic point-on-wave switching. An additional
oscillator is used to supply the switch controls while the
analyser oscillator continues to supply the generators. By operating
the oscillators at slightly different frequencies the switching instant is
progressively altered, and the maximum switching overvoltage over
the 360 possible closing angle for given conditions can be rapidly
obtained using a 3-phase peak-reading voltmeter.
An additional feature is a 'sample and hold' recording system
which is clocked by a high-frequency train of pulses, synchronous
with the t.n.a. controls. This enables a waveform to be examined with
high definition, and information such as time and amplitude of peaks,
rates of rise, time of zero amplitude etc. to be easily obtained.
Provision is made for the samples to be stored in a form suitable for
analysis by digital computer. Automatic interaction between a t.n.a.
and a digital computer is considered in Section 6.
4

and a full-scale test in a power system for energisation of a transmission

line under identical conditions,19 and Fig. 4 shows waveforms obtained
from a digital program, a t.n.a. and a full-scale test for a particular
transient recovery-voltage condition. In both of these cases it can be
seen that reasonable agreement is obtained between the analogue
(t.n.a.) results and the others for most of the transient period. Good
agreement is obtained for the maximum overvoltage, which is the important quantity in the line-energisation study, and for the initial rise
in voltage, which is the significant factor in circuit interruption.
It is not practicable to obtain a comprehensive overall picture of
all possible energising and re-energising overvoltages, owing to the
large number and spread of both system and circuit-breaker parameters
involved. To do so would require a prohibitive number of t.n.a. or
computer studies, and the number of variables makes anlaysis of the
results and their portrayal a complex problem.20 It is consequently
extremely difficult to formulate general rules which would allow one
to forecast the effect of energising a specific transmission line with
Keadby
275kV

Burton

HighMarnham ^

Co||am

7km

166km

37km

Cowley Claydon

| 29km |18km

3-C

5-LrSundon

line energised
Fig. 3A
System arrangement for 400 kV line energisation tests

Fields of application of the t.n.a.

The t.n.a. in a versatile machine with application in investigating a wide variety of unusual occurrences in electrical systems,
assisting in determining possible causes, helping to indicate remedial
action and giving an insight into the processes which occur in complex
cases. Examples of power-system applications include the study of
magnetising inrush in transformer circuits and overvoltages which
occur with cross-bonded cable systems and transformer feeders, the
investigation of electric-arc models and resistance switching in circuitbreaker development, and the optimisation of circuits and control
timing for circuit-breaker synthetic tests.14'1S Transient studies can be
performed for any system involving quantities which can be represented by an electrical analogue such as heat flow and movement of
mechanisms.16
In the field of power-systems analysis, probably the most effective
and efficient application of the t.n.a. is in fast-transient studies, particularly those concerned with transmission-line energisation; in this
context the term fast-transient is taken to apply to any transient frequency significantly above the supply frequency. Since developments
in the operation of transmission systems have made switching more
frequent, and the high cost of insulation at progressively higher operating voltages has given a strong incentive to reduce overvoltages, it
has become increasingly necessary to investigate the magnitude of
switching overvoltages and the methods of limiting them. The wide
range of system configurations under different operating conditions
requires extensive investigation of possible overvoltages, which may be
difficult to predict, and although digital-computer programs are available to investigate such phenomena an investigation in the necessary
detail would seldom be attempted due to prohibitive cost. The less
accurate t.n.a. can be used to survey a system over a wide range of
conditions rapidly and cheaply,17'18 and if necessary particular overvoltage conditions which have been identified can be examined more
accurately using a digital computer. The inherent accuracy of digital
computation, however, is sometimes of no benefit if the available system data is approximate. A similar approach can be adopted for
investigating transient recovery voltages due to circuit interruption.
Fig. 3 shows waveforms obtained from a digital program, a t.n.a.
PROC. IEE, Vol. 125, No. 2, FEBRUARY 1978

-3
Fig. 3B

Typical receiving-end waveform on line energisation

Comparison of -waveforms obtained from t.n.a. with computed and actual test
results
calculated
analogue results
test

1-6

1-2
3 1-0

0-6
(K
0-2
(K
Fig. 4

0-8
1-2
time ms

1-6

275 kV system transient recovery voltage on clearing a 13 kA 3-phase

to earth fault
Comparison of waveforms obtained from t.n.a. with computed and actual test
results
computer study
test results
t.n.a. study

131

particular system conditions. Important trends have been established

from the results of a large number of switching-surge investigations
carried out in various countries,20 but although these results have
wide application further investigation is required in specific cases, and
it is of considerable help to have avaliable a method of undertaking a
rapid survey when general experience suggests a possible problem. The
t.n.a. is well suited for this work, an example of which is given in the
next Section.

(d) switching-resistor insertion time. This is the time between initial

energisation and the resistor being short-circuited by additional
circuit breaker contacts
(e) the fault level at the energising source
(/) various combinations of remanent charge of the three conductors
under reclosing conditions
(g) the degree of reactive power compensation due to shunt
reactors

4/

equivalent
fault level

source
source
5-GVA

transmission line
circuit breaker
pole scatter 0-120 500kV, quad x 1-94crrf\0-3 in2)
insertion time 180 single circuit
320km
remanent charge
zero
insertion resistor
or
0-600(1
r*08 p.u.
y08 pu.
b-0-8 p.u.

reactor
compensation
0, 50, 100/o

Fig. 5

System used in overvoltage survey

In a more general study additional factors would be:

(h) line geometry and variations in the earth path
(/) variation of the transmission-line length17
(/) differences in the nature of the energising source.18
Since the number of possible combinations of these variables is extremely large, any survey must be done rapidly and the result for each
condition must be immediately apparent. The point on the wave at
which the circuit breaker closes is one of the main variables, and the
automatic technique previously described, which causes the electronic
switch simulating the circuit breaker to operate at a slightly different
point on the voltage wave at each repetition, can be used. The 3-phase
peak-reading voltmeter which records the most severe overvoltage can
be connected at any position on the model transmission line. This
technique considerably reduces the time required for an investigation
of this nature. In the present case the voltage at the receiving end of
the model transmission line was monitored in this way.
2-6

2-4

Fig. 6

One section of a 3-phase transmission line

Model transmission-line section incorporating
a compensating resistors
b frequency-dependent earth path

2-2

S> 2-0
o

1-8

A typical overvoltage study

The investigation involved a survey of the manner in which

various system parameters affect the receiving-end overvoltages produced when a 320 km, 60 kHz, 500 kV overhead line is energised. The
system is shown in Fig. 5, the line being represented by 32 3-phase
7r-sections, each of the form shown in Fig. 6.
The 3-phase source used in this study is an equivalent empirical
representation of a mixed source of generators and transmission lines.
The derivation of this equivalent circuit has been described elsewhere5
and has been used in the t.n.a. study which gave good correlation with
full-scale power-system tests.19
A considerable number of factors affect the overvoltage produced
including:
(a) the point on the supply-voltage wave at which the circuit is
energised
(b) variation in the instants at which each of the three phases is
energised, often termed circuit-breaker pole scatter
(c) the value of the resistor through which each phase is energised.
Such resistors are known as switching resistors and their use
reduces the magnitude of the voltage surge

132

1-6

1-2

1-0
100

200
300
400
500
switching resistor value, fl

600

Fig. 7

Comparison of maximum overvoltages with and without remanent

charge for various system-source fault levels
resistor insertion time 180
remanent charge
zero
r + 0-8 p.u.
y + 0-8 p.u.
b 0-8 p.u.

PROC IEE, Vol. 125, No. 2, FEBRUARY 1978

From Figs 711 which summarise the results of the study some trends
can be detected and conclusions drawn.
In general the receiving-end overvoltages become larger as the
source fault level increases. A possible inconsistency could occur if a
resonant condition existed with a low fault level at the source. It
must be stressed that these results apply to the type of source in this
study and that different trends can be noted with other source configurations.17'18 This serves to illustrate the difficulty of obtaining
general conclusions from line-energising studies due to the complexity
involved when travelling waves with multiple and varied reflections
occur.
The study shows that the existence of remanent charge on this line

100

200
300
A 00
500
switching resistor value, i l

can cause severe energising transients, and that the optimum value of
insertion resistance varies according to whether or not remanent
charge exists, being of the order of 150 O with no charge and 200
25012 with remanent charge. The optimum condition occurs when
the overvoltages produced by the initial closure, and later by shortcircuiting the insertion resistor, are equal in magnitude. With remanent
charge the transient on initial closure is more severe and the optimum
value of resistance is therefore greater. In the case being considered
the results indicate that resistors of 250 fi inserted in each phase for
10 ms would be suitable to limit energising overvoltages to 1 -8 p.u.
Pole scatter has a large effect in determining the magnitude of the
overvoltages, as closing circuit-breaker poles nonsimultaneously causes
the mutual effects to interact with the transients generated on the
individual phases and results in greater overvoltages than with simultaneous closure.
Figs. 811 illustrate the reduction in overvoltage with increasing
2-6

600

Fig. 8

Maximum overvoltage against insertion-resistor value with varying

degrees of compensation on a system with a 5 GVA source fault level

200

Fig. 10

600

Maximum overvoltage against insertion-resistor value with varying

degrees of compensation on a system with a 40 GVA source fault level

resistor insertion time 180

remanent charge zero
source fault level 5 GVA

100

300
400
500
switching resistor value, A

resistor insertion time 180

remanent charge zero
source fault level 40 GVA

300

A 00

500

switching resistor value, fl.

600

100

200
300
400
500
switching resistor value, XI

600

Fig. 9
Fig. 11
Maximum overvoltage against insertion-resistor value with varying Maximum overvoltage against insertion-resistor value with varying
degrees of compensation on a system with a 20 GVA source fault level degrees of compensation on a system with a solid source
resistor insertion time 180
remanent charge zero
source fault level 20 GVA

PROC. IEE, Vol. 125, No. 2, FEBRUARY 1978

resistor insertion time 180

remanent charge zerosource fault level <*> GVA

133

reactive compensation. It must be added, however, that this is for the

case of initial energisation or autoreclosing with a long dead time (i.e.
with no remanent charge on the line). If the reclose sequence is fast
the initial conditions will depend on the circuit-breaker opening
sequence, the degree of reactive compensation and the system losses.
Reclosing on shunt-reactor compensated lines may, however, give rise
to increases in switching overvoltages due to oscillatory decay of
trapped charge.
6

Further developments in t.n.a. techniques

The behaviour of some items of power plant such as circuit

breakers, insulators and surge diverters is subject to significant statistical variation. Due to this statistical variation in equipment behaviour
and response, and to the large number of combinations of switching
variables, the statistical distribution of overvoltages is becoming an important aspect of power-system analysis and the t.n.a. is supreme in
obtaining the necessary large volume of information. To obtain and
process such extensive information a t.n.a. can be coupled to a digital
computer to provide a hybrid machine with 2-way analogue-digital
traffic and a decision-making capability in the digital portion. The
ease with which the t.n.a. can be automatically controlled, and the
analytical capability of the computer, result in a very powerful combination.21
Fig. 12 outlines the manner in which a t.n.a. of the type described
in Section 3 can be adapted to perform this hybrid function. For each
switch in the system the digital computer calculates the statistical distribution of the instants of opening and closing using random-number
generation and Monte Carlo techniques. This information is stored in
the computer which successively generates signals to appropriately
control the operation of the t.n.a. electronic switches. The systemtransient waveforms of interest which result from each particular set
of switching operations in the distribution are obtained in digital form
by sampling the waveform and are fed to the computer where they are
processed to give the corresponding statistical distribution of system
overvoltages. With more complex interaction the computer could be
used to vary the parameters of the model system and even implement
changes in the system configuration.
digital computer
main computer:
calculation of operating
conditions
analysis of results
oscillator

switch control

r
X
X
X
switch switch switch
1
2
n
3-phase
generator
model power system

3 phase
generator

L
digital recording
Fig. 12

Digital computer - t.n.a. hybrid

134

Conclusion

The modern t.n.a. is a versatile instrument with application

in analysis arid design of electrical and analogous systems. Its main use
is in power-systems analysis, where its major attributes of an instant
portrayal of transient response and the ability to rapidly and automatically examine a large number or system conditions make its
function complementary to that of the more accurate digital computer. A hybrid arrangement of both types of machine can be used to
study the effects of statistical variation on the behaviour of electrical
equipment.
8

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank A. Reyrolle & Co. Ltd. for permission to publish this paper, and wish to acknowledge the cooperation of the Department of Electrical Engineering, University of
Strathclyde. Thanks are also due to the CEGB for permission to
publish the test results shown in Fig. 4.

References

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analyser',AIEE Trans., 1930, pp. 1102-1113
2 'The E.R.A. network analyser'. ERA Report V/T 122, 1954
3 PETERSON, H.A.: 'An electric circuit transient analyser', Gen. Elec. Rev
1939, p. 394
4 PENDER, J.T.: 'A combined steady state and transient a.c. network analyser', Int. J. Electr. Eng. Educ, 1968, 6, pp. 3 5 3 - 3 6 2
5 RITCHIE, W.M.: 'Power systems transient analysis using analogue techniques'. 1 lth Universities Power engineering Conference, Paper 3.6.1976
6 ARLETT, P., and MURRAY-SHELLEY, R.E.: The study of overvoltage
transients in large systems', Proceedings of the Power System Computation
Conference, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Pt. 3, Report 5.6,
1966
7 BICKFORD, J.P., and DOEPEL, P.S.:'Calculation of switching transients
with particular reference to line energisation\Proc. IEE, 1967, 114,(4), pp
465-477
8 WF.DEPOHL, L.M.: 'Application of matrix methods to the solution of
travelling-wave phenomena in polyphase systems', ibid., 1963, 110, (12), pp.
2200-2212
9 McELROY, A.]., and SMITH, H.M.: 'Propagation of switching surge wavefronts on e.h.v. transmission lines', IEEE Trans., 1963, PAS-82, p. 983
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J.R.: 'Calculation of switching phenomena in power systems', Proc. IEE,
1967, 114, (4), pp. 4 7 8 - 4 8 6
11 WRIGHT, I.A., and MORSZTYN, K.: 'An improved method of simulating
the transient performance of power system transformers', Int. J. Electr. Eng.
Educ,1969,6
pp. 4 9 9 - 5 1 6
12 PENDER, J.T.: 'Fast transients in electrical power systems', ibid., 1969, 7,
pp. 4 1 9 - 4 2 9
13 BROWN, J.I., MORSZTYN, K., and WRIGHT, I.A.: 'A new transient network analyser', Inst. Eng. Aust. Electr. Eng. Trans. 1969, EE5, pp. 2 6 3 270
14 CLERICI, A., and MANARA, R.: 'Transient network analyser study of overvoltages in cross-bonded a.c. cables' in 'Progress in overhead lines and cables
for 220 kV and above'. IEE Conf. Publ. 44, 1968, pp. 4 5 4 - 4 6 0
15 'A t.n.a. study on synthetic testing as applied to circuit-breakers using
switching resistors of low ohmic value'. Reyrolle internal report, 1962
16 'The use of the t.n.a. for problems of mechanical impact'. Reyrolle internal
report, 1965
17 BICKFORDJ.P., and EL-DEWIENY, R.M.K.: 'Energisation of transmission
lines from inductive sources', Proc. IEE, 1973, 120, (8), pp. 8 8 3 - 8 9 0
18 BICKFORD, J.P., and EL-DEWIENY, R.M.K.: 'Energisation of transmission
lines from mixed sources', ibid., 1974, 121, (5), pp. 355-360
19 BATTISON, M.J., BICKFORD, J.P., CORCORAN, J.C.W., JACKSON, R.L.,
SCOTT, M., and WARD, R.J.S.: 'British investigations on the switching of
long e.h.v. transmission lines'. CIGRE, Report 13.02, 1970
20 CATENACCI, G., and PALVA,V.: 'Switching overvoltages in e.h.v. and
u.h.v. systems with special reference to closing and reclosing transmission
lines', Electro, 1973, 30, pp. 7 0 - 1 2 2
21 MORSZTYN, K.: 'Computer controlled transient network analyser hybrid
t.n.a.' Proceedings of the Power System Overvoltages Conference, Paper 2,
University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology, 1976

PROC. IEE, Vol. 125, No. 2, FEBRUARY 1978