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1.1
(a)
ii
ii
iii
iii
(b)
Figure 1 Schematic representation of the possible cyclic behaviours: (a) A. initial non-linear hardening; B. secondary
linear: i. Hardening; ii. Saturation; iii. Softening; and (b) A. initial non-linear softening; B. secondary linear:
i. hardening; ii. Saturation; iii. softening.
Cyclic material behaviour can take many forms, as Figure 1 shows. The region A in
Figure 1(a) shows that materials subjected to cyclic loading can initially exhibit nonlinearly hardening (a non-linear increase in load carrying capacity,
, with cycle
number N). Alternatively, region A in Figure 1(b) shows that materials can soften in a
non-linear manner (a non-linear decrease in load carrying capacity,
, with cycle
number N). In both cases, a secondary cyclic behaviour is usually observed in the
form of either linear hardening (linear increase in load carrying capacity), saturation
(stabilisation of load carrying capacity) or linear softening (linear decrease in load
carrying capacity), as shown in regions B in Figures 1(a) and (b) by i, , ii and iii,
respectively. It is the cyclic behaviour up to this point which is described here. Beyond
this point is the failure of the material (shown in each case in Figure 1 as a non-linear
decrease in load carrying capacity). This decrease in load carrying capacity which
occurs in the later stages involves the initiation and growth of cracks.
The uniaxial form of the Chaboche, unified, visco-plasticity model is as follows:53
f
Z
sgn
(1)
1 x0
x 0,
sgnx 0
1 x 0
x x 0
x
0 x 0
where:
(2)
(3)
f Rk
and
(4)
The elastic domain is defined by f 0 and the inelastic domain by f 0 (i.e. equation
(4) is the yield function for the model).
The evolution of the R and
(7)
v Zp
p d p
R k sgn E p
v
(5)
(6)
(8)
(9)
(10)
As can be seen from equations (5) to (8), the model variables, i.e., hardening
(isotropic, drag-stress, R , and kinematic, back-stress, ) and viscous-stress, v , are
dependent on the value of inelastic-strain, p , calculated from equation (1). is the
stress, E, k , b , Q , a 1 , C 1 , a 2 , C 2 , Z and n are temperature-dependent material
constants, p is the accumulated inelastic-strain and is the total-strain.
The model takes account of both kinematic hardening and isotropic hardening. Figures
2 shows (viewed on the -plane) the basic physical interpretation of both types of
hardening and the effect they have on the yield surface, when viewed in threedimensional principal stress space.
54
(a)
(b)
Figure 2 Schematic -plane representation of (a) isotropic hardening; and
(b) kinematic hardening.
Equation (8) defines the viscous-stress, which is of a similar form to the widely used
Norton creep law. Equation (9) shows that the variable, p , which is used in the
calculation of many of the other variables is the accumulation of all the tensile and
compressive inelastic-strain, p , accumulated within the material, during every cycle.
More recently, a modification [2] has been made to the model in order that the
secondary, linear, behaviour is incorporated into the model predictions. This has been
achieved by the inclusion of an additional term into the equation for isotropic
hardening, i.e. equation (5) is modified to the following:
R bQ R p Hp
(11)
The additional Hp term ensures that once the non-linear hardening has saturated (i.e.
the bQ R p term as well as the kinematic hardening/softening contribution are no
longer changing), hardening/softening can still occur in a linear fashion as shown in
regions B in Figures 1. The sign of H determines whether the cyclic linear behaviour is
hardening (positive) or softening (negative). Alternatively, if a zero value of H is used,
the secondary behaviour is that of linear saturation as shown by ii in regions B in
Figure 1.
The material model requires the identification of eleven material constants. In order to
do this, strain-controlled, fully-reversed ( R 1 ), saw-tooth waveforms can be used,
as shown in Figure 2(a). Figures 2(b) and (c) show a typical schematic representation
of a stress-strain loop resulting from this applied waveform, assuming that the strain
amplitude reached is such that the elastic limit of the material is exceeded and
significant plasticity occurs.
55
(b)
(a)
(c)
Figure 3 Schematic representations of (a) a fully-reversed ( R 1 ), saw-tooth, strain-controlled waveform; (b) first
stress-strain loop resulting from this saw-tooth waveform and (c) stabilised stress-strain loop resulting from this sawtooth waveform.
t
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 4 Schematic representation of (a) an adapted saw-tooth waveform to include a dwell period at max ; (b) a
stress-strain loop including a maximum strain dwell period, and (c) creep relaxation behaviour during the maximum
strain dwell period.
For components in which stress relaxation may occur during a loading cycle, data from
strain-controlled, fully-reversed ( R 1 ) tests with constant strain dwells is also often
used; a typical dwell-type is shown in Figure 4(a). Schematic diagrams of the typical
behaviour observed in cycles with constant strain dwells are shown in Figures 4(b) and
(c).
1.2
1.3
Multi-axial Formulations
The plastic flow rule is a multiple of the plastic normal direction n and the plastic
multiplier
Noted that the normal n and kinematic hardening X are both deviators. The isotropic
hardening law is
The kinematic hardening law is
From the above equation, it can be seen that the only unknown is the plastic multiplier
dp. And the key problem to solve the set of equations is to calculate dp.
In the viscoplastic condition, the yield function equates to the viscous stress, which
can be expressed by the Nortons law.
57
2.
THERMO-MECHANICAL FATIGUE
2.1
Introduction
(a)
(b)
58
Figure 6 Stress-strain loops for in-phase (IP) and out-of-phase (OP) loadings.
There are many active mechanisms in the TMF process. For discussion it is convenient
to consider damage from three primary sources: fatigue, oxidation and creep [6].
Damage from each process is summed to obtain an estimate of the total fatigue life,
Nf .
1
1
1
1
fatigue creep oxidation
Nf
Nf
Nf
Nf
(12)
2.2.1 Introduction
Increasing temperatures and pressures for increased efficiency and reduced CO 2
emissions has become an ongoing trend for power generation plants. New advanced
materials that allow for significant increases in operating temperature are essential for
this need. Due to the intermittent nature of renewable energy generation,
conventional power generation plants are now subjected to a higher frequency of
59
Figure 7 Bore crack of a pipe weld caused by primarily downshock thermal fatigue.
The behaviour of power plant components can be simulated using the finite element
(FE) method. For example, the stresses in and failure behaviour of pipe weldments
under creep condition have been extensively studied. The accuracy of the modelling
work depends on the capability of the material constitutive equations for the
conditions which include cyclic mechanical loading and temperatures. Viscoplasticity
models are preferred due to their ability to represent both cyclic plasticity and viscous
creep behaviour. This type of model is widely used in aeroengine application with
nickel base alloys. The material constants can be determined from isothermal tests
and the resulting model can be used in anisothermal situations. However,
viscoplasticity models are relatively unused for representing the behaviour of power
plant materials. Experimental tests under cyclic loading conditions have been
performed [7] in order to improve the understanding of the behaviour of 9-12%Cr
steels under thermal fatigue or thermal-mechanical fatigue conditions.
2.2.2 Experimental investigation
The P91 and P92 materials
P91 and P92 are typical examples of the type of creep resistant steels, used in power
plant superheater, reheater tubes, headers and often in high temperatures steam
pipework. In general, P91 steel consists of 9% chromium and 1% molybdenum while
P92 steel consists of 9% chromium, 1.75% tungsten and 0.5% molybdenum. Both of
60
these steels are of the ferritic/martensitic types, which are commonly grouped as 912%Cr steels. Ferritic/martensitic type steel has a lower coefficient of thermal
expansion, compared to an austenitic type steel, which is an advantage when dealing
with thermal fatigue problems. The P92 steel has better creep strength by
approximately 10-20% over the P91 steel; thus, P92 pipe wall thicknesses can be
reduced, resulting in improved behaviour under thermal fatigue situations. The
chemical compositions, in accordance with ASTM standard, of P91 and P92 steels are
given in Table 1.
Table 1 Chemical compositions of the P91 and P92 steels (wt%)
P91
P92
P91
P92
Cr
Mo
Si
8.60
1.02
0.12
0.34
8.62
Al
0.00
7
0.01
9
0.33
V
0.10
Nb
0.07
0
0.07
6
0.45
N
0.06
0
0.04
7
0.24
0.21
S
<0.00
2
0.002
W
0.03
1.86
P
0.017
0.015
B
0.003
4
61
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
10
15
20
Strain, (%)
Strain, (%)
Fully-reversed isothermal and aniso-thermal tests were conducted for both materials,
under strain control conditions, with a strain rate of 0.1%/s, for a range of
temperatures and strain amplitudes. The cyclic period is 20s for the continuous strain
cycling tests, see Figures 9. The tests were carried out to failure, defined as the
number of cycles at which a 30 percent drop in the maximum stress occurs. Tests with
dwell periods at the tensile peak strains for times of 2 and 5 minutes were also applied
to P91 and P92 specimens, respectively, in order to get stress relaxation data for the
materials.
The strain amplitudes and strain rates were maintained constant
throughout the tests. All of the tests performed under an-isothermal conditions were
carried out with either in-phase (IP) or out-of-phase (OP) conditions [7].
= 0.5%
-rate = 0.1%/s
-0.6
(a)
0.2
0.0
-0.2
30
60
90
120
= 0.5%
Hold = 2 minutes
-0.4
-0.6
Time (seconds)
(b)
Time (seconds)
E
(MPa)
197537.
0
181321.
6
139395.
2
k
Q
(MPa) (MPa)
a1
(MPa)
96
-55.0
0.45
150.0
90
-60.0
0.6
98.5
85
-75.4
1.0
52.0
C1
2350.
0
2191.
6
2055.
0
a2
(MPa)
120.0
104.7
67.3
C2
405.
0
460.
7
463.
0
Z
(MPa.s1/n)
2000
2.25
1875
2.55
1750
2.7
63
400.0
300.0
300.0
200.0
200.0
100.0
100.0
0.0
-0.006 -0.004 -0.002 0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006
-100.0
MPa
MPa
400.0
0.0
-0.006 -0.004 -0.002 0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006
-100.0
-200.0
-200.0
-300.0
-300.0
-400.0
Strain
-400.0
Strain
300
500 C
400.0
200
200.0
0
6400
6500
6600
6700
6800
-100
-200
Exp
Simulated
(MPa)
(MPa)
100
0.0
-0.004
-0.002
0.000
-200.0
675 C
0.002
0.004
Exp
Simulated
-400.0
-300
S train
Figure 11 Experimental and simulated stresstime curves from strain controlled test for P91
o
at 600 C ( = 0.5%, dwell = 2 mins).
S train
320
max
No dwell
2 mins dwell
290
/ 2 (MPa)
Stage I
260
a c
d
230
200
Stage II
Stage III
N
Nf
170
0
200
400
600
800
S train
Material behaviour models capable of describing stage I and stage II have been
developed [e.g. 7]. The development of material models which can accurately describe
the full life cycle, including stage III is currently ongoing. The need for such models
and the associated numerical procedures are extremely important, if accurate
prediction of the component life under low cycle thermal mechanical fatigue and multiaxial loading conditions is to be achieved.
Microstructural degradation
Detailed microstructural investigations of test pieces taken from the isothermal tests
have been performed using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and scanning
electron microscopy (SEM). These investigations were performed at various life
fractions in order to establish the microstructure evolution that takes place throughout
the life of a test piece.
Microstructural evolution of the P91 steel, under cyclic loading, seems to occur on a
sub-grain scale [7]. Figure 14 shows the results for the as-received material as well
as for the interrupted test pieces at cycle numbers 200, 400 and 656 (corresponding
to points (a), (b), (c) and (d), in Fig. 7(b), respectively). Based on the bright field TEM
images, the sub-grain sizes, at these various stages, are 0.383, 0.507, 0.551 and
0.604 m, respectively. It can be seen that the sub-grains are coarsened with cycle
number, particularly within the initial 200 cycles (also, the stress amplitude decreases
non-linearly before achieving a stabilisation stage at around the 200th cycle). It is
difficult to clearly identify the sub-grain evolution, at different life fractions, using SEM.
However, the SEM images show that a small number of cracks start to develop as the
softening curve begins to accelerate as the test piece begins to fail, see Figure 14(e).
Up to this point, it has been found that the value of the cyclic Youngs modulus in each
cycle is similar to the initial Youngs modulus; the modulus value is an indirect
measurement of damage. Transgranular cracks were observed at many locations on
the test piece which ran to failure (at 656 cycles). Between the 400 th and the 656th
cycle, the Youngs modulus values and the stress amplitudes both decreased. The
65
accelerated cyclic softening behaviour, in the final stage of cyclic loading, is associated
with the propagation of cracks within the material.
Figure 14 Bright field TEM images for (a) the as-received material, and the sub-grain evolution
which occurs in 0.5% strain-controlled test at 600C for cycles (b) 200, (c) 400 and (d) 656.
Also, (e) a SEM image of a crack which initiated on the surface of a specimen at 400cycle.
always remains significantly hotter than the outer surface, except right at the end of
the cycle. It should be noted that the hoop stress follows a similar trend to that of the
axial stress and so is not presented here.
67
WPd = AN
(13)
where A and are material constants. Alternatively, the accumulated plastic work
done may be used. In multiaxial cases, the plastic strain energy dissipated per cycle
can be determined from the sum of the hysteresis loop areas associated with all nine
tensor components (Figure 21).
2.2.6 Discussion
Existing and new power plants are faced with new challenges to deliver energy more
securely and more efficiently, due to the rise of energy demand, required reduction in
specific emissions and the increasing deployment of renewable energy. Power plants
have to operate more efficiently and yet more flexibly, to compensate for the irregular
supply from renewable sources. Hence, advanced materials are required and these
need robust characterisation for extremely severe long-term operating conditions (e.g.
creep, fatigue, thermo-mechanical fatigue, oxidation and their interactions, at high
temperature). Due to the change of operating conditions of power generation plants,
the traditional design and life prediction methods or procedures, based on static load
situations, may not be sufficient. High temperature structural integrity assessment,
therefore, should take into account the severe, thermal-mechanical loading conditions,
which exist. In particular, the TMF behaviour of components with material and
geometry discontinuities, such as occurs in welds, branched pipes and pipe bends
must be taken into account.
This work provides useful input to the future application of thermal-mechanical
analyses of power plant components for the purpose of component life assessment.
For example, the high level of axial stress and strain concentrations, experienced at
the inner surface of a pipe, due to cyclic thermal and mechanical loads, gives an
indication of the potential crack initiation sites in pipes. The behaviour may become
more significant for the case of a pipe with a circumferential weld; the heterogeneous
nature of welds makes structures containing welds more vulnerable to thermalmechanical fatigue failure.
Further work is in progress to improve the accuracy and capability of visco-plasticity
modelling for the prediction of thermal-mechanical fatigue of power plant materials
and components. In particular, improved optimization procedures will be developed
69
and used in order to produce more accurate and more efficient methods for
determining the full set of the temperature dependent material properties. In addition,
the prediction of cyclic softening behaviour will be improved to allow the models to be
extended for the prediction to include crack growth stage. The current model limits the
stress prediction to only about two thirds of the number of cycles to failure. Also,
further research will be carried out to more accurately predict the stress relaxation
behaviour and to predict all stages of the cyclic softening behaviour, through a more
detailed understanding of cyclic softening mechanisms related to micro-crack/damage
formation and growth. New life prediction methodologies, such as those based on
plastic strain energy approaches, need to be established and validated.
REFERENCES
[1]
Chaboche, J. L. and Rousselier, G. On the Plastic and Viscoplastic Constitutive equations - Part 1: Rules
Developed with Internal Variable Concept. J. Pressure Vessel Technology 105, 153-158, 1983.
[2]
Lemaitre J, Chaboche JL. Mechanics of Solid Materials. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
[3]
Tong, J., Zhan, Z. L. and Vermeulen, B. Modelling of cyclic plasticity and viscoplasticity of a nickel-based alloy
using Chaboche constitutive equations. Int. J. Fatigue 26 (8), 829837, 2004.
[4]
Gong Yunpeng, Hyde C. J., Sun W. and Hyde T. H. Determination of material properties in the Chaboche
unified viscoplasticty model. J. Materials: Design & Applications 224 (1), 19-29, 2010.
[5]
Jaske, C.E. Thermal Fatigue of Materials and Components, ASTM STP 612, 1976, pp. 170-198.
[6]
Sehitoglu, H. Advances in Fatigue lifetime Predictive Techniques, ASTM STP 1122, 1992, pp. 47-76.
[7]
Hyde C. J., Sun W., Hyde T. H., Saad A. A. Thermo-mechanical fatigue testing and simulation using a
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[8]
Tanner D. W. J., Sun W. and Hyde T. H. FE analysis of a notched bar under thermo-mechanical fatigue using a
unified viscoplasticity model. Procedia Engineering 10, 1081-1086, 2011 (Elsevier).
[9]
Sun W., Tanner D. W. J., Hyde T. H. and Saad A. A. Thermal-mechanical fatigue behaviour of 9-12% Cr power
plant steels and pipes. 2nd SuperGen Int. Conf. 8-9 September 2012, Hangzhou China.
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