Department of Mechanical, Materials & Manufacturing Engineering

Material Models and Modes of Failure MM4MMM

Convenor: Dr W Sun (Coates Building B68, w.sun@nottingham.ac.uk)

PLASTICITY
Recommended text: Plasticity for Engineers, C.R. Calladine, Ellis Horwood ltd.

Monotonic Stress / Strain Diagram for Elastic-Plastic Behaviour

800

stress /(MPa)

700
600
500
alloy steel
mild steel

400
300
200
100
0
0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

strain

Yield Criterion
The Maximum Shear Stress (Tresca) Criterion
states that the material will yield when the maximum shear stress in the material
exceeds a limiting value. If 1, 2 and 3 are the three principal stresses (1 > 2 > 3),

max=

1 - 3
2

The limiting value can be related to the uniaxial yield stress,

uniaxial tensile test. In this case,

1 = y and 2 = 3 = 0

max =
The

y, obtained from a

y-0 y
2

max criteria therefore states that the material will yield if

1 - 3 y

( 1 > 2 > 3)

10

The Maximum Shear Strain Energy (von-Mises) Criterion

states that the material will yield when the maximum shear strain energy (per unit
volume) exceeds a limiting value. If

1, 2 and 3 are the three principal stresses (1 >

2 > 3) then
shear strain energy
1

{( 1 2 ) 2 ( 2 3 ) 2 ( 3 1 ) 2 }
unit volume
12G
Again the limiting value can be related to the uniaxial yield stress, y obtained from a
uniaxial tensile test, i.e. at yield 1 = y and 2 = 3 = 0.

shear strain energy

1

{2 y 2 }
unit volume
12G
1
1
{( 1 2 ) 2 ( 2 3 ) 2 ( 3 1 ) 2 }
{2 y 2 }
12G
12G

i.e. yield occurs if

or

( 1 - 2 )2 + ( 2 - 3 )2 + ( 3 - 1 )2 2 2y

Two-dimensional stress systems (i.e. 3 = 0, 1 and

2 can take on any values)

Three-dimensional stress systems

It can be seen that both the Tresca yield criterion

( 1 - 3 ) = y

( 1 > 2 > 3 )

and the von-Mises yield criterion

11

(1 - 2)2 + (2 - 3)2 + (3 - 1)2 = 2 y2

are not altered if a constant stress component, say , is added to each stress
component, i.e.

( 1 + ) - ( 3 + ) = 1 - 3 = y

( 1 > 2 > 3 )

and

((1 + ) - (2 + ))2 + ((2 + ) - (3 + ))2 + ((3 + ) - (1 + ))2

= (1 - 2)2 + (2 - 3)2 + (3 - 1)2
= 2y2
This means that the addition a hydrostatic stress state does not change the
shapes of the yield surfaces shown in the section on two-dimensional stress
systems.
Now, the , which we added, can have any value, so the yield boundaries can move
any distance in the direction 1 = 2 = 3. In doing so they describe a yield surface in
3D stress space

which has a constant oblique section and hence a constant perpendicular cross-section
whose true shape can be seen in the view along the line 1 = 2 = 3.
This is an ISOMETRIC view which shows the three axes inclined at 120o intervals. This
is sometimes called a view on the -plane or deviatoric plane, on which the Tresca
yield surface is a hexagon and the von-Mises yield surface is a circle. Therefore, large
principal stresses do not necessarily result in yield; it is stress differences and the
route to the final stress state which governs whether yielding will occur.
12

2
Von-Mises
Tresca

1
3

Yield Criterion for Orthotropic Materials

Hill (1950) generalized the von Mises criterion to account for the different material
properties in the various material directions.
The yield function has the form
2
2
2
2
f F( 22 33 ) 2 G(33 11) 2 H(11 22 ) 2 L( 223 32
) M(13
31
) N(12
221) 1 0

where subscripts 1, 2 and 3 are the material directions and the coefficients F, G, H, L,
M and N are obtained from uniaxial load tests.
If the yield stresses in the 1,2,3 directions are X, Y and Z respectively and the shear
yield stresses are S12, S13 and S23 then

2F

1
1
1

Z2 Y2 X 2

1
1
1
2 2
2
Z
X
Y
1
1
1
2H 2 2 2
X
Y
Z
2G

2L

1
2
S 23

, 2M

1
1
2
N

,
S122
S132

where the yield stresses X, Y and Z are equal in tension and compression.
For an isotropic material it can be seen that
13

6F=6G=6H=L=M=N
and the yield function reduces to the von Mises yield function.
Elastic-Plastic Material Behaviour Models
1.

Elastic-perfectly-plastic (EPP)

In this case there is no hardening, i.e. the yield stress, y, is always y, regardless of
any plastic deformation. The yield surface (locus) doesn't change. This is a good
model for mild steel with moderate plasticity, but is also used very generally for
materials without well defined yield i.e. y 0.2%
2

A, B

G
C

y D

D, E

2.

Isotropic Hardening

Any plastic deformation increases the yield stress and the yield surface (locus)
continuously expands with plastic deformation.

y
y

D
C

C
A

II

II

A
C

A
C

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3.

Kinematic Hardening (The Bauschinger effect seen under cyclic loading)

The yield range remains constant (2y) and the yield surface (locus) moves (assuming
linear plasticity for simplicity)

B > A

y
y

A- 2y
A

Plastic Flow Rule

Assume elastic-perfectlyplastic (i.e. yield locus retains size and shape). Each
increment of strain in the plastic range is the sum of an elastic strain and a plastic
strain:
elastic is recovered on unloading (governed by Hookes law,)
plastic is unrecoverable on unloading (governed by Plastic Flow rule)
Hookes law

x
yz

1
x y z
E

yz

2G

etc.

etc.

The hydrostatic stress, o , is defined as

The deviatoric stress components,

x y z
3

etc, are defined as

x o etc.

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So rewriting the generalized Hookes equations in terms of the deviatoric and

hydrostatic stresses,

1
x o 1 2 o x 1 2 o
2G
E
2G
E

1
y o 1 2 o y 1 2 o
y
2G
E
2G
E

1
z o 1 2 z 1 2 o
z
2G
E
2G
E
yz
yz
2G

zx zx

xy
Clearly

2G
xy
2G

xy xy etc.

Reuss assumed that the plastic component of strain increment is proportional to the
deviatoric and shear stresses at any given time
P
P
P
d xP d y
d zP d yz d zxP d xy

d , (a factor of proportionality)
x
y
z
yz
zx
xy

or, in general

d ijp ij d
only plastic strain increments can be found in terms of stresses because d is not
constant if the total plastic strain is required it must be integrated over the strain
history.
The total strain increment for an elastic-plastic material is

d d e d p ij d

d ij
2G

1 2 d
E

which leads to the Reuss equations for elastic-plastic deformation:

d x

2
1
1

d x y z d x d y d z
etc.
3
2
E

16

d yz yz d

d yz
2G

etc.

These equations are difficult to solve, but if the elastic portion is neglected (ie. we
assume rigid-perfectly-plastic material) this is sound as usually the elastic
component is small compared with the plastic component we get the Levy-von Mises
equations

d x d y d z d yz d zx d xy

d
x
y
z
yz
zx
xy

d x

2
1

d x y z etc.
3
2

d yz yz d

etc.

If we compare this to the Hooke equations we see that

replaced by (i.e. constant volume).

1
E

is replaced by

2
d and is
3

Elastic deformation, which is the stretching of chemical bonds, usually involves volume
change, as reflected in a Poissons ratio less than 0.5. However, plastic and creep
deformations involve atoms changing neighbours by various mechanisms and so
usually do not result in significant volume change. The diagram below shows the
transverse strains in a tension test being extended beyond yielding. Prior to yielding,
the slope of -y versus x is simply Poissons ratio (~ 0.3). However, after yielding, the
slope increases and approaches to 0.5, as plastic strains dominate the behaviour.

Elastic and plastic components of total strain, and the effect of plastic
deformation on Poissons ratio.

17

Normality
The plastic strain increment is directed along the outward normal to the yield surface
at the considered stress point.
3,

1,

2,

For Tresca yield and flow, the plastic strain increments are perpendicular (normal) to
the hexagonal yield locus on the plane. At the apex (corner) of the hexagon this is
ambiguous.
For von Mises the strain-increment vector is always radial i.e. corresponds to the
deviatoric stress vector.
The magnitude of the incremental strain depends on degree of strain hardening etc.

Upper and Lower Bounds

The Limit Theorems of plasticity provide simple estimates for the static collapse loads
of perfectly plastic structures subjected to external static loads.
The Lower Bound is a safe estimate of the strength of the structure. The Upper Bound
generally gives an overestimate of the strength. A wide range of examples exists of
the application and use of the Limit Theorems. This is considered as beyond the scope
of MM4MMM and only a general description of the methods is given here.
Lower Bound
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If the stress distribution on any plane in the structure which is in equilibrium and
subject to external loads does not exceed the yield condition, then those loads will be
carried safely by the structure.
Upper Bound
If the internal rate of dissipation of energy is equated to the rate at which external
forces do work (by deforming the structure), the collapse load predicted will be either
correct or high.
In some cases the lower bound and the upper bound are equal and the solution is
exact.
A Simple Example A Uniaxially Loaded Rectangular bar with a 45o Notch
Lower Bond Limit Load
P = .d.b

=0

P
PL = y.d.b (y uniaxial yield stress)

Thickness b

Upper Bond Limit Load

Assume the bar yields at 45o.

=0

External work =

Internal work =

2 .d.b. x (x displacement along the 45o direction)

Thickness b

Energy conservation gives (external work = internal work):

P = 2.d.b
PL = 2y.d.b (y shear yield stress)
For von Mises criterion: y
For Tresca criterion: y

y
2

y
3

, so PL (lower) < PL (upper);

, so PL (lower) = PL (upper).

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