Module1-3GPP Mobile Broadband PDF

ITU Centres of Excellence for Europe
Mobile Broadband
Module 1:
3GPP mobile broadband technologies
Table of contents
1.1. Mobile Internet architectures..........................................................................2

1.2. 3G mobile broadband by 3GPP: UMTS/HSPA ..............................................6
1.2.1 UMTS .......................................................................................................7
1.2.2 HSPA .....................................................................................................10
1.3. ITU's IMT-Advanced standard .....................................................................15
1.4. 4G mobile broadband by 3GPP: LTE/LTE-Advanced ..................................20
1.4.1
LTE/LTE-Advanced Network Architecture.........................................21
1.4.2
LTE/LTE-Advanced radio access......................................................26
1.5. System Architecture Evolution (SAE) and Evolved Packet Core (EPC).......29
1.6. QoS in 3GPP mobile networks.....................................................................35
1.6.1
QoS in UMTS....................................................................................35
1.6.2
QoS in LTE/LTE-Advanced...............................................................40
1.6.3
3GPP Mobile QoS Discussion ..........................................................43
1.7. IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS)...................................................................44

1.7.1
IMS Architecture ...............................................................................45
1.7.2
IMS Short Summary..........................................................................51
1.8. 3GPP developments toward 5G...................................................................52

1.8.1 The 5G Discussion .................................................................................56
1.9. ITU's spectrum management for IMT...........................................................58
Abbreviations ......................................................................................................64
References .........................................................................................................65
1.1. Mobile Internet architectures
We live in the time of convergence of mobile and wireless networks and

the Internet, resulting in new technologies, new business models and
opportunities and new regulation concepts.
Mobile Internet architecture is combination from both architectures, from
the Mobile Network Architectures and from the Internet Architectures, resulting in
new advanced Mobile Internet architecture, where all internet multimedia
services are accessed from mobile equipments. The convergence of mobile and
wireless networks and Internet usage is already underway. Globally, Internet
users as a whole are increasing with exponential trend. With these market
dynamics in mind, several industry-leading businesses have agreed that nextgeneration wireless networks will leverage the packet-based technology of IP.
This strategy provides operators with the unique opportunity to deliver a
multitude of new multimedia services to mobile subscribers in a manner more
customizable than previously possible.
Already, the Internet created a paradigm in the wireline
telecommunications industry that resulted in the development of new services
and applications based on Internet protocol (IP) technology. The influence of the
Internet and IP technology has extended to encompass the cellular industry
where standards bodies, operators, and radio access network (RAN) equipment
vendors have embraced IP as the networking architecture of choice for delivering
a whole new class of service application offerings. Moreover, the Internet
architecture by definition is a meta-network, a constantly evolving and changing
collection of huge number of individual networks intercommunicating with a
common protocol IP. Moreover, the Internets architecture is described in its
name, a short form of the compound word inter-networking. So the entire
architecture is based in the very specification of the standard TCP/IP protocol
stack, designed to connect any two networks (or any two individual hosts), which
may be very different in internal hardware, software, and technical design. Once
two networks are interconnected, communication with TCP/IP is enabled end-toend, so that any node on the Internet has the near magical ability to
communicate with any other no matter where they are. This openness of design
has enabled the Internet architecture to grow to a global planetary scale. So as
we all know, now the Internet is a planet-wide communication medium.
While some requirements for networks do not change, a number of
requirements are evolving and changing and new requirements arise, causing
networks and their architecture to evolve. The basic architecture of large-scale
public networks, such as telecommunication networks, is difficult to change due
to the enormous amount of resources needed to build, operate, and maintain
them. Their architecture is therefore carefully designed to be flexible enough to
satisfy continually changing requirements. For instance, Internet Protocol (IP)
absorbs and hides the different protocols and implementations of underlying

layers and, with its simple addressing and other features, it has succeeded in
adapting to the enormous changes in scalability, as well as factors such as
quality of service (QoS) and security. But over time the formerly simple and clear
Internet architecture became a patchwork of new multimedia application
demands, balconies, detours, wormholes, workarounds and bypasses. And
moreover there are many limitations in the current Internet, such as: processing
and handling limitations, storage limitations, IPv4 addresses limitations,
transmission limitations, control and operation limitations and etc. The Internet
and its architecture have grown in evolutionary fashion from modest beginnings,
rather than from a Grand Plan. While this process of evolution is one of the main
reasons for the technology's success, it nevertheless seems useful to record a
overview of the current principles of the Internet architecture.
Fact is that in the near future, the high volume of content together with
new emerging and mission critical applications is expected to stress the Internet
to such a degree that it will possibly not be able to respond adequately to its new
role. This challenge has motivated many groups and research initiatives
worldwide to search for structural modifications to the Internet architecture in
order to be able to face the new requirements.
But first of all, let we see: from what the Internet IP architecture is
consisted? Architecture for IP networks may consist of three parts, Application
(or Service) Model, System Model and Technology Model. Relationships among
the three parts for IP Networks Architecture are as shown in Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1. Internet IP model relationships.
When now combining those concepts, of Mobility and Internet, we therefore

stand before a decisive crossroad of great significance: Do we want an Internet
extended to support mobility, or a cellular/mobile world extended with Internetlike contents? The question is of much greater significance than has been
observed this far, and some of us remember a similar situation in the early 90's,
but then the issue was fixed networks. To some people it is almost self-evident
that mobile Internet should be taken literally, that is making the same services
and applications available mobile as are already done using fixed access.
There is, however, a strong alternative view, much driven from the mobile
telephony world, according to which Mobile Internet is a new concept, largely
independent of what we now call Internet. The reasoning here is largely driven by
an assumption that the limited capacity of terminals, the limited bandwidth and
different pricing of the mobile network, makes it necessary to develop new
services tailored to this context. Those may, of course, be built on the
corresponding services of the fixed Internet but will, anyway, be different.
Fact is that the Next-generation Mobile Internet architecture will be
flexible, open, and standards-based. It will facilitate a smooth migration from
existing hierarchical circuit-switched technology to peer-to-peer, packet-switched
networks. These wireless networks of the not-so-distant future will be able to take
advantage of the true peer-to-peer communications technology of IP to deliver
better value to service operators and end users alike (Figure 1.2).
Figure 1.2. Basic Mobile Internet architecture.
There are four key deliverables that the wireless IP network of the future
must provide:
Superior end-user experience: The network must be customizable, easy to
use, and allow fast access to all services from a single device.
Orderly network migration: There must be a smooth migration path from
existing network protocols to the new wireless IP network, and the new
network must demonstrate superior performance.
Reduced cycle time to commercialize applications: The network must
make Internet applications easy to implement in the wireless world. Thus,
existing services are made immediately available, while new applications
may be made available in the wireless world at the same time or faster
than they are made available to wireline users.
Reduced cost of ownership: The new network must make the business
case for the wireless Internet achievable, particularly for worldwide
operators and service providers.
In general, convergence of telecommunications towards all-IP contributed

to the Internet growth in the 21st century, by targeting fixed and mobile
telecommunication broadband technologies exclusively for Internet access.
Figure 1.3 shows that the mobile broadband Internet growth from 2000 onwards
happens due to the growth of broadband penetration in the world, because
broadband access to individual residential users provided possibility for Internet
spreading outside the initial academic and business environments. The mobile
broadband increases with higher pace on a global scale, due to the increasing
mobile deployments in developing countries which generally lack fixed network
infrastructure and hence have lower penetration of fixed broadband Internet
access.
Global ICTdevelopments, 20012015
100
90
IndividualsusingtheInternet
80
Fixedtelephonesubscriptions
70
Per100inhabitants
Mobilecellulartelephonesubscriptions
96.8
Activemobilebroadbandsubscriptions
Fixed(wired)broadbandsubscriptions
60
47.2
50
40
43.4
30
14.5
20
10
10.8
0
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015*
Note:*Es timate
Source: ITUWorldTelecommunication/ICTIndicatorsdatabase
Figure 1.3. Global ICT developments in the 21st century (ITU statistics).
Generally, the world of ICT is continuously evolving and changing,

including the technologies, regulation and business aspects. However, such
development is currently directed towards all-IP networks and services, which
means that all traffic, including user, control, and management information, is
carried end-to-end by using IP packets and Internet technologies.
1.2. 3G mobile broadband by 3GPP: UMTS/HSPA
Mobile technologies evolution goes through with so-called generations:

1G (First Generation)
o Analogue mobile systems, based on FDMA (Frequency Division
Multiple Access), without global roaming, used in 1980s.
2G (Second Generation)
o First digital mobile systems, based mainly on TDMA (Time Division
Multiple Access) and FDMA (e.g., GSM), Circuit-Switched (CS)
based, with global roaming, and telephony and SMS as main
services, started at the beginning of 1990s.
3G (Third Generation)
o First generation of mobile systems which included by default
Packet Switched (PS) domain (for Internet access, and MMS) in
parallel with CS (for voice and SMS), based on WCDMA
Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (with TDMA/FDMA) in
radio part, started at beginning of 2000s.
4G (Fourth Generation)
o First generation mobile systems which is all-IP by default in access
and core parts, based on OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiple Access) with TDMA/FDMA in radio access, started at the
beginning of 2010s.
The IP based access in mobile networks standardized by 3GPP started

with the implementation of GPRS (General Packet Radio System) in the
second part of 1990s. In fact, the packet-switching in the core network was
introduced in GPRS with two network nodes:
Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) and
Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN).
Later, EDGE (Enhanced Data Rates for global Evolution) added new
modulation scheme in the FDMA/TDMA-based GSM radio access network,
called GMSK (Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying), which increased the spectral
efficiency in the radio network. The 3G standardization started within 3GPP with
Release 99, completed in 2000.
Further, the global demand for mobile data services is exactly exploding.
Nearly everyone who uses a mobile phone or device anywhere in the world is
demanding faster access to more multimedia data. More specifically, theyre
demanding that all the applications they love on their tethered computers be
available on their mobile devices. This is, consequently, driving the need for
continued innovations in wireless and mobile data technologies towards mobile
broadband internet, in order to provide more capacity and higher Quality of
Service (QoS). When it comes word for the 3GPP technologies, they evolved
from GSM-EDGE, to UMTS-HSPA-HSPA+, to now initial LTE/LTE-Advanced
deployments, to provide increased broadband capacity and user experience.
Furthermore, is overviewed the 3GPP 3G mobile broadband standards: UMTS

and HSPA in more details.
Table 1.1 summarizes the key 3GPP technologies and their
characteristics.
Table 1.1: 3GPP mobile broadband technologies.
Maximum
downlink bitrate
(Mbit/s)
Maximum
uplink bitrate
(Mbit/s)
UMTS/HSPA Release 6
14.4
5.76
UMTS/HSPA+ Release 7 (64 QAM downlink,

16 QAM uplink)
21.1
11.5
UMTS/HSPA+ Release 8 (2x2 MIMO, 64

QAM downlink, 16 QAM uplink)
42.2
11.5

QAM downlink, 16 QAM uplink, dual carrier
i.e. 2 x 5 MHz)
84.4
23

QAM downlink, 16 QAM uplink, four carriers
i.e. 4 x 5 MHz)
168.8
46

QAM downlink, 16 QAM uplink, up to 8 noncontiguous carriers i.e. 8 x 5 MHz)
675.2
184
3GPP mobile broadband technology
1.2.1 UMTS
The 3G in Europe was named Universal Mobile Telecommunications
Services (UMTS). 3G concepts war developed based on Wideband CDMA
(WCDMA) technologies. WCDMA has been adopted by UMTS as the multiple
access technology and it is also referred to as UMTS terrestrial radio access
(UTRA). In Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), each user is assigned a
unique code sequence (spreading code) that is used to spread the information
signal to a wideband signal before being transmitted. The receiver knows the
code sequence for that user, and can hence decode it and recover the original
data. At the same time parallel 3G activities were going on in Japan, in the US, in
Korea, etc. The 3G work in 3GPP is carried out with relevant ITU
recommendations in mind and the result of the work was also submitted to ITU,
to include them to IMT-2000 (that is, 3G mobile networks).
The first main 3G technology developed by 3GPP is UMTS. The UMTS
system utilizes the same well-known architecture that has been used by all main
2G systems (GSM for example). Functionally the network elements are grouped
into the Radio Access Network (RAN, UMTS Terrestrial RAN - UTRAN) that
handles all radio-related functionality, and the Core Network, which is

responsible for switching and routing calls and data connections to external
networks. User Equipment (UE) is defined to interfaces with the user and the
radio interface. The high-level system architecture is shown in Figure 1.4.
Figure 1.4. UMTS high-level system architecture.
Interface between UE and UTRAN was completely new in UMTS, the

design of which is based on the new WCDMA radio technology at that time
(beginning of 2000s). Part of Core Network (CN) is adopted from GSM, which is
known as Circuit-Switched (CS) part. On the other side there is also PacketSwitched (PS) part which is used for Internet services. So, 3GPP standardized
the coexistence of the domains in 3G:
Circuit-Switched domain (CS) and
Packet-Switched domain (PS).
For the PS domain 3GPP considered two technologies, namely ATM
(Asynchronous Transfer Mode) and IP. However, Internet technologies have
clearly won the battle with ATM and further 3GPP releases were based on the IP
paradigm.
The Figure 1.5 presents detailed UMTS architecture.
CS domain
Node B
RNC
MSC/
VLR
GMSC
Node B
HLR
Node B
RNC
Node B
UTRAN
PSTN,
PLMN, ISDN
etc.
PS domain
GGSN
Internet
GGSN
Other data
network
SGSN
Core Network
External networks
Figure 1.5. Network elements in a UMTS.
The UE consists of two parts:

The Mobile Equipment (ME) is the radio terminal used for radio
communication over the Uu interface.
The UMTS Subscriber Identity Module (USIM) is a smartcard that
holds the subscriber identity, performs authentication algorithms, and
stores authentication and encryption keys and some subscription
information that is needed at the terminal.
UTRAN also consists of two distinct elements:
The Node B converts the data flow between the Iub and Uu interfaces.
It also participates in radio resource management.
The Radio Network Controller (RNC) owns and controls the radio
resources in its domain (the Node Bs connected to it).
The main elements of the GSM CN are as follows:
HLR (Home Location Register) is a database located in the users
home system that stores the master copy of the users service profile.
MSC/VLR (Mobile Services Switching Centre/Visitor Location Register)
is the switch (MSC) and database (VLR) that serves the UE in its
current location for Circuit Switched (CS) services.
GMSC (Gateway MSC) is the switch at the point where UMTS PLMN
is connected to external CS networks. All incoming and outgoing CS
connections go through GMSC.
SGSN (Serving GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) Support Node)
functionality is similar to that of MSC/VLR but is typically used for
Packet Switched (PS) services.
GGSN (Gateway GPRS Support Node) functionality is close to that of
GMSC but is in relation to PS services.
The external networks can be divided into two groups:
o CS networks. These provide circuit-switched connections.
o PS networks. These provide connections for packet data
services.
Regarding the radio interface, the 3G was based on WCDMA radio
access technology, with bit rates up to several Mbit/s:
The typical carrier width for 3G radio interface is 5 MHz, while in 2G
the spacing between frequency carriers was 200 kHz for GSM.
So, 3G was characterized with carriers with fixed width, something
similar to 2G (although 25 times wider bands for frequency carriers are
used in 3G than in 2G mobile networks from the 3GPP).
The UMTS networks from the beginning are designed for flexible delivery
of any type of service. The WCDMA radio solution brings advanced capabilities
that enable new services. Such capabilities are:
High bit rates theoretically up to 2 Mbps in 3GPP Release 99, and

beyond 10 Mbps in 3GPP Release 5. Practical bit rates are up to 384
kbps initially, and beyond 2 Mbps with Release 5;
Low delays with packet round trip times below 200 ms;
Seamless mobility also for packet data applications;
Quality of Service differentiation for high efficiency of service delivery;
Simultaneous voice and data capability;
Interworking with existing GSM/GPRS networks.
1.2.2 HSPA
The High Speed Packet Access (HSPA) technology is available as a
relatively straightforward upgrade to existing UMTS networks and offers
improved bandwidth to the end-user, improved network capacity to the operator,
and improved interactivity for data applications.
HSPA pushes the data rates up to 12 Mbps in practice and even beyond
3Mbps in good conditions. Since HSPA also reduces network latency to below
100 ms, the end user experienced performance is similar to the fixed line DSL
connections, no or only little effort is required to adapt Internet applications to the
mobile environment. Essentially, HSPA is a broadband access with seamless
mobility and extensive coverage. Radio capability evolution from GPRS to HSPA
is illustrated in Figure 1.6.
Figure 1.6. Radio capability evolution up to HSPA.
Higher cell capacity and higher spectral efficiency are required to provide
higher data rates and new services with the current base station sites. Figure 1.7
illustrates the estimated cell capacity per sector per 5MHz with WCDMA, with
basic HSPA and with enhanced HSPA in the macro-cell environment. Basic
HSPA includes a one-antenna Rake receiver in the terminals and two-branch
antenna diversity in the base stations. Enhanced HSPA includes two-antenna
10
equalizer mobiles and interference cancellation in the base station. HSPA can
provide substantial capacity benefit.
Figure 1.7. Capacity evolution with HSPA.
High-speed downlink packet access (HSDPA) and high-speed uplink

packet access (HSUPA) impacts on the radio network and protocol architecture,
Radio Resource Control (RRC), as well as on network element functionalities
and interfaces. The radio resource management (RRM) functionality with HSDPA
and HSUPA has experienced changes compared with 3GPP Release 99. In
Release 99 the scheduling control was purely based in the radio network
controller (RNC) while in the Node B (that is base station in 3G) was mainly
power control related functionality. As scheduling (that is how packets are sent
to/from mobile terminals) has been moved to the base stations, there was a
change in the overall RRM architecture. The RNC still retain control of handovers
and is the one which will decide the suitable mapping for Quality of Service
(QoS) parameters. With HSDPA the situation is simplified in the sense that as
there is no soft handovers for HSDPA data.
In UMTS Release 99, the maximum theoretical downlink rate is just over 2
Mbps:
user can achieve to about 350 kbps in commercial networks;
peak downlink network speeds are 384 kbps;
uplink peak-network throughput rates are also 384 kbps in newer
deployments.
The move towards higher data rates in the radio interface, and next step
towards the development of mobile broadband by 3GPP, was 3GPP Release 5
and definition of HSDPA (High Speed Downlink Packet Access). HSDPA,
specified in 3GPP Release 5, is a high-performance, packet-data service that
delivers peak theoretical rates of 14 Mbps. HSDPA also has significantly lower
latency measured on some networks as low as 70 msec on the data channel.
The enhanced bit rates in the uplink were introduced in 3GPP Release 6
as HSUPA (High Speed Uplink Packet Access).
The HSUPA merged with HSDPA into HSPA (High Speed Packet
Access) in 3GPP Release 7. Additionally, Release 7 introduced more efficient
11
modulation schemes in downlink (e.g., 64 QAM) and uplink (e.g., 16 QAM), as

well as MIMO concept for even higher bit rates. In that manner, HSUPA
(Release 7) results in an approximately 85 percent increase in overall cell
throughput. Also, With HSUPA latency (and Release 7) goes below 50 msec.
The goal in further evolving HSPA (HSPA+) is to exploit available radio
technologies, largely enabled by increases in digital signal processing power.
Wireless and networking technologists have defined a series of
enhancements for HSPA, in Release 7 and Release 8, such as:
Advanced receivers;
MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) antennas;
Continuous Packet Connectivity;
Higher-Order Modulation (adding 64QAM on downlink and 16 QAM on
uplink);
One Tunnel Architecture.
The main HSPA+ goals (which provides longer lifetime of 3.5G (that is
UMTS/HSPA) are the following:
Exploit the full potential of a CDMA approach before moving to an
OFDM platform in 3GPP LTE.
Achieve performance close to LTE in 5 MHz of spectrum.
Provide smooth interworking between HSPA+ and LTE, thereby
facilitating the operation of both technologies.
o As such, operators may choose to leverage the EPC/SAE
planned for LTE.
Allow operation in a packet-only mode for both voice and data.
Be backward-compatible with previous systems while incurring no
performance degradation with either earlier or newer devices.
Facilitate migration from HSPA infrastructure to HSPA+ infrastructure.
3GPP has defined a capability in Release 8 for dual-carrier HSPA
operation (Figure 1.8). This approach coordinates the operation of HSPA on two
adjacent 5 MHz carriers so that data transmissions can achieve higher
throughput rates. The throughput evolution of HSPA is shown in Figure 1.9.
Figure 1.8. Dual-Carrier Operation with One Uplink Carrier
12
Figure 1.9. HSPA/HSPA+ Throughput Evolution
In Release 7, there is the option of a one-tunnel architecture (Figure

1.10) by which the network establishes a direct transfer path for user data
between RNC and GGSN, while the SGSN still performs all control functions.
There is also an integrated RNC/NodeB option, particularly beneficial in femtocell
deployments.
Figure 1.10 One-Tunnel Architecture
Regarding the UMTS frequency bands and access schemes there are
Two different operation modes have been standardized for the UTRAN radio
interface:
UTRAN FDD (Frequency Division Duplex) mode;
UTRAN TDD (Time Division Duplex) mode.
Overall, the key benefits of HSPA can be categorized in 3 ways:
Improved speed for end user applications (peak data rates can be
further improved with MIMO techniques),
Improved interactivity for end user applications (low network latency of
60 ms),
13
Improved network capacity and spectral efficiency for the operator

(introduction of new improved coding and modulation, offering the
operator a much improved cost structure for offering data services with
the cost per bit reducing significantly).
As a summary, 3G mobile networks were standardized and implemented

worldwide in the first decade of the 21st century.
All mobile technologies that satisfied the ITU umbrella requirements for 3G
called IMT-2000 are called 3G mobile networks (or systems). However, the
dominant 3G mobile network on a global scale appeared to be UMTS,
standardized by 3GPP as an evolution from previous 3GPP mobile networks
GSM/GPRS:
The UMTS is a combination of Circuit-Switched (CS) and Packet-Switched
(PS) domains, where CS is used mainly for voice and SMS, while PS is
used for Internet access service and MMS.
UMTS has evolved to UMTS/HSPA+, providing higher bit rates than initial
3G standards, thus becoming the first globally spread broadband mobile
network.
14
1.3. ITU's IMT-Advanced standard
The ITU has set the definition for the next generation mobile networks
referred to as 4G (i.e., fourth generation of mobile systems and networks). They
are targeted to provide higher data rates to mobile users, and therefore can be
referred to as mobile broadband networks and technologies. The requirements
for 4G radio interface are specified in ITU-R report M.2134, and are referred to
as IMT-Advanced (International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced).
Similar approach was used for the definition of the third generation of mobile
networks (the 3G) which was named IMT-2000 (International Mobile
Telecommunications 2000). When 3G was already on the ground, with its first
implementations, the future development of mobile networks (beyond 3G) was
specified in the ITU-R recommendation M.1645.
IMT-Advanced is in fact umbrella specification of all requirements set to a
given mobile system with aim to use 4G label on it (although in practice LTE is
also labeled as 4G technology). So, a mobile network is 4G if it satisfies all
requirements set in IMT-Advanced. There are given several key features for the
IMT-Advanced systems:
High degree of commonality of functionality worldwide while still being
flexible to support different applications and services.
Compatibility of services in IMT environment (i.e., the 4G) and fixed
networks.
Interworking with other radio systems, including previous generations
of mobile technologies (e.g., 3G).
Mobile services with high quality.
Ubiquitous end-user mobile equipment (i.e., mobile terminals).
User-friendly services and applications.
Roaming capability on a global scale (something that is present with
GSM mobile networks of the second generation).
Higher bit rates in the radio interface, which in the time of 4G
development and implementation (2nd decade of the 21st century)
means over 100 Mbit/s for high mobility and over 1 Gbit/s for low
mobility of the users.
In some way to limit different speculations about the expectations from
certain technologies, ITU-R states what is high bit rate in the umbrella
recommendations such as IMT-Advanced (specified to define the requirements
for 4G mobile networks) and previously IMT-2000 (specified to define the 3G
mobile technologies). Then, there are two approaches to increase bitrates:
To increase the spectrum that can be used by the given (4G)
technology,
To increase the spectrum efficiency, i.e., to have more bits per second
per Hertz (bit/s/Hz) in the radio interface.
15
IMT-Advanced systems support low to high mobility applications and a

wide range of data rates in accordance with user and service demands in
multiple user environments. IMT Advanced also has capabilities for high-quality
multimedia applications within a wide range of services and platforms, providing
a significant improvement in performance and Quality of Service (QoS).
Moreover, the consumer demands shape the development of IMT-2000 and IMT
Advanced.
Figure 1.11. Relationship between IMT-2000 and beyond IMT-2000 (i.e., IMT-Advanced).
The Figure 1.11 is taken directly from Recommendation ITU-R M.1645

and reflects the terminology in use at the time of its adoption. Resolution ITU-R
56 defines the relationship between IMT-2000, the future development of IMT2000 and systems beyond IMT-2000 for which it also provides a new name:
IMT-Advanced.
Resolution ITU-R 56 resolves that the term IMT 2000
encompasses also its enhancements and future developments. The term IMT
16
Advanced should be applied to those systems, system components, and related

aspects that include new radio interface(s) that support the new capabilities of
systems beyond IMT-2000. The term IMT is the root name that encompasses
both IMT-2000 and IMT-Advanced collectively.
In October 2010, only two technologies are accepted within the IMTAdvanced umbrella:
LTE-Advanced (LTE Release 10 & beyond), and
Mobile WiMAX 2.0 (802.16m, also known as WirelessMANAdvanced).
Moreover, ITU IMT-Advanced defines the 4G mobile networks.
However, in planning process for the future development of IMT, it is
important to consider the timelines associated with their realization, which
depend on a number of factors:
user trends, requirements and user demand;
technical capabilities and technology developments;
standards development;
spectrum availability, including allowing sufficient time to re-locate
systems that may be using proposed bands;
regulatory considerations;
system (mobile and infrastructure) development and deployment.
All of these factors are interrelated. The first five have been and will
continue to be addressed within ITU. System development and deployment
relates to the practical aspects of deploying new networks, taking into account
the need to minimize additional infrastructure investment and to allow time for
customer adoption of the services of a major new mobile broadband system,
such as IMT-Advanced.
The timeline associated with these different factors are depicted in Figure
1.12 (looking into the past). When discussing the time phases for systems such
as IMT-2000 and recently IMT-Advanced, it is important to specify the time at
which the standards are completed, when spectrum must be available, and when
deployment may start. Exactly how the progression developed towards IMTAdvanced is given in Figure 1.12.
Figure 1.12. Progression towards IMT-Advanced.
17
Table 1.2. Objectives from multiple perspectives in IMT-Advanced.

Perspective
Objectives
END USER
Ubiquitous mobile access

Easy access to applications and services
Appropriate quality at reasonable cost
Easily understandable user interface
Long equipment and battery life
Large choice of terminals
Enhanced service capabilities
User-friendly billing capabilities
CONTENT
PROVIDER
Flexible billing capabilities

Ability to adapt content to user requirements depending on terminal,
location and user preferences
Access to a very large marketplace through a high similarity of
application programming interfaces
SERVICE
PROVIDER
Fast, open service creation, validation and provisioning

Quality of service (QoS) and security management
Automatic service adaptation as a function of available data rate and
type of terminal
NETWORK
OPERATOR
Optimization of resources (spectrum and equipment)

QoS and security management
Ability to provide differentiated services
Flexible network configuration
Reduced cost of terminals and network equipment based on global
economies of scale
Smooth transition from IMT-2000 to systems beyond IMT-2000 (IMTAdvanced)
Maximization of sharing capabilities between IMT-2000 and 4G IMTAdvanced systems (sharing of mobile, UMTS subscriber identity module
(USIM), network elements, radio sites)
Single authentication (independent of the access network)
Access type selection optimizing service delivery
MANUFACTURER /
APPLICATION
DEVELOPER
Reduced cost of terminals and network equipment based on global

economies of scale
Access to a global marketplace
Open physical and logical interfaces between modular and integrated
subsystems
Programmable platforms that enable fast and low-cost development
The IMT-Advanced can be considered from multiple perspectives,

including the users, manufacturers, application developers, network operators,
and service and content providers as it is summarized in Table 1.2. Therefore, it
is recognized that the technologies for IMT-Advanced can be applied in a variety
18
of deployment scenarios and can support a range of environments, different

service capabilities, and technology options.
Moreover, the given data rates, such as enhanced peak data rates to
support advanced services and applications (100 Mbit/s for high and 1 Gbit/s for
low mobility were established as targets for research), will be shared between
active users in a given mobile network area. The achievable (peak or sustained)
throughput for any individual user depends on many parameters, including the
number of active users, traffic characteristics, service parameters, deployment
scenarios, spectrum availability, and propagation and interference conditions.
These data rates are the maximum value of the sum of the data rate for all of the
active users on a radio resource; it is possible that the peak data rate needed in
the upstream direction will be different from the downstream direction. The
transport data rates may need to be higher due to overheads, such as signalling
and coding.
Overall, the defined features enable IMT-Advanced to improve the user
experience of current and future mobile data and multimedia services and will
make the broadband Internet truly mobile with high level of QoS provisioning.
Moreover, the capabilities of IMT-Advanced systems are being continuously
enhanced in line with user trends and technology developments.
19
1.4. 4G mobile broadband by 3GPP: LTE/LTE-Advanced

4G standard from 3GPP is LTE-Advanced, standardized with 3GPP
Release 10 and further Releases.
However, LTE (Long Term Evolution) has been standardized with 3GPP
Releases 8 and 9 as predecessor of LTE-Advanced.
The fact is that LTE is noted as 4G although it provides bitrates below the
requirements of the IMT-Advanced umbrella from ITU. On the other side, LTE
and LTE-Advanced have the same radio interface and spectrum utilization (in
bit/s/Hz), with carrier aggregation standardized for LTE-Advanced which provides
the required 4G bitrates in downlink and uplink.
There are in general three segments that are standardized by the 3GPP
(as shown in Figure 1.13):
High-speed access: This includes radio access technology.
IP core network: This includes all controllers/gateways and databases
in the networks as well as their interconnection.
Services: This part includes the service overlay network which are
implemented over a given mobile network architecture (typical example
for services is standardization of the IP Multimedia Subsystem IMS).
Figure 1.13. 3GPP mobile evolution.
20
In addition to enhancing HSPA and HSPA+, Rel-8 also introduced Evolved

Packet System (EPS) consisting of a new flat-IP core network called the Evolved
Packet Core (EPC) coupled with a new air interface based on OFDM called Long
Term Evolution (LTE) or Evolved UTRAN (E-UTRAN).
1.4.1 LTE/LTE-Advanced Network Architecture

In its most basic form, the EPS consists of only two nodes in the user
plane: a base station and a core network Gateway (GW). The node that performs
control-plane functionality (MME) is separated from the node that performs
bearer-plane functionality (Gateway).
First move toward flat architecture was in 3GPP release 7 with the
introduction of so-called direct tunnel, and finally the flat architecture was
standardized completely in Release 8, as shown in Figure 1.14.
Figure 1.14. 3GPP Architecture Evolution towards SAE (System Architecture Evolution).
The EPS architecture was designed to not only provide a smooth

evolution from the 2G/3G packet architectures consisting of NodeBs, RNCs,
SGSNs and GGSNs, but also provide support for non-3GPP accesses (e.g.
WLAN, WiMAX and etc.) with help of the packet-optimized packet core system
(Evolved Packet Core) that supports multiple access technologies, including
21
3GPP Internet Protocol Connectivity Access Network (IP CANs) like GSM EDGE
Radio Access Network (GERAN), UTRAN and Evolved UTRAN (E-UTRAN) and
also the mentioned non-3GPP IP CANs (WLAN, WiMAX and etc.) and even
wired technologies. For more details about EPS (SAE and EPC) see the
following section (section 1.5).
This access independent evolution of the packet core system architecture
is the first major step towards the realization of an All-IP Network and reaching
the point where LTE-Advanced meeting IMT-Advanced. 3GPP has not only
evolved beyond addressing the Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network
(UTRAN) requirements to providing bandwidth intensive services. It has also put
in a significant effort to evolve and simplify the packet core network. Branded as
System Architecture Evolution (SAE), 3GPP has proposed a framework to evolve
the 3GPP system to a higher data rate, lower latency.
In Rel-8, LTE defined new physical layer specifications consisting of an
OFDMA based downlink and SCFDMA99 based uplink that supports carrier
bandwidths from 1.4 MHz up to 20 MHz. Rel-8 defined options for both FDD and
TDD LTE carriers. Rel-8 also defined a suite of MIMO capabilities supporting
open and closed loop techniques, Spatial Multiplexing (SM), Multi-User MIMO
(MU-MIMO) schemes and Beamforming (BF). Because OFDMA and SC-FDMA
are narrowband based technologies, LTE supports various forms of interference
avoidance or coordination techniques called Inter-Cell Interference Coordination
(ICIC).
Finally, Rel-8 provided several other enhancements related to Common
IMS, Multimedia Priority Service, support for packet cable access and service
brokering, VCC enhancements, IMS Centralized Services (ICS), Service
Continuity (SC) voice call continuity between LTE-HSPA VoIP and CS domain
(called Single Radio VCC or SRVCC) and User Interface Control Channel (UICC)
enhancements.
Despite LTE/LTE-Advanced uses a different form of radio interface, using
OFDMA/SC-FDMA instead of CDMA, there are many similarities with the earlier
forms of 3G architecture and there is scope for much re-use. Moreover, 3GPP
LTE can be seen for provide a further evolution of functionality, increased speeds
and general improved performance. In addition to this, LTE is an all IP based
network, supporting both IPv4 and IPv6. There is also no basic provision for
voice, although this can be carried as VoIP.
Let we summarise which new technologies has LTE introduced, when
compared to the previous cellular systems. They enable LTE to be able to
operate more efficiently with respect to the use of spectrum, and also to provide
the much higher data rates that are being required.
OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex): OFDM technology has
been incorporated into LTE because it enables high data bandwidths to be
transmitted efficiently while still providing a high degree of resilience to
reflections and interference. The access schemes differ between the
uplink and downlink: OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple
Access is used in the downlink; while SC-FDMA (Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access) is used in the uplink. SC-FDMA is
22
used in view of the fact that its peak to average power ratio is small and
the more constant power enables high RF power amplifier efficiency in the
mobile handsets - an important factor for battery power equipment.
MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output): One of the main problems that
previous telecommunications systems has encountered is that of multiple
signals arising from the many reflections that are encountered. By using
MIMO, these additional signal paths can be used to advantage and are
able to be used to increase the throughput. When using MIMO, it is
necessary to use multiple antennas to enable the different paths to be
distinguished. Accordingly schemes using 2 x 2, 4 x 2, or 4 x 4 antenna
matrices can be used. While it is relatively easy to add further antennas to
a base station, the same is not true of mobile handsets, where the
dimensions of the user equipment limit the number of antennas which
should be place at least a half wavelength apart.
SAE (System Architecture Evolution): As part of the Evolved Packet Core
(EPC). With the very high data rate and low latency requirements for 3G
LTE, it is necessary to evolve the system architecture to enable the
improved performance to be achieved. One change is that a number of
the functions previously handled by the core network have been
transferred out to the periphery. Essentially this provides a much "flatter"
form of network architecture. In this way latency times can be reduced and
data can be routed more directly to its destination.
The EPC architecture is guided by the principle of logical separation of the

signalling and data transport networks. The fact that some EPC functions reside
in the same equipment as some transport functions, does not make the transport
functions a part of the EPC. It is also possible that one physical network element
in the EPC implements multiple logical nodes.
Also, in Table 1.3 the 3GPP LTE highlight specifications are summarized.
Those specifications give an overall view of the performance that 3G LTE (Rel-8)
is offering. It meets the requirements of industry for high data download speeds
as well as reduced latency - a factor important for many applications from VoIP to
gaming and interactive use of data. It also provides significant improvements in
the use of the available spectrum.
With the standards definitions now available for LTE, the Long Term
Evolution of the 3G services, eyes are now turning towards the next
development, that of the truly 4G technology named IMT-Advanced. The new
technology being developed under the auspices of 3GPP to meet these
requirements is often termed LTE-Advanced (LTE Release 10 & beyond).
While 3GPP Rel-9 focuses on enhancements to HSPA+ and LTE the Rel10 focuses on the next generation of LTE for the ITUs IMT-Advanced
requirements and both were developed nearly simultaneously by 3GPP
standards working groups. Several milestones have been achieved by vendors in
recent years for both Rel-9 and Rel-10. Most significant was the final ratification
by the ITU of LTE-Advanced (Rel-10) as 4G IMT-Advanced in November 2010.
23
Table 1.3. 3GPP LTE highlight specifications

Parameter
Peak downlink speed
64QAM (Mbps)
Peak uplink speeds
(Mbps)
Data type
Channel bandwidths
(MHz)
Duplex schemes
Mobility
Latency
Spectral efficiency
Access schemes
Modulation types supported
Details
100 (SISO), 172 (2x2 MIMO), 326 (4x4 MIMO)
50 (QPSK), 57 (16QAM), 86 (64QAM)
All packet switched data (voice and data). No circuit
switched.
1.4, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20
FDD and TDD
0 - 15 km/h (optimized),
15 - 120 km/h (high performance)
Idle to active less than 100ms
Small packets ~10 ms
Downlink: 3 - 4 times Rel 6 HSDPA
Uplink: 2 -3 x Rel 6 HSUPA
OFDMA (Downlink)
SC-FDMA (Uplink)
QPSK, 16QAM, 64QAM (Uplink and downlink)
The performance and capabilities of 4G LTE (Rel-10) will be unmatched in

the marketplace, allowing customers to do things never before possible in a
wireless and mobile environment. Currently some of the main features that
wireless and mobile implementation of LTE-Advanced will provide are the
following:
Peak data rates: downlink - 1 Gbps; uplink - 500 Mbps.

Spectrum efficiency: 3 times greater than LTE. LTE-Advanced shall
operate in spectrum allocations of different sizes including wider spectrum
allocations than those of LTE Release 8. The main focus for bandwidth
solutions wider than 20MHz should be on consecutive spectrum.
However, aggregation of the spectrum for LTE-Advanced should take into
account reasonable user equipment (UE) complexity. Frequency division
duplex (FDD) and time division duplex (TDD) should be supported for
existing paired and unpaired frequency bands, respectively.
Peak spectrum efficiency: downlink - 30 bps/Hz; uplink - 15 bps/Hz.
Spectrum use: the ability to support scalable bandwidth use and spectrum
aggregation where non-contiguous spectrum needs to be used.
Latency: from Idle to Connected in less than 50 ms and then shorter than
5 ms one way for individual packet transmission.
Cell edge user throughput to be twice that of LTE.
Average user throughput to be 3 times that of LTE.
Simultaneous user support: LTE provides the ability to perform twodimensional resource scheduling (in time and frequency), allowing support
of multiple users in a time slot, resulting in a much better always-on
24
experience while enabling the proliferation of embedded wireless

applications/systems (in contrast, existing 3G technology performs onedimensional scheduling, which limits service to one user for each
timeslot).
Mobility: Same as that in LTE: System shall support mobility across the
cellular network for various mobile speeds up to 350km/h (or even up to
500km/h depending on the frequency band). In comparison to LTE
Release 8, the system performance shall be enhanced for 0 up to 10
km/h.
Compatibility: LTE Advanced shall be capable of interworking with LTE
and 3GPP legacy systems.
Security: LTE provides enhanced security through the implementation of
Universal Integrated Circuit Card (UICC) Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)
and the associated robust and non-invasive key storage and symmetric
key authentication using 128-bit private keys. LTE additionally
incorporates strong mutual authentication, user identity confidentiality,
integrity protection of all signaling messages between UE and Mobility
Management Entity (MME) and optional multi-level bearer data encryption.
Simplified Worldwide Roaming: the widely adopted next-generation 3GPP
standard, will provide the greatest opportunities for seamless international
roaming.
Mass Deployment: LTEs inherent support for Internet Protocol version 6
(IPV6) addressing and International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)based identifiers makes mass deployments of machine-to-machine
applications over LTE-Advanced possible.
Finally, the LTE Rel-12 and beyond will provide the initial enablers of
meeting these challenging demands as well as a smooth way into the Beyond 4G
era. Rel-12 enhancements focus on the four areas of Capacity, Coverage,
Coordination (between cells), and Cost. Improvements in these areas are based
on using several technology enablers: small cell enhancements, macro cell
enhancements, New Carrier Type (NCT) and Machine-Type Communications
(MTC). Small cell enhancements are also known as enhanced local access. NCT
helps achieve the required changes in the physical layer and initially provides
base station energy savings, flexibility in deployment and ways to reduce
interference in heterogeneous networks (HetNets).Improvements in capacity and
a more robust network performance are achieved by 3D Beamforming/MIMO
(Multiple Input Multiple Output), advanced user equipment (UE) receivers and
evolved Coordinated Multipoint (CoMP) techniques, as well as through SelfOrganizing Networks for small cell deployments. Finally, new spectrum footprint
and new business will be opened up by optimizing the system for Machine-Type
Communications, as well as by, for example, using LTE for public safety.
LTE evolution continues strongly in Rel-12 and beyond by enhancing LTE
and LTE-Advanced operation. Rel-12 features aim at boosting performance and
at entering new areas and spectrum. In the end, the Tables 1.4 and 1.5
summarize the most promising Rel-12 features.
25
Table 1.4. Benefits from 3GPP Release 12 Boost performance.
Table 1.5. Benefits from 3GPP Release 12 Expand to new areas and new spectrum.
1.4.2 LTE/LTE-Advanced radio access

LTE-Advanced is an evolution of the LTE designed to meet or even
exceed the IMT-Advanced requirements set by ITU-R. The built-in backward
compatibility of LTE-Advanced has a direct implication in the way that, for an LTE
terminal a network with LTE-Advanced capabilities should appear as an LTE
network only, while for LTE-Advanced terminals it will provide full capacity of the
LTE-Advanced radio interface. The most important improvements in LTEAdvanced access can be summarized as follows:
Better flexibility in spectrum management for wideband deployments by
using carrier aggregation across different frequency bands.
Flexible and faster network deployment achieved with the help of
heterogeneous networks feature (relay nodes, femto and pico cells,
besides typical macro cells in the radio access network).
26
Improved radio network coverage as well as spectral efficiency (at the cell
edges and the average one), which is achieved through robust
interference management.
Higher peak user bitrates by incorporation of higher order MIMO in
downlink and uplink (however, MIMO is not exclusively used in LTEAdvanced, but it is also used in LTE and HSPA).
So, there are several important improvements in the radio interface in
LTE-Advanced, which are aimed in fulfilling the goals for higher capacity, better
cost-efficiency and greater flexibility.
Figure 1.15 LTE-Advanced carrier aggregation
Carrier aggregation
Carrier aggregation is considered as one of the main features of the LTEAdvanced for provision of higher bit rates than LTE and for fulfilling the IMTAdvanced requirements for 4G set by ITU. LTE introduced flexible spectrum
allocations by specification of different spectrum bands for the radio interface,
including FDD (Frequency Division Duplex), i.e., paired bands, and TDD (Time
Division Duplex), i.e., unpaired bands. LTE-Advanced provides possibility for
spectrum allocations of up to 100 MHz. That is accomplished by carrier
aggregation of multiple (separate) component carriers on the physical layer, with
allocations of 1.4 MHz, 3 MHz, 5 MHz, 10 MHz, 15 MHz, and 20 MHz. Maximum
27
carrier aggregation in LTE-Advanced is 5 bands, each band with maximum 20

MHz, giving overall maximum frequency band allocation of 100 MHz. However, it
is not always possible for mobile operators to have large amount of contiguous
spectrum allocation. Therefore, LTE-Advanced provides possibility for flexible
carrier aggregation of up to 5 non-continuous component carriers, as shown in
Figure 1.15.
Generally, spectrum allocation in 4G can be characterized as follows:
Intra-band adjacent component carriers.
Intra-band non-adjacent component carriers.
Inter-band component carriers.
At the beginning of the 4G, handheld mobile terminals are not expected to
support aggregation over a diverse spectrum. So, lap-top computers are first
targeted to exploit carrier aggregation feature via their LTE-Advanced radio
interface (e.g., connected via a USB port). In a later phase of 4G development,
one may predict that mobile terminals will support carrier aggregation over noncontinuous bands.
Regarding the protocol layering model, the carrier aggregation is
implemented on OSI layer-2. However, the layer-2 is consisted of two sublayers:
MAC (Medium Access Control) and RLC (Radio Link Control), as shown in
Figure 1.15. The carrier aggregation is implemented above the MAC sublayer, on
the RLC sublayer, which is below the network layer (that is IP in LTE/LTEAdvanced). So, from the network layer (above the radio interface, consisted of
lower two OSI layers) the carrier aggregation provides aggregate bit rates
obtained from all carriers, while each physical layer and it corresponding MAC
sublayer are distinct per frequency band (each band is from 1.4 MHz up to 20
MHz).
28
1.5. System Architecture Evolution (SAE) and Evolved

Packet Core (EPC)
The 3GPP Rel-8 specified the elements and requirements of the Evolved
Packet System (EPS) architecture that will serve as a basis for the nextgeneration networks. The specifications contain two major work items, namely
LTE and System Architecture Evolution (SAE) that led to the specification of the
Evolved Packet Core (EPC), Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access
Network (E-UTRAN), and Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access (E-UTRA),
each of which corresponds to the core network, radio access network, and air
interface of the whole system, respectively. The EPS provides IP connectivity
between a User Equipment (UE) and an external packet data network using EUTRAN. In Figure 1.16, we provide an overview of the EPS, other legacy Packet
and Circuit Switched elements and 3GPP RANs, along with the most important
interfaces. In the services network, only the Policy and Charging Rules Function
(PCRF) and the Home Subscriber Server (HSS) are included, for simplicity. In
the context of 4G systems, both the air interface and the radio access network
are being enhanced or redefined, but so far the core network architecture, i.e. the
EPC, is not undergoing major changes from the already standardized SAE
architecture.
Figure. 1.16. Simple illustration of the EPS for 3GPP accesses.
As we mentioned in the previous sections, 3GPP has proposed a

framework to evolve the 3GPP system to a higher data rate, lower latency,
packet-optimized packet core system (EPC) that supports multiple access
technologies, including 3GPP Internet Protocol Connectivity Access Network (IP
CANs) like GSM EDGE Radio Access Network (GERAN), UTRAN and Evolved
29
UTRAN (E-UTRAN) and non-3GPP IP CANs like WLAN, WiMAX and even wired
technologies. This access independent evolution of the packet core system
architecture is the first major step towards the realization of an All-IP Network
and also it is fully compatible with LTE-Advanced, the new 4G technology.
Figure. 1.17. EPC/SAE architecture: baseline.
The new SAE network is based upon the GSM / WCDMA core networks to
enable simplified operations and easy deployment. Despite this, the SAE network
brings in some major changes, and allows far more efficient and effect transfer of
30
data. Moreover, there are several common principles used in the development of
the LTE SAE network:
a common gateway node and anchor point for all technologies.
an optimised architecture for the user plane with only two node types.
an all IP based system with IP based protocols used on all interfaces.
a split in the control / user plane between the MME, mobility management
entity and the gateway.
a radio access network / core network functional split similar to that used
on WCDMA / HSPA.
integration of non-3GPP access technologies (e.g. cdma2000, WiMAX,
etc) using client as well as network based mobile-IP.
The main element of the LTE SAE network is what is termed the Evolved
Packet Core. This connects to the eNodeBs. It is also possible that one physical
network element in the EPC implements multiple logical nodes. Also, in Figure
1.17 is given a detail illustration of EPC/SAE architecture.
As seen within the Figure 1.17, the LTE SAE Evolved Packet Core,
consists of four main elements as listed below:
Mobility Management Entity, MME: The MME is the main control node
for the LTE SAE access network, handling a number of features:
o Idle mode UE tracking
o Bearer activation / de-activation
o Choice of SGW for a UE
o Intra-LTE handover involving core network node location
o Interacting with HSS to authenticate user on attachment and
implements roaming restrictions
o It acts as a termination for the Non-Access Stratum (NAS)
o Provides temporary identities for UEs
o The SAE MME acts the termination point for ciphering protection for
NAS signaling. As part of this it also handles the security key
management. Accordingly the MME is the point at which lawful
interception of signalling may be made.
o Paging procedure
o The S3 interface terminates in the MME thereby providing the
control plane function for mobility between LTE and 2G/3G access
networks.
o The SAE MME also terminates the S6a interface for the home HSS
for roaming UEs. It can therefore be seen that the SAE MME
provides a considerable level of overall control functionality.
Serving Gateway, SGW: The Serving Gateway, SGW, is a data plane
element within the LTE SAE. Its main purpose is to manage the user
plane mobility and it also acts as the main border between the Radio
Access Network, RAN and the core network. The SGW also maintains the
data paths between the eNodeBs and the PDN Gateways. In this way the
SGW forms a interface for the data packet network at the E-UTRAN. Also
31
when UEs move across areas served by different eNodeBs, the SGW
serves as a mobility anchor ensuring that the data path is maintained.
PDN Gateway, PGW: The LTE SAE PDN gateway provides connectivity
for the UE to external packet data networks, fulfilling the function of entry
and exit point for UE data. The UE may have connectivity with more than
one PGW for accessing multiple PDNs.
Policy and Charging Rules Function, PCRF: This is the generic name
for the entity within the LTE SAE EPC which detects the service flow,
enforces charging policy. For applications that require dynamic policy or
charging control, a network element entitled the Applications Function, AF
is used.
In order that requirements for increased data capacity and reduced

latency can be met, along with the move to an all-IP network, it is necessary to
adopt a new approach to the network structure. For 3G UMTS / WCDMA the
UTRAN (UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network, comprising the Node B's or
base stations and Radio Network Controllers) employed low levels of autonomy.
The Node Bs were connected in a star formation to the Radio Network
Controllers (RNCs) which carried out the majority of the management of the radio
resource. In turn the RNCs connected to the core network and connect in turn to
the Core Network.
To provide the required functionality within LTE SAE, the basic system
architecture sees the removal of a layer of management. The RNC is removed
and the radio resource management is devolved to the base-stations. The new
style base-stations are called eNodeBs or eNBs.
The eNBs are connected directly to the core network gateway via a newly
defined "S1 interface". In addition to this the new eNBs also connect to adjacent
eNBs in a mesh via an "X2 interface". This provides a much greater level of
direct interconnectivity. It also enables many calls to be routed very directly as a
large number of calls and connections are to other mobiles in the same or
adjacent cells. The new structure allows many calls to be routed far more directly
and with only minimum interaction with the core network.
Moreover, from a user-plane perspective there are only the eNBs and the
gateways, which is why the system is considered flat. The result is a reduced
complexity compared to previous architectures.
32
Figure. 1.18. LTE-Advanced E-UTRAN architecture.
In Figure 1.18, the architecture of E-UTRAN for LTE-Advanced is

presented. The core part in the E-UTRAN architecture, as we said before is the
enhanced Node B (eNodeB or eNB), which provides the air interface with user
plane and control plane protocol terminations towards the UE. Each of the eNBs
is a logical component that serves one or several E-UTRAN cells, and the
interface interconnecting the eNBs via X2 interface. Additionally, Home eNBs
(HeNBs, also called femtocells), which are eNBs of lower cost for indoor
coverage improvement, can be connected to the EPC directly or via a gateway
that provides additional support for a large number of HeNBs. Further, 3GPP is
considering relay nodes and sophisticated relaying strategies for network
performance enhancement. The targets of this new technology are increased
coverage, higher data rates, and better QoS performance and fairness for
different users. In addition to the new Layer 1 and Layer 2 functionality, eNBs
handle several other functions. This includes the radio resource control including
admission control, load balancing and radio mobility control including handover
decisions for the mobile or user equipment (UE). The additional levels of
flexibility and functionality given to the new eNBs mean that they are more
complex than the UMTS and previous generations of base-station. However the
new 3G LTE SAE network structure enables far higher levels of performance. In
addition to this their flexibility enables them to be updated to handle new
upgrades to the system including the transition from 3G LTE to 4G LTEAdvanced. Moreover, The EPC specifies two types of IP-IP Gateway logical
functions for the user plane the Serving Gateway (S-GW) and the PDN
Gateway (P-GW). The S-GW and P-GW are core network functions of the EUTRAN based access. They may be implemented in one physical node or in
separate physical nodes. Early deployments are likely to see a single node
implementation of S-GW and P-GW functions with future proof design to
decouple these functions such that S-GWs in visited networks can connect to PGWs of home networks for home PLMN routed IP services.
33
As shown in Figure 1.19, both the S-GW and P-GW are built on core
routing and switching technologies supporting the Layer 2 and Layer 3 suite of an
All IP Network. Transfer of data in control plane (i.e., signalling) and user plane
(e.g., web, email, voice, etc.) is done through use of tunnelling protocols based
on GTP (GPRS Tunnelling Protocol) and SCTP (Stream Control Transmission
Protocol) for reliable IP-based signalling.
Figure. 1.19. User and Control plane traffic in EPS Architecture.
34
1.6. QoS in 3GPP mobile networks

Over the past 3 decades, the 3GPP mobile networks have been evolving
from GSM in 1992 to LTE-Advanced in 2011 and beyond. Consequently, the
QoS frameworks as well as their attributes have also evolved. Peek data rates
have increased from 9.6 kbps offered with GSM in 1992 to as high as 1 Gbps
with LTE-Advanced in 2011. However, from the industrial experience, these QoS
attributes, including the peek data rates, are theoretical and might not be
obtained all the time in commercial networks.
Additionally, as users move within the coverage areas, they might switch
to lower data rates, either due to lower radio quality or due to a vertical handover
to another technology. Thus, measurements of real QoS attributes, including
vertical handovers, in commercial networks should be performed in order to:
Provide realistic figures for customers
Improve the QoS performances of the networks
Additionally, mobile applications should take into consideration the real
QoS attributes, rather than the theoretical ones. They also should be designed to
properly work with the continuous movements between these different
technologies and their associated QoS attributes.
However, since the GPRS core architecture is the same for GPRS and
UMTS, the QoS frameworks and mechanisms are common to both technologies.
Although the architecture has evolved through the different 3GPP releases, this
diagram applies to all releases from R99 to R8. 3GPP-TR.23.207(2004) also
defines four QoS classes, which are presented furthermore, corresponding to
different traffic QoS requirements (mainly, delay tolerance).
1.6.1 QoS in UMTS
In that way, in UMTS we have four different QoS classes:

Conversational class, is characterised by a low transfer time and
preserved time variation between information entities of the stream. The
most well known use of this scheme is voice over IP (VoIP) and video
conferencing tools.
Streaming class, is characterised by the preserved time variation between
information entities within a flow, although it does not have any
requirements on low transfer delay. It is suitable for transfer of streaming
audio and video.
Interactive class, is characterised by the request response pattern of the
end user. This scheme applies when the end user, is online requesting
data from remote server. Examples are: web browsing, data base
retrieval, server access, polling for measurement records and automatic
database enquiries. Low round trip delay time and low bit error rate are
one of the key attributes.
35
Background class. Examples are background delivery of emails, SMS

(Short Message Service), download of databases and reception of
measurement records. The scheme is more or less delivery time
insensitive. Another characteristic is that the content of the packets are
transparently transferred (i.e. with low bit error rate)
Figure 1.20 QoS attributes in UMTS
Some of the most important attributes that defines Radio Access Bearer
Service are (given in Figure 1.20):
Traffic class (conversational, streaming, interactive, background), it is
used to optimise the transport for that traffic type.
Maximum bit rate it is used to limit the delivered bit rate to applications
or define maximum desired RAB bit rate for applications able to work with
different bit rates.
Guaranteed bit rate it can be used to facilitate admission control based
on available resources, and for resource allocation within UTRAN.
Delivery order - indicates whether the UMTS bearer shall provide insequence SDU delivery or not and specifies if out-of-sequence SDUs are
acceptable or not.
Maximum SDU size - maximum packet size that can be delivered at the
radio interface.
SDU format information. This is the list of possible exact sizes of SDUs.
Delivery of erroneous SDUs. This indicates whether SDUs detected as
erroneous will be delivered or discarded.
Transfer delay. The attribute is used to specify the delay tolerated by the
application and allows UTRAN to set transport formats and ARQ
(Automatic Repeat Request) parameters.
36
Traffic handling priority, specifying the relative importance of handling all

SDUs belonging to the UMTS bearer compared to the SDUs of other
bearers, etc.
TE
MT
UTRAN
CN Iu
edge node
UE
CN
Gateway
TE
Core Network
End-to-end service
Local bearer
service
External bearer
service
UMTS bearer service
Radio Access Bearer (RAB) service

Radio bearer
service
Iu bearer
service
UTRA FDD/TDD
service
Physical bearer
service
Core Network
bearer service
Backbone
bearer service
Figure 1.21. QoS end-to-end model for UMTS network.
Since the end-to-end path extends across different system levels each
having their own QoS properties, the QoS is handled and split in different parts
taking into account the special characteristics of each component
The layered architecture of a UMTS bearer service is depicted in Figure
1.21. The end-to-end service used by the TE (Terminal Equipment) will be
realised using a TE/MT Local Bearer Service, a UMTS Bearer Service, and an
External Bearer Service.
QoS differentiation becomes useful for the network efficiency during high
load when there are services with different delay requirements. The qualitative
gain of the QoS differentiation is illustrated in Figure 1.22. Considerable
efficiency gains can be obtained just by introducing a few prioritisation classes
(Step 2) within interactive or background class by using allocation and retention
parameters, ARP.
37
Figure 1.22. Qualitative gain illustration for QoS differentiation.

1
2
Conversational
Conversational
Conversational
Streaming
Streaming
Streaming
Interactive
Interactive
Interactive
10
Background
ARP=1
ARP=2
Low delay guaranteed bit rate
ARP=3
ARP=1
ARP=2
Guaranteed bit rate
ARP=3
ARP=THP=1
ARP=THP=2
Prioritization
ARP=THP=3
ARP3
Figure 1.23. Example ten categories by taking a subset of UMTS QoS classes.
An example QoS differentiation scheme is shown in Figure 1.23 with ten

different QoS categories: six guaranteed bit rate categories and four non-real
time categories. It is assumed in this case that traffic handling priority is equal to
allocation and retention priority, and there is no prioritization within the
background class.
Figure 1.24 shows an example where all the services have the same QoS
parameters and the same treatment (they get the same bit rate and experience
the same delay).
Figure 1.25 shows the case where there are different pipes with QoS
prioritization in packet scheduling. This approach already provides QoS
differentiation.
38
VoIP
Streaming
Push-to-talk
Browsing
MMS
Best-effort RAB
Internet access
Figure 1.24. No QoS differentiation all services use the same QoS parameters.
VoIP
Streaming
Push-to-talk
Guaranteed bitrate
conversational RAB
Guaranteed bitrate
streaming RAB
Interactive RAB,
THP=ARP=1
Browsing
MMS
Internet access
Interactive RAB,
THP=ARP=3
Background RAB
Figure 1.25. QoS differentiation with two guaranteed bit rate classes and three classes
for non-real time prioritization.
Figure 1.26 illustrates the mechanisms to define the QoS parameters in radio
access bearer set-up.
1. The UE can request QoS parameters. In particular, if the application
requires guaranteed bit rate streaming or conversational class, it has to
be requested by UE, otherwise, it cannot be given by the network.
2. The Access Point Node (APN), in GGSN can give QoS parameters
according to operator settings. Some services may be accessed via
certain APNs. That allows the operator to control the QoS parameters
for different services and makes it also possible to prioritize operator
hosted services compared to accessing other services.
39
3. The home location register, HLR, may contain subscriber specific

limitations for the QoS parameters.
4. The WCDMA radio network must be able to provide the QoS
differentiation in packet handling.
Figure 1.26. The role of UE, GGSN and HLR in defining QoS class.
1.6.2 QoS in LTE/LTE-Advanced

The LTE, which was introduced with release R8 is supposed to provide
high throughput and low latency in a way to support richer quality of experience
for users and the ability to provide sophisticated services and applications such
as Video-VoIP, high-definition video streaming, mobile gaming and peer-to-peer
file exchange.
In LTE, QoS is provided between UE and PDN Gateway and is applied to
the Evolved Packet System (EPS) bearer approach via the following three main
bearers (Figure 1.27):
Radio bearer (on the LTE/LTE-Advanced radio interface);
S1 bearer (on S1 interface, between eNodeB and S-GW);
S5/S8 bearer (on S5/S8 interface, between S-GW and P-GW).
EPS bearer is further divided into two types of bearers:
Guaranteed Bit Rate (GBR);
Non-Guaranteed Bit Rate (non-GBR) referred to as the default bearer
(3GPP-TS.36.300, 2010).
A bearer is assigned a value referred to as a QoS Class Identifier (QCI),
which refers to a set QoS attributes (3GPP-TS.25.306, 2011b). The mapping of
LTE standardized QCI to QoS objectives is presented in Table 1.6.
40
Figure 1.27. The LTE architecture together with the Bearers.
Table 1.6. LTE/LTE-Advanced QoS Class Identifiers (QCI).

Resource Type
Priority
Delay
budget
Loss
rate
Example
application
GBR
100 ms
10-2
VoIP
150 ms
10-3
Video call
300 ms
10-6
Video streaming
50 ms
10-3
Real-time gaming
100 ms
10-6
IMS signaling
100 ms
10-3
Voice, live video,

Interactive gaming
300 ms
10-6
TCP applications
(web, email, p2p file
sharing, http video,
chat, buffered video
streaming, etc.)
QCI
1
Non-GBR
41
Table 1.7 PDP Context vs. EPS Bearer Attributes

UMTS Release99 PDP Attributes
EPS Bearer Attributes
Traffic Class
Bearer type
Traffic Handling Priority
SDU error ratio
L2PLR
Residual bit error ratio
Max bit rate for uplink
MBR
Max bit rate for downlink
ARP
ARP
Max SDU size
Not applicable
Delivery order
Delivery order
Transfer delay
L2PDB
Guaranteed bit rate
GBR
Not applicable
AMBR
So, an EPS bearer is characterized by the following parameters:

Allocation Retention Priority (ARP) this parameter refers to the
priority used for the allocation and retention mechanisms.
Guaranteed Bit Rate (GBR) only applicable to bearers which
require guaranteed Quality of Service for services such as voice or
streaming.
Maximum Bit Rate (MBR) the MBR parameters help to set a limit on
the data rate expected for the related service.
QoS Class Identifier (QCI) which is used as a reference to a set of
Access Network related QoS parameters, for the transmission between
the terminal and the eNodeB.
In the all-IP EPS world, QoS representation is much simpler (Table 1.7),
based on fewer attributes and associated with predefined labels so as to limit the
huge number of possible combinations and maintain consistency between
network implementations from different manufacturers for a given type of service.
Each QoS class is associated with the following parameters:
Bearer Type this parameter indicates whether or not resources
associated with the bearer need to be permanently allocated during the
42
whole bearer lifetime, reflecting the difference between GBR

(Guaranteed Bit Rate) and non-GBR bearers.
L2 Packet Delay Budget (L2PDB) This parameter describes the
maximum time that packets shall spend transiting through RLC and
MAC layers within the network and the terminal.
L2 Packet Loss Rate (L2PLR) This parameter describes the
maximum ratio of L2 packets which have not successfully delivered to
the peer entity.
The traffic generated by a particular application can be differentiated into

separate Service Data Flows (SDFs) and mapped to a particular bearer, based
on specific parameters provisioned either in the PCRF or defined by the
application layer signaling. SDFs mapped to the same bearer are treated
similarly from the QoS standpoint.
Finally, there are premium subscribers who always want to have better
user experience on their LTE/LTE-Advanced device. These users are willing to
pay more for high bandwidth and better network access on their devices. Not
only the subscribers but some services itself need better priority handling in the
network (e.g. VoIP call). To be able to fulfil this, the QoS plays the key role.
Simply said, the QoS defines priorities for certain customers and/or services
during the time of high traffic congestion in the mobile network.
1.6.3 3GPP Mobile QoS Discussion

QoS support in 3GPP networks is based on definition of QoS classes and
QoS parameters and their mapping on defined bearers.
3G and 4G mobile networks by 3GPP have bearers on different layers,
from physical layer radio bearers up to end-to-end service bearers.
Traffic from different services in classified in several QoS classes:
UMTS has 4 different QoS classes for conversational, streaming,
interactive and background services.
LTE/LTE-Advanced mobile networks have 9 different QoS Class
Identifiers (QCI), as further evolution from UMTS QoS framework.
Radio access network is the most sensitive to QoS, so different QoS
techniques are exploited on different protocol layers in the access:
Physical layer includes channel adaptation, CQI mapping, power
control (the limiting direction is the uplink due to limited output power of
mobile terminals);
Layer 2 provides link adaptation, link-layer scheduling, and error
control on the link layer (with HARQ);
Network layer (layer 3) includes QoS management over the access
and core networks, admission control, persistent scheduling in mobile
network nodes.
43
1.7. IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS)
The IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) is Service Delivery Platform

architecture for providing multimedia applications in converging fixed and mobile
IP networks, called Next Generation Networks (NGN).
The IMS architecture is a combination of the classic Intelligent Network
concept of the telecommunication world and current Internet protocols, and
highlights the main IMS components and control features for the provision of
multimedia information and communication services. In other words said, IMS is
an open-system architecture that supports a range of IP-based services
(including any services which go through Internet) over the PS domain,
employing both wireless and fixed access technologies. One should note that
IMS and Future Internet have one basic common element - IP protocol, which
undoubtedly makes IMS number one communication platform for Future Internet
and for the Mobile broadband technologies, which again are all-IP based.
Consequently, IMS is basis for the paradigm: My communications servicesanywhere, anytime, any-terminal.
Furthermore, Figure 1.28 gives high-level view for the IMS environment
regarding different access networks which include fixed and mobile/wireless
ones.
LTE
HSPA+
3GPP2
MDN
802.11
HSPA
TDSCDMA
Non-3GPP
Defined
Radio
Accesses
802.16
IP Multimedia
Subsystem
3GPP
WCDMA
Defined
Radio
EDGE
Accesses
(packet-based)
GPRS
xDSL
Cable
Fixed
Accesses
Fiber
Figure 1.28. IMS environment.
If we go back in history, IMS standardization was started during the 1990s

and in that time by "multimedia services" was meant voice with video or at the
most file transfer and chat during the video/voice call. But over the time, just as
the vision of multimedia services evolved, IMS evolved, too. Nowadays VoIP,
44
IPTV, VoD and many other Internet multimedia services rely on IMS. For more
details on IMS in NGN one may refer to ITU-T Rec. Y2211.
For nowadays and future Internet users, IMS-based services enable
person-to-person and person-to-content communications in a variety of modes
including voice, text, pictures and video, or any combination of these in a highly
personalized and controlled way. The user can connect to an IMS network in
various ways, most of which use the standard Internet Protocol (IP). IMS
terminals (such as mobile phones, computers, lap-tops, etc.) can register directly
on an IMS network, even when they are roaming in another network or country
(the visited network). Fixed access (e.g., Digital Subscriber Line (DSL), cable
modems, Ethernet), mobile access (e.g. W-CDMA, CDMA2000, GSM, GPRS,
EDGE, LTE) and wireless access (e.g. WLAN, WiMAX) are all supported by IMS
and of course in Future Internet. Other phone systems like plain old telephone
service (POTSthe old analogue telephones), H.323 and non IMS-compatible
VoIP systems, are supported through special gateways.
For operators, IMS takes the concept of layered architecture one step
further by defining a horizontal architecture, where service enablers and common
functions can be reused for multiple applications. The horizontal architecture in
IMS also specifies interoperability and roaming, and provides bearer control,
charging and security. What is more, it is well integrated with existing voice and
data networks, while adopting many of the key benefits of the IT domain.
This makes IMS a key enabler for fixed-mobile convergence and it is
integral part of Future Internet architecture. For these reasons, IMS is becoming
preferred solution for fixed and mobile operators. IMS enables services to be
delivered in a standardized, well-structured way that truly makes the most of
layered architecture. At the same time, it provides a future-proof architecture that
simplifies and speeds up the service creation and provisioning process, while
enabling legacy interworking.
The horizontal architecture of IMS enables operators to move away from
vertical stovepipe implementations of new Internet services eliminating the
costly and complex traditional network structure of overlapping functionality for
charging, presence, group and list management, routing and provisioning.
For fixed and mobile operators there are benefits of introducing the IMS
architecture today. On longer term, IMS enables a secure migration path to an
all-IP architecture that will meet end-user demands for new enriched services.
According to said above, IMS provides a very good fit with the user and
operator requirements outlined and will therefore be the natural technology
solution and undoubtedly a key platform for Future Internet and Mobile
Broadband. It provides an open, standardized way of using horizontal, serviceoriented, layered network architecture.
1.7.1 IMS Architecture

Let now go back to the IMS architecture basic overview that is shown in
Figure 1.29. The service/application layer comprises application and content
45
servers to execute value-added services for the user. Generic service enablers
as defined in the IMS standard (such as presence and group list management)
are implemented as services in a SIP (Session Initiation Protocol) Application
Server (AS). SIP Application servers (AS) host and execute services, and
interface with the S-CSCF using Session Initiation Protocol (SIP). An example of
an application server that is being developed in 3GPP is the Voice Call Continuity
function (VCC Server). Depending on the actual service, the AS can typically
operate in SIP proxy mode or SIP UA (user agent) mode. An AS can be located
in the home network or in an external third-party network. If located in the home
network, it can query the HSS with the Diameter protocol messages (for a SIPAS).
Figure 1.29 IMS architecture.
The control layer comprises network control servers for managing call or
session set-up, modification and release. The most important of these is the
46
CSCF (Call Session Control Function), also known as a SIP server. There are
three types of CSCF servers: Proxy-CSCF (P-CSCF), Serving-CSCF (S-CSCF)
and Interrogating-CSCF (I-CSCF):
Proxy-CSCF (P-CSCF) is the first contact point for the User Equipment
(e.g., mobile terminal, fixed terminal) within the IMS.
o It acts as a SIP proxy and it interacts with the admission control
subsystem to provide authorization only of media components that
can be provided with appropriate QoS level.
o P-CSCF should not modify SIP messages for session initiation.
o The P-CSCF may also behave as a user agent.
o This entity is also an endpoint of security associations between the
IMS and the UE (with IMS capabilities), with aim to maintain
confidentiality of SIP sessions.
o The P-CSCF for a given terminal can be located in a home network
or in a visited network (when its IP address is assigned locally in
the visited network based on certain roaming agreement between
the operators).
S-CSCF is the central node of the signalling plane. It is a SIP server, but
performs session control too. It is always located in the home network. It
uses Diameter-based interfaces to the HSS to download user profiles and
upload user-to-S-CSCF associations (the user profile is only cached
locally for processing reasons only and is not changed). All necessary
subscriber profile information is loaded from the HSS.
o It handles SIP registrations, which allows it to bind the user location
(e.g. the IP address of the terminal) and the SIP address.
o It sits on the path of all signaling messages of the locally registered
users, and can inspect every message
o It decides to which application server(s) the SIP message will be
forwarded, in order to provide their services.
o It provides routing services, typically using Electronic Numbering
(ENUM) lookups.
o It enforces the policy of the network operator.
o There can be multiple S-CSCFs in the network for load distribution
and high availability reasons. It's the HSS that assigns the S-CSCF
to a user, when it's queried by the I-CSCF. There are multiple
options for this purpose, including a mandatory/optional capabilities
to be matched between subscribers and S-CSCFs.
I-CSCF is another SIP function located at the edge of an administrative

domain. Its IP address is published in the Domain Name System (DNS) of
the domain, so that remote servers can find it, and use it as a forwarding
point (e.g. registering) for SIP packets to this domain.
o It queries the HSS to retrieve the address of the S-CSCF and
assign it to a user performing SIP registration
o it also forwards SIP request or response to the S-CSCF
47
o Up to Release 6 it can also be used to hide the internal network

from the outside world (encrypting parts of the SIP message), in
which case it's called a Topology Hiding Inter-network Gateway
(THIG). From Release 7 onwards this "entry point" function is
removed from the I-CSCF and is now part of the Interconnection
Border Control Function (IBCF). The IBCF is used as gateway to
external networks, and provides NAT and Firewall functions
(pinholing). The IBCF is practically a Session Border Controller
specialized for the NNI.
In the IMS control layer also are contained a full suite of support functions,
such as provisioning, charging and operation & management (O&M). Also, the
Home Subscriber Server (HSS), is in this layer, and it is a master user database
that supports the IMS network entities that actually handle calls. It contains the
subscription-related information (subscriber profiles), performs authentication and
authorization of the user, and can provide information about the subscriber's
location and IP information. It is similar to the GSM Home Location Register
(HLR) and Authentication Centre (AuC). A Subscriber Location Function (SLF) is
needed to map user addresses when multiple HSSs are used.
Moreover, the interworking with other operators networks and/or other
types of networks is handled by border gateways. The connectivity layer
comprises routers and switches, both for the backbone and the access network.
In the pre-IMS world, services are specified and supported by a single
logical node, or set of nodes, performing specialized features for the service.
Each service appears as an island, with its own service-specific node(s). The
only possible way to interface between services for example, for service
composition is through protocols. In the absence of any common service
framework, each service may have to be designed and implemented from
scratch. On the other hand, with the introduction of the IMS architecture, many
functions can be reused for fast service creation and delivery. IMS services are
hosted by Application Servers, which means they are implicitly placed in the IMS
application layer, and that various aspects of service control are defined. For
example, IMS defines how service requests are routed, which protocols are
supported, how charging is performed and how service composition is enabled. A
single Application Server may host multiple services for example, telephony
and messaging. Collocation of multiple services has significant advantages,
especially with regard to the loading of IMS core network nodes. Collocating
services in one Application Server reduces the workload of the CSCF in the
control IMS layer.
Here must be emphasize that IMS takes the concept of layered
architecture one step further by defining a horizontal architecture where service
enablers and common functions can be reused for multiple applications. The
horizontal architecture in IMS also specifies interoperability and roaming, and
provides bearer control, charging and security. The horizontal architecture of
IMS enables operators to move away from traditional vertical spaghetti
implementations of new services, as shown in Figure 1.30 (left).
48
This traditional network structure with its service-unique functionality for

charging, presence, group and list management, routing and provisioning is
very costly and complex to build and maintain. Separate implementations of each
layer must be built for every service in a pre-IMS network, and the structure is
replicated across the network, from the terminal via the core network to the other
users terminal. IMS provides for a number of common functions that are generic
in their structure and implementation, and can be reused by virtually all services
in the network. Examples of these common functions are group/list management,
presence, provisioning, operation and management, directory, charging and
deployment. In addition to speeding up and simplifying the service creation and
delivery process, the reuse of common infrastructure, enablers and competence
provided by IMS minimizes OPEX and CAPEX for operators especially in areas
such as service provisioning, O&M, customer care and billing.
Another advantage is that the operations competence required across
services is more generic and can be overlaid with service-specific knowledge
rather than demanding specialist operational competence for each service.
Moreover, IMS facilitates the creation and delivery of multimedia services
based on common enablers in a write once - use many way. These key
elements in the IMS architecture are so-called service enablers. They represent
generic and reusable building blocks for service creation. The service enablers
developed for successful applications can become global enablers that are
automatically included in new applications and services. There may be a large
number of service enablers, but possibly the two most important are presence
and group list management.
The presence service enabler allows a set of users to be informed about
the availability and means of communication of the other users in the group. It
enables a paradigm shift in person-to-person and other communications for
example, by enabling users to see each other before connecting (active
address book) or to receive alerts when other users become available. In IMS,
presence is sensitive to different media types, users (requestors), and user
preferences. IMS presence function is also aware of what terminals the user can
be reached on across the various wireline and wireless networks. Different rules
can be set by the user to define who can view what information.
Furthermore, the group list management service enabler allows users to
create and manage network-based group definitions for use by any service
deployed in the network. There are generic mechanisms for notification of
changes in group definitions. Application examples for group management
include:
personal buddy lists;
block lists;
public/private groups (for example, the easy definition of VPN-oriented
service packages);
access control lists;
public or private chat groups;
and any application where a list of public identities is required.
49
Moreover, the IMS greatly simplifies the sign-on and authentication

process, for both operators and users. In the pre-NGN IMS world, each service
often has its own way of authenticating users, which may be standardized or
proprietary. It may not authenticate the user at all, relying instead on lower-level
authentication. The operator may need to introduce a special Single Sign On
(SSO) service in order to avoid re-authentication for multiple services. Once
authenticated through an IMS service, the user is able to access all the other IMS
services that he is authorized to use. Authentication is handled by the CSCF as
the user signs on. When it receives a service request, the SIP Application Server
(AS) can verify that the user has been authenticated.
One of the key interfaces towards the end-user is the contact list. This not
only lists the users contacts, it also shows their availability and for which service
on what terminal. When an end-user logs on to his mobile phone or PC software
client, the system is automatically updated on the users new presence state.
Also, IMS enables the reuse of inter-operator relations. Rather than
develop different interconnect relations and agreements for each service, IMS
enables a single inter-operator relationship to be established and built upon for
each service. Today, when one user wishes to access another users service
for example, to check status or location routing to the other users service is
service-specific, and the requesting users operator service has to be involved.
Whats more, there has to be service-specific network-to-network interface,
routing, service access point and security in place and therefore a specific
interoperator service agreement as well. Once IMS is in place, access to other
users services is an IMS network issue, common to all IMS personal services, as
shown in Figure 1.30. The requesting users operator service does not need to
be involved in routing the request. The inter-operator network-to-network
interface is established in IMS, and the general IMS inter-operator service
agreement, routing, service network access point and security are all reused.
Figure 1.30 Service interoperability in a pre-IMS network

vs IMS enabled operators
The Mobile Broadband operators who see their future in offering IP

multimedia services should begin implementing IMS without delay. The reason is
50
that IMS provides a standardized, well-structured way of delivering services,

legacy interworking and fixedmobile convergence. At the same time, it provides
a future-proof architecture that simplifies and speeds up the service creation and
provisioning process. The IMS standard is being adopted by an ever growing
section of the telecom community. It is today the only standard for SIP-based
communication. NGN operators can implement IMS solutions today, in order to
derive its benefits as soon as possible. The NGN IMS architecture not only
delivers revenue-generating services straight away, but can also leverage
existing user behaviour. Moreover, using IMS in future NGNs, operators can
adopt a strategy of first exploring the opportunities of IP multimedia, and then
taking appropriate steps to mass-market IP multimedia services, according to
market and business motivations. The hard lessons of the Internet bubble have
brought us back to sound business logic, based on increased revenues and cost
control. The introduction of new services and capabilities must not disturb the
current profitable mix of telephony and Internet services. They should rather use
it as a base for a superior user experience making it even more compelling.
On the other hand, the all-IP vision enables one core network for multiple
accesses and so reduces cost of ownership. By introducing the concept of
horizontalization in IMS, the operators get an excellent opportunity to capitalize
even further on the layered architecture that is being introduced in both wireline
and wireless networks. Utilizing the horizontal architecture, with its reusable
common functions, the operator can in a service oriented and revenue focused
way start the journey towards all-IP. However, from a network infrastructure
perspective, IMS can be very cost efficient not only as a result of the benefits of
horizontalization, but also in terms of operation and maintenance.
1.7.2 IMS Short Summary

IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) is the main system in service stratum of
NGN. It is access independent, thus providing FMC (Fixed Mobile Convergence).
In practice, it is initially deployed in fixed networks, primarily for transition
of digital telephony from PSTN/ISDN to QoS-enabled VoIP.
It can be used in fixed networks such as xDSL networks, PONs (Passive
Optical Networks), QoS-enabled Ethernet, Cable networks, as well as mobile
(e.g., UMTS, LTE/LTE-Advanced) and wireless networks (e.g., WiMAX).
The IMS consists of three main nodes: Proxy-CSCF, Serving-CSCF, and
Interrogating-CSCF, as well as HSS (user database).
IMS uses IETF protocols SIP and Diameter for signaling. Typically users
negotiate QoS requirements (e.g., admission control is in force) with signaling
through the IMS, which further communicates with RACF (in NGN architecture)
for resource reservations.
51
1.8. 3GPP developments toward 5G
Mobile broadband Internet after 4G will continue with the next generation,
called 5G, which is currently in the research phase (first technologies should
appear around 2020).
However, the question is whether 5G will be just an evolution of 4G, or the
new mobile broadband technologies will cause significant disruption that will
require full rethinking of mobile principles.
Overall, the 5G mobile network concept can be foreseen as user-centric
concept, instead of operator-centric in 3G or service-centric concept in 4G.
One may expect that the terminals will have access to different
wireless technologies at the same time and the mobile terminals
should be able to combine different flows from different access
technologies (i.e., heterogeneous networks),
to obtain very high bitrates (e.g., 10 times higher rates for individual
users than those in 4G, and 1000 times higher aggregate bitrates).
While in 4G there are delays in the mobile networks (including core
and access) in the range of 10ms, it is expected that the delay in 5G
mobile networks will be pushed down to 1ms (providing basis for socalled tactile Internet).
So, like previous generations, 5G is expected to be a set of evolved
network technologies. But 5G aims to provide unlimited access to information
and the ability to share data anywhere, anytime by anyone and anything for the
benefit of people, businesses and society. The exact performance levels and
requirements that systems and equipment will need to meet to label themselves
5G are yet to be defined. The standardization activities are expected to start
around 2016, leading to commercial availability of equipment and devices
sometime around 2020.
Simply said 5G is the next chapter of telecom networks designed to meet
a more advanced and more complex set of performance requirements. But 5G
represents a new way of thinking. It encompasses innovative network design for
deploying machine-type communication (MTC). And 5G networks will be able to
efficiently support applications with widely varying operational parameters,
providing greater flexibility to deploy services. As such, 5G is an important
enabler of the Networked Society. Moreover, in contrast to previous generations,
5G is much more than another new set of technologies that will require massive
equipment upgrades. The aim of 5G is to build on the maturity that telecom
systems have already reached; 5G will bring the evolved versions of existing
radio-access, cloud and core technologies together with some new
complementary technologies, to cater for more traffic, more devices and more
types of devices, with different operating requirements and thousands of different
use cases. Figure 1.31 shows the estimated performance levels that 5G
technologies will need to meet in comparison with todays levels.
52
Figure 1.31. Estimated 5G requirement levels.
In that way, regarding the 3GPP developments towards 5G, the Figure
1.32 outlines the potential standards path towards the 5G era. However, we can
clearly said that, for the first time in history LTE has brought the entire mobile
industry to a single technology footprint resulting in unprecedented economies of
scale. After the initial LTE Release, work in 3GPP has been centered on the
following strategic areas:
Enhancing LTE radio standards to further improve capacity and
performance;
Enhancing system standards to make LTE and EPC available to new
business segments;
Introducing improvements for system robustness, especially for
handing exponential smart phone traffic growth.
Figure 1.32. 3GPP standards path towards the 5G.
53
The LTE already has a Small Cell concept defined in Release-12, that is
optimized as much as technologically possible for the current bands. A potential
enhancement being discussed for Release 13 is to make LTE suitable for
unlicensed spectrum bands. Whilst the exact nature and focus of this work is still
under discussion, it is clear that such an enhancement would provide further
means to deal with the traffic load.
To further boost the capacity of dense areas it is expected that new
licensed spectrum bands (in particular in higher frequency bands up to ~1 GHz
carrier bandwidth) will also be needed. Initial research shows that such high
frequency bands might require a new radio waveform, a new radio technology. It
is yet unclear when/whether/where the standardization of such a new radio will
be undertaken. Nonetheless, the earliest such work is expected to be potentially
initiated in 3GPP is around the 2016 timeframe.
For the currently available bands LTE is very close to reaching the
technologically possible efficiency limits. Hence, it is expected that LTE will
remain as the baseline technology for wide area broadband coverage also in the
5G era. 3GPP will continue working on enhancing LTE not only from the radio
perspective, but also from service delivery perspective (e.g. making it more
suitable for M2M, that is Machine-to-Machine communication). Consequently,
interworking with LTE will remain to be a critical factor.
History has shown that the mobile industry undergoes a major technology
shift roughly once every 10 years. There are vast arrays of technology
developments on the horizon and that demand for these is greater than ever. The
global footprint, and the success, of 3GPP standards will continue to put
pressure on the Project to get new specifications out in a timely manner. To
achieve this, intensified industry collaboration becomes more important than ever
before. As we add 5G discussions to the mix, we will have plenty to keep us busy
in 3GPP for the foreseeable future.
Moving forward, 3GPP focuses on many rich new Rel-13 features. For
LTE-Advanced, Rel-13 supports Active Antenna Systems (AAS), including
beamforming/MIMO and Self-Organizing Network (SON) aspects, enhanced
signaling to support inter-site Coordinated Multi-Point Transmission and
Reception (CoMP), CA enhancements to support up to 32 component carriers
and Dual Connectivity enhancements to better
support multi-vendor
deployments and improved traffic steering. Improvements in RAN sharing are
also being worked as part of Rel-13. Rel-13 continues work from Rel-12 on
enhancements to MTC. Also currently being considered in Rel-13 are: Licensed
Assisted Access for LTE (LAA-LTE) in which LTE can be deployed in unlicensed
spectrum; LTE Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) Aggregation (LWA) where
Wi-Fi can now be supported by a radio bearer and aggregated with an
LTE radio bearer; and Downlink (DL) Multi-User Superposition Transmission
(MUST) which is a new concept for transmitting more than one data layer to
multiple users without time, frequency or spatial separation. For HSPA+, the
main Rel-13 items being considered are enhancements for reducing control
channel overhead and support for dual band UL Carrier Aggregation. With
respect to network-related services, Rel-13 introduces Wi-Fi integration
54
enhancements to support Network-Based IP Flow Mobility (NBIFOM),

enhancements to harmonize the support of voice and video services over WiFi, and enhancements to support Mission Critical Push-to-Talk (MCPTT)
over LTE for public safety. Rel-13 continues work from Rel-12 in optimizing
performance for MTC services by defining a Dedicated Core (DECOR) and
Monitoring Enhancement (MONTE) for MTC services, as well as
enhancements to MBMS, and group communications.
The User Plane Congestion Management (UPCON) feature enables the
identification of cells and users in congested situations so that policy
decisions can be used to mitigate congestion and the Application Specific
Congestion Control for Data Communication (ACDC) can manage access
attempts on a per application basis. Architecture Enhancements for Service
Capability Exposure (AESE) was added in Rel-13 to expose valuable information
to third party application providers.
As it is well known, the LTE has seen the most aggressive deployment of
any mobile technology in history. From the first launch of LTE by TeliaSonera
in Sweden and Norway in 2009, the technology deployments have grown
consistently. In the Figure 1.33 (below), the deployments of LTE are shown on an
annual timeline since the first launch in 2009 up to June 2015 with 418 live
LTE networks worldwide and another 600 operators that have announced
intentions to deploy LTE in the future.
Figure 1.33. Global LTE Network Growth & Forecast, Year End 2009-2019
Finally, the 3GPP has provided a tentative timeline for standardization of

5G shown in Figure 1.32. Although there is no globally agreed definition of the
requirements for 5G, the requirements being defined for IMT-2020 by ITU-R
provides a good benchmark towards 5G. 3GPP is also committed to submitting a
candidate technology to IMT-2020 for evaluation. Initial submissions to ITU-R
are expected in the mid-2019 timeframe with detailed specifications required by
55
October 2020. In order to meet these deadlines, 3GPP has planned a

target schedule. Provided that Rel-13 is completed in March of 2016, it is
expected that discussions on in the 3GPP working groups will turn towards these
tentative goals for 5G standardization in Rel-14.
1.8.1 The 5G Discussion

The 5G needs more diversity in cell types, besides the standard macro
cells. Small cells boost the network capacity which is almost impossible to be
"very high" only with the macro coverage (Figure 1.34).
Figure 1.34 5G Possible Architecture
56
From the Internet technologies viewpoint, one may expect that 5G will be
primarily IPv6 networks.
M2M (Machine-to-Machine) and D2D (Device-to-Device) services are
foreseen types in future 5G. Coupling M2M and 5G will provide practical
implementation of Internet of Things (IoT) concept (or Internet of Everything).
ITU-R has started a programme titled IMT for 2020 and beyond in 2012,
which marked the start of 5G research activities on a global scale.
Finally, the whole process regarding the 5G should be completed in 2020
with a new ITU-R Recommendation, called IMT-2020, that shall contain detailed
specification for the requirements for 5G.
57
1.9. ITU's spectrum management for IMT
The spectrum continues to be one of the most important issues facing the
industry. There are two issues to consider. One is the limited amount of spectrum
available to support this dynamic industry and the other is how the industry is
responding to take advantage of available technology.
Given that spectrum is a limited resource, the industry is undertaking the
following initiatives to leverage all available spectrum:
Increasing the spectral efficiency of technologies to continually increase
the bits per second of data bandwidth for every available Hertz.
Adapting specifications to enable operation of UMTS-HSPA and LTE/LTEAdvanced in all available bands.
Designing both FDD and TDD versions of technology to allow operation in
both paired and unpaired bands.
Designing carrier aggregation techniques in HSPA+ and LTE-Advanced
that bonds together multiple radio channels (both intra- and interfrequency bands) to improve both peak data rates and efficiency.
Deploying as many new cells (large and small) as is feasible.
It might be thought that new technologies such as small cells and smart
antennas would obviate the need for spectrum. These technologies, however,
are already on the roadmap for 3GPP evolution and, by themselves, do not
sufficiently increase capacity to meet growing demand.
ITU World Radiocommunication Conferences (WRC), held every three
or four years, are mandated to review and revise the Radio Regulations, the
international treaty governing the use of radio-frequency spectrum (spectrum
management) and satellite orbit resources. The agenda of a world radiocommunication conference may include any other question of a worldwide
character within the competence of the conference.
The WRC for 2012 took place in Geneva, Switzerland, from 23 January up
to 17 February 2012, and was triggering event for the radio communication world
and the frequency management sphere. The unprecedented number of
proposals (more than 1700) addressing the various items on the WRC-12
agenda cover almost all radio services and applications, and illustrated the
importance of this conference to governments and businesses.
At WRC-07, the band 790862 MHz was allocated to the mobile service in
Region 1 (Africa and Europe), complementing previous allocations to that service
in Regions 2 (Americas) and 3 (Asia and Australasia), and was identified for
international mobile telecommunications (IMT) worldwide. At that time, concerns
were raised about the protection of services (mainly broadcasting and
aeronautical radionavigation services) that were already allocated in this
frequency band in the event that neighbouring administrations would implement
mobile service.
58
The WRC-12 conference considered the need for regulatory action to

foster the development of advanced wireless systems and applications, such as
software-defined radio, cognitive radio systems, short-range devices, fixed
wireless systems, etc. The Radio Regulations, in their current form, are generally
considered to provide an appropriate framework for the development of these
systems and applications. Specific requirements are addressed through the
standardization work of the ITUR study groups.
At WRC-15 in Geneva (2-27 November 2015), the most important issues
for mobile broadband development are discussed under two Agenda Items 1.1
and 1.2, given as follows:
1.1) to consider additional spectrum allocations to the mobile service on a
primary basis and identification of additional frequency bands for
International Mobile Telecommunications (IMT) and related regulatory
provisions, to facilitate the development of terrestrial mobile broadband
applications, in accordance with Resolution 233 (WRC-12);
1.2) to examine the results of ITU-R studies, in accordance with Resolution
232 (WRC-12), on the use of the frequency band 694-790 MHz by the
mobile, except aeronautical mobile, service in Region 1 and take the
appropriate measures.
The Agenda Item 1.1 addresses the need to identify additional spectrum
for IMT-based mobile broadband in harmonised global bands to meet rising data
demands worldwide. Three years ago WRC-12 defined WRC-15 Agenda Item
1.1 (AI 1.1) to address the identification of new bands for IMT-based mobile
broadband. This was widely supported by Member States as it was accepted that
growing mobile broadband traffic will urgently require additional spectrum in
future. In order to proceed with the Agenda Item, the ITU first needed to develop
an estimate of the amount of future spectrum that might be needed. Previous
research into the area had been carried out in 2006, which was before the launch
of the iPhone and the subsequent widespread use of various smartphones from
different vendors. As such, a number of the assumptions were updated to
accommodate the major changes in the mobile data market.
Moreover, the Report ITU-R M.2243 published in 2011 reviews both the
market and traffic forecasts for IMT that were developed in previous study
periods (extending from 2000-2007) and assesses the current perspectives and
future needs of mobile broadband that would be supported by IMT over the next
decade at that time (2012-2022). It also presents new traffic forecasts provided
by a number of industry sources for the forecast up to 2015 and one source for
the forecast between 2015 and 2020 taking into account new market trends and
market drivers.
Based on Report ITU-R M.2243 and other new forecast information, it is
anticipated that the future estimated total spectrum requirement currently being
assessed will likely in year 2020 surpass the view expressed in Report ITU-R
M.2078. The ITU-R M. 2078 recommendation is given in the context of
increasing pressure on mobile operators' networks from the rapid increase in
mobile data traffic, which takes place globally thus, the ITU set a minimum
59
amount of spectrum allocated for IMT-2000 and IMT-Advanced, for the years
2010, 2015 and 2020 depending on the market development status: lower
market setting vs. higher market setting. The ITU recommendation classifies the
spectrum requirements by Radio Access Technology Group (RATG). RATG 1
covers pre-IMT and IMT, as well as enhancements to IMT, and RATG 2 is
comprised of IMT-Advanced. In Table 1.8 the ITU Recommended spectrum
allocation for deployment of IMT & IMT-Advanced technologies is given.
Table 1.8. ITU Recommended Spectrum Allocation for Deployment of IMT & IMTAdvanced Technologies (source: ITU-R M. 2078)
For the preparation of WRC-15 agenda item 1.1, Resolution 233 (WRC12) invited ITU-R to study additional spectrum requirements for International
Mobile Telecommunications (IMT) and other terrestrial mobile broadband
applications. Previously, ITU-R estimated the spectrum requirements for IMT in
the preparatory studies for WRC-07, the results of which are documented in
Report ITU-R M.2078. Since the approval of Report ITU-R M.2078 in 2006, there
have been significant advances in IMT technologies and the deployment of IMT
networks. Further, traffic growth in different mobile telecommunication markets,
including those of IMT networks, has been shown in Report ITU-R M.2243.
Taking into account these recent trends, Report M.2290 provides the
results of new studies on estimated spectrum requirements for terrestrial IMT in
the year 2020. In order to reflect the advances in technologies and the
deployments of IMT networks, the spectrum requirements are calculated using
the updated methodology in Recommendation ITU-R M.1768-1. Furthermore,
input parameter values to be used in this methodology have been updated from
those employed in Report ITU-R M.2078 in order to reflect the recent
developments in mobile telecommunication markets. It should be noted that the
updated radio aspect parameters used in the methodology are contained in
Report ITU-R M.2289.
Recommendation ITU-R M.1768-1 uses the radio access technology
(previously technique) group (RATG) definitions from Report ITU-R M.2074,
which are summarized in Figure 1.35.
Figure 1.35 RATG definitions
60
The spectrum requirement estimation methodology in Recommendation

ITU-R M.1768-1 uses a number of input parameters, which are summarized in
Figure 1.36. Here the input parameters have been categorized into marketrelated input parameters, service category parameters, radio-related input
parameters, and other parameters.
Figure 1.36 Classification of input parameters to the spectrum requirement estimation

methodology
Recommendation ITU-R M.1768-1 classifies service categories (SC) into

reservation-based and packet-switched based transmission schemes through
which they are delivered. Conversational and streaming traffic classes are
assumed to be delivered through the reservation-based transmission scheme
while interactive and background traffic classes are delivered through the packetswitched transmission scheme.
Based on the aggregate traffic volumes in 2010 from Report ITU-R
M.2078, the new traffic volumes for the spectrum requirement estimations in
2020 are derived by considering traffic growth ratios from the market studies
presented in Report ITU-R M.2243. As indicated in Figure 1.37, the estimated
traffic in 2020 exhibits a 25 to 100-fold growth ratio compared to 2010.
The spectrum requirements are calculated for RATG 1 (i.e. pre-IMT, IMT2000, and its enhancements) and RATG 2 (i.e. IMT-Advanced) for the year 2020.
The spectrum requirements are calculated using the methodology defined in
Recommendation ITU-R M.1768-1.
61
Figure 1.37 Mobile traffic forecasts toward 2020 by extrapolation

There are differences in the markets and deployments and timings of the
mobile data growth in different countries. Therefore, two settings are developed
to characterize lower and higher user density. These two sets of market study
input parameter values are considered in the calculations to characterize
differences in the user densities in different countries. Table 1.9 shows the
calculated spectrum requirements for both RATG 1 and RATG 2.
Table 1.9. Total spectrum requirements for both RATG 1 and RATG 2 in the year
2020
The total spectrum requirements for both RATG 1 (i.e. pre-IMT, IMT-2000,
and its enhancements) and RATG 2 (i.e. IMT-Advanced) in the year 2020 are
estimated using the two different settings in order to reflect differences in the
markets and deployments and timings of the mobile data growth in different
countries. The estimated total spectrum requirements for both the RATGs 1 and
2 are 1 340 MHz and 1 960 MHz for lower user density settings and higher user
density settings, respectively.
62
The target spectrum allocations represent the total amount of spectrum in

a given country market. These ITU recommendations allow the mobile operators
to meet the growing demands of society that are using connected devices at an
increasing rate. Many analysts predict huge increases in global aggregate mobile
data traffic over the next five to six years. New services and applications, new
devices and continued increases in using smartphones, tablets and connected
machines are affecting all areas of peoples lives including governments,
education, transportation, health, entertainment, work, public utilities, and almost
everything else.
63
Abbreviations
3GPP 3rd Generation Partnership Project
3G Third Generation
4G Fourth Generation
5G Fifth Generation
AAA Authentication, Authorization, Accounting
AP Access Point
API Application Programming Interface
ATM Asynchronous Transfer Mode
BTS Base Transceiver Station
CC Cloud Computing
DFS Distributed File System
DNS Domain Name System
ET Emergency Telecommunications
FI Functional Interface
HA Home Agent
HSPA High Speed Packet Access
I/O Input/Output
IANA Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
ICANN Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers
ICT Information and Communication Technology
ID Identifier
IP Internet Protocol
IPv4 (IP version 4)
IPv6 (IP version 6)
ISP Internet service provider
IT Information Technology
LAN Local Area Network
LTE Long Term Evolution
MCC Mobile Cloud Computing
P2P Peer-to-Peer
QoS Quality of Service
SIM Subscriber Identity Module
SLA Service Level Agreement
URI Uniform Resource Identifier
VoIP Voice over IP
VPN Virtual Private Network
WAN Wide Area Network
WLAN Wireless Local Area Network
WiFi Wireless Fidelity
WRC World Radiocommunication Conferences
64
References
[1] Toni Janevski, "Internet Technologies for Fixed and Mobile Networks", Artech House,
USA, November 2015.
[2] Toni Janevski, "NGN Architectures, Protocols and Services", John Wiley & Sons, UK,
April 2014.
[3]
Wireless
Internet
Network
http://digitus.itk.ppke.hu/~takacsgy/winternet.pdf
Communications
Architecture:
[4] Internet architecture (2000): http://www.livinginternet.com/i/iw_arch.htm

[5] RFC 1958; B. Carpenter, et. al.; Architectural Principles of the Internet; Jun 1996,
link: http://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc1958.txt
[6] Barath Raghavan, Teemu Koponen, Ali Ghodsi, Martn Casado, Sylvia Ratnasamy,
and Scott Shenker, Software-Defined Internet Architecture: Decoupling Architecture
from Infrastructure, Hotnets 12, Seattle, WA, USA, October 2930, 2012.
[7] RFC 3426; S. Floyd; General Architectural and Policy Considerations; Nov 2002, link:
http://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc3426.txt
[8] RFC 3439; R. Bush, D. Meyer; Some Internet Architectural Guidelines and
Philosophy; Dec 2002, link: http://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc3439.txt
[9] RFC 3819; P. Karn, Ed.; Advice for Internet Subnetwork Designers; July 2004, link:
http://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc3819.txt
[10] ITU-T Rec. Y.1001 (11/2000): IP framework A framework for convergence of
telecommunications network and IP network technologies.
[11] ITU-T Rec. Y.3001 (05/11): Future networks: Objectives and design goals.
[12] TCP/IP tutorial and technical overview, chapter 5 : Transport layer protocols, link:
http://www.cs.virginia.edu/~cs458/material/Redbook-ibm-tcpip-Chp5.pdf, last accessed:
02.11.2015
[13]
UMTS Forum, 3G/UMTS Evolution: towards a new generation of broadband
mobile services, December 2006.
[14]
Harri Holma, Antti Toskala, Karri Ranta-aho, and Juho Pirskanen, High-Speed
Packet Access Evolution in 3GPP Release 7, IEEE Communications Magazine,
December 2007.
[15]
UMTS Forum, HSPA: High Speed Wireless Broadband From HSDPA to HSUPA
and beyond, 2005
[16]
Harri Holma and Antti Toskala, HSDPA/HSUPA for UMTS, John Wiley & Sons,
2006.
[17]
3GPP, Technical Specification 23.101, General UMTS Architecture, v5.0.1.
[18]
3GPP, Technical Specification 25.301, Radio Interface Protocol Architecture,
v5.3.0.
[19]
3GPP, Technical Specification 25.401, UTRAN Overall Description, v5.9.0.
65
[20]
3GPP, Technical Specification 25.302, Services Provided by the Physical Layer,
v5.7.0.
[21]
3GPP, Technical Specification 25.321, MAC Protocol Specification, v5.10.0.
[22]
3GPP, Technical Specification 25.322, RLC Protocol Specification, v5.9.0.
[23]
3GPP, Technical Specification 25.211, Physical Channels and Mapping of
Transport Channels onto Physical Channels (FDD), v5.6.0.
[24]
3GPP, Technical Specification 25.213, Spreading and Modulation (FDD), v5.5.0.
[25]
3GPP, Technical Specification 25.211, Physical channels and mapping of
transport channels onto physical channels (FDD), v6.7.0.
[26]
3GPP, Technical Specification 25.306, UE radio access capabilities definition,
v6.7.0.
[29]
3GPP, Technical
description, v6.4.0.
Specification
25.309,
FDD
enhanced
uplink:
Overall
[30]
Nicolae Cotanis, On UMTS overlay deployment, http://www.lcc.com.
[31]
UMTS Forum, The UMTS third generation market study update, 2001.
[32]
UMTS Forum, Social shaping of UMTS preparing the 3G customer, 2003
[33]
UMTS Forum, 3G offered traffic characteristics, 2003.
[34] Mobile Broadband Explosion, Rysavy Research/4G Americas, August 2012

[35] Mobile Broadband: The Global Evolution of UMTS/HSPA, 3GPP Release 7 and
Beyond, December 14, 2006.
[36] 3GPP LTE : http://www.radio-electronics.com/info/cellulartelecomms/lte-long-termevolution/3g-lte-basics.php
[37] 3 GPP LTE-Advanced: http://www.radio-electronics.com/info/cellulartelecomms/ltelong-term-evolution/3gpp-4g-imt-lte-advanced-tutorial.php
[38] http://www.3gpp.org/
[39] http://www.3gpp.org/ftp/Information/WORK_PLAN/Description_Releases/
[40] ITU-R M.2134, Requirements related to technical performance for IMT-Advanced
radio interface(s)
[41] ITU Paves the Way for Next-Generation 4G Mobile Broadband Technologies, ITU,
21 October 2010.
[42] 3GPP TR 23.882: 3GPP system architecture evolution, report on technical options
and conclusions.
[43] Sayan Kumar Ray, Fourth Generation (4G) Networks: Roadmap- Migration to the
Future, IETE Technical Review Vol 23, No 4, pp 253-265, July-August 2006.
[44] Savo G Glisic, Advanced Wireless Networks: 4G Technology, John Wiley & Sons
Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex PO19 8SQ, England, 2006.
[45] LTE-Advanced: Future of Mobile Broadband, Tata Consultancy Services Limited,
2009.
66
[46] LTE planning principles Part II - Soft Frequency Reuse, mpirical, Telecoms Training,
September 2009.
[47] http://www.maxwellsci.com/print/rjaset/v8-153-159.pdf
[48] ITU-T Rec. Y.2211, IMS-based real-time conversational multimedia services over
NGN.
[49] 5G: A technology vision, By Dr. Wen Tong & Dr. Peiying Zhu, May 2014
[50] 5G: what is it? Ericsson White Paper, October 2014
[51] 5G Technology-Evolution and Revolution, Meenal G. Kachhavay, Ajay P.Thakare,
International Journal of Computer Science and Mobile Computing, Vol.3 Issue.3, March2014, pg. 1080-1087
[52] Future of Mobile Communication 5G: Perspectives, Challenges and Services.
Tondare S.M, Kejkar A.S, Deshpande R.D, IOSR Journal of Electronics and
Communication Engineering (IOSR-JECE) e-ISSN: 2278-2834,p- ISSN: 22788735.Volume 9, Issue 6, Ver. II (Nov - Dec. 2014), PP 45-49
[53] Ericson White paper, 5G radio access, June 2013.
[54] A. Shakil. ,"Evolution of Technologies, Standards, and Deployment of 2G-5G
Networks.", Encyclopedia of Multimedia Technology and Networking, Second Edition.
IGI Global, 2009. 522-532. Web. 19 Oct. 2014.
[55] http://www.3gpp.org/news-events/3gpp-news/1614-sa_5g
[56] 4G Americas: Mobile Broadband Evolution Towards 5G: 3GPP Rel-12 & Rel-13 and
Beyond, June 2015, link:
http://www.4gamericas.org/files/8914/3576/4557/4G_Americas_Mobile_Broadband_Evol
ution_Toward_5G-Rel-12_Rel-13_June_2015x.pdf
[57] International Telecommunication Union, 2012 World Radiocommunication
Conference Agenda and References (Resolutions and Recommendations),
2010,https://itunews.itu.int/En/2061-World-Radiocommunication-Conference2012.note.aspx
[58]http://www.itu.int/ITU-R/index.asp?category=conferences&rlink=wrc12&lang=en&general-information=1
[59]http://wwwen.zte.com.cn/endata/magazine/ztetechnologies/2011/no1/articles/201101
/t20110117_201776.html
[60]http://www.itu.int/ITU-R/index.asp?category=study-groups&rlink=rcpm-wrc-15studies&lang=en
[61] ITU, World Radiocommunication Conference 2015 (WRC-15): Agenda and Relevant
Resolutions http://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-r/oth/12/01/R12010000014A01PDFE.pdf
[62]http://www.cost-terra.org/uploads/TERRA%20web%20content%20files/201404%20meeting%20Vilnius/1-4%20-%20Spectrum%20for%20Broadband%20Mobile.pdf
[63] Report ITU-R M.2290-0, "Future spectrum requirements estimate for terrestrial
IMT", December 2013.
67

Module1-3GPP Mobile Broadband PDF

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originalbeschreibung:

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Module1-3GPP Mobile Broadband PDF

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

ITU Centres of Excellence for Europe

1.1. Mobile Internet architectures..........................................................................2

LTE/LTE-Advanced Network Architecture.........................................21

LTE/LTE-Advanced radio access......................................................26

3GPP Mobile QoS Discussion ..........................................................43

1.7. IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS)...................................................................44

IMS Architecture ...............................................................................45

IMS Short Summary..........................................................................51

1.8. 3GPP developments toward 5G...................................................................52

1.1. Mobile Internet architectures

We live in the time of convergence of mobile and wireless networks and

absorbs and hides the different protocols and implementations of underlying

Figure 1.1. Internet IP model relationships.

When now combining those concepts, of Mobility and Internet, we therefore

Figure 1.2. Basic Mobile Internet architecture.

In general, convergence of telecommunications towards all-IP contributed

Generally, the world of ICT is continuously evolving and changing,

1.2. 3G mobile broadband by 3GPP: UMTS/HSPA

Mobile technologies evolution goes through with so-called generations:

The IP based access in mobile networks standardized by 3GPP started

Furthermore, is overviewed the 3GPP 3G mobile broadband standards: UMTS

UMTS/HSPA+ Release 7 (64 QAM downlink,

UMTS/HSPA+ Release 8 (2x2 MIMO, 64

UMTS/HSPA+ Release 9 (2x2 MIMO, 64

UMTS/HSPA+ Release 10 (2x2 MIMO, 64

UMTS/HSPA+ Release 11 (4x4 MIMO, 64

3GPP mobile broadband technology

handles all radio-related functionality, and the Core Network, which is

Figure 1.4. UMTS high-level system architecture.

Interface between UE and UTRAN was completely new in UMTS, the

Figure 1.5. Network elements in a UMTS.

The UE consists of two parts:

High bit rates theoretically up to 2 Mbps in 3GPP Release 99, and

Figure 1.6. Radio capability evolution up to HSPA.

Figure 1.7. Capacity evolution with HSPA.

High-speed downlink packet access (HSDPA) and high-speed uplink

modulation schemes in downlink (e.g., 64 QAM) and uplink (e.g., 16 QAM), as

Figure 1.8. Dual-Carrier Operation with One Uplink Carrier

Figure 1.9. HSPA/HSPA+ Throughput Evolution

In Release 7, there is the option of a one-tunnel architecture (Figure

Figure 1.10 One-Tunnel Architecture

Improved network capacity and spectral efficiency for the operator

As a summary, 3G mobile networks were standardized and implemented

1.3. ITU's IMT-Advanced standard

IMT-Advanced systems support low to high mobility applications and a

The Figure 1.11 is taken directly from Recommendation ITU-R M.1645

Advanced should be applied to those systems, system components, and related

Figure 1.12. Progression towards IMT-Advanced.

Table 1.2. Objectives from multiple perspectives in IMT-Advanced.

Ubiquitous mobile access

Flexible billing capabilities

Fast, open service creation, validation and provisioning

Optimization of resources (spectrum and equipment)

Reduced cost of terminals and network equipment based on global

The IMT-Advanced can be considered from multiple perspectives,

of deployment scenarios and can support a range of environments, different

1.4. 4G mobile broadband by 3GPP: LTE/LTE-Advanced

Figure 1.13. 3GPP mobile evolution.

In addition to enhancing HSPA and HSPA+, Rel-8 also introduced Evolved

1.4.1 LTE/LTE-Advanced Network Architecture

The EPS architecture was designed to not only provide a smooth

The EPC architecture is guided by the principle of logical separation of the