How the Human Brain Developed and How the Human

Mind Works

by Manfred Davidmann

SUMMARY
As a result of the work reported here there has emerged a much clearer
appreciation of what happens during the course of a night's sleep, and
clear explanations of the role of dreaming and the meaning of dreams.
The report explores the functioning and role of the two halves of the
human brain and the relationship between them. It is the right half which
usually communicates with the primitive parts of the human brain and
this is related to the functioning of the autonomic nervous system and
the immune system.
The report also relates the functioning of the brain to behavior, showing
to some extent how human behavior is affected by the primitive instincts
of our reptilian ancestors.

CONTENTS
THE BRAIN
How the Human Brain Evolved
Reptilian Brain
Mammalian Brain
Human Brain
Brain Waves
Brain Scanning
SLEEP AND SLEEPING
Body-Temperature and Sleep Rhythms
Sleeping
Deep Sleep and REM Sleep

Role of DEEP Sleep

Role of REM Sleep
DREAMING AND DREAMS
Content of Dreams
Role of Dreams
LEARNING, MEMORISING AND REMEMBERING (Receiving,
Storing and Recalling)
Types of Memory
Procedural Memory
Declarative Memory
Associating Memories and their Components
Working Memory
External Memory
Stored Information (Perceived Content)
Learning (Memorising) and Understanding
Development of Brain Functions in Humans
Development of Brain Functioning in Foetus and Newborn
Role of REM Sleep in Infants
Changes in Sleep-wakefulness Rhythm during First Year of
Infant's Life
Learning by Playing and by Experience
Change from Eidetic to Linear Memory
CONCLUSIONS - BRAIN, MIND AND BEHAVIOR (Human Behavior
and how the Mind works)
Instincts and Instinctive Behavior
Conscious Behavior: Learning and Evaluating, Memory and
Memorising
Communicating Non-verbally: Conveying Information by
Using Images
Instinctive Behavior
Subconscious Behavior (Functioning)
Memorising
Adapting to the Environment: Changing Instinctive Behavior
Adapting to the World in which we Live: Changing Behavior
Patterns
Evaluation and Understanding
The Struggle for a Better Life
Main Conclusions
NOTES AND REFERENCES
Notes <..>
References {..}

ILLUSTRATIONS (Click any illustration to see the full-size chart)

1. Sleep Pattern: Day-Night-Day
2. One Sleep Period (One Night)
3. The Human Brain
Relevant Current and Associated Works
Relevant Subject Index Pages and Site Overview

THE BRAIN
HOW THE HUMAN BRAIN EVOLVED
We slowly ascended from lower life forms to what we are today, by a
process of natural selection from randomly occurring changes. Each
change had to prove its worth by surviving the continual battle for
existence, being against being, species against species and this
process has gone on for many millions of years.
As far as we know the human brain evolved in three main stages {3}. Its
ancient and primitive part is the innermost core reptilian brain. Next
evolved the mammalian brain by adding new functions and new ways of
controlling the body. Then evolved the third part of the brain, the
neocortex, the grey matter, the bulk of the brain in two symmetrical
hemispheres, separate but communicating. To a considerable extent it is
our neocortex which enables us to behave like human beings.
So the human brain consists of these three different but interconnected
brains and the way in which these three brains interact with each other
underlies human behavior. {3}
How the brain evolved and functions is explored and described in the
immediately following chapters which cover how the brain evolved,
sleep and sleeping, dreaming and dreams, and how we learn, memorise
and remember.

The final chapters contain conclusions which describe how the

functioning of the human brain and of the human mind determine
behavior.
What we see in this report raises a number of pertinent questions which
need answering. Questions such as why do we have to struggle for a
better life and what motivates human beings.

Reptilian Brain

Innermost in our brain is what is called the reptilian brain, its oldest and
most primitive part. The reptilian brain appears to be largely unchanged
by evolution and we share it with all other animals which have a
backbone.

This reptilian brain controls body functions required for sustaining life
such as breathing and body temperature. Reptiles are cold-blooded
animals which are warmed by the daylight sun and conserve energy by
restricting activities when it is dark. The biological clock (controller) for
their activity-rest cycle is located in the eye itself {10}.
At this level of evolution, behavior relating to survival of the species,
such as sexual behavior, is instinctive and responses are automatic.
Territory is acquired by force and defended. Might is right.

Mammalian Brain

Next to evolve from the reptilian brain was the mammalian brain. An
enormous change took place as mammals evolved from reptiles, the
mammalian brain containing organs {11, 12}:
For the automatic control of body functions such as digestion, the
fluid balance, body temperature and blood pressure (autonomic
nervous system, hypothalamus).
For filing new experiences as they happen and so creating a store
of experience-based memories (hippocampus).

For experience-based recognition of danger and for responding to

this according to past experience. And for some conscious
feelings about events (amygdala).
To this extent the mammal is more consciously aware of itself in relation
to the environment. Millions of neural pathways connect the
hippocampal and amygdala structures to the reptilian brain and
behavior is less rigidly controlled by instincts. It seems that feelings
such as attachment, anger and fear have emerged with associated
behavioral response patterns of care, fight or flight. {4}

Human Brain

And the mammalian brain became the human brain by adding the
massive grey matter (neocortex) which envelopes most of the earlier
brain and amounts to about 85 per cent of the human brain mass.
This massive addition consists mostly of two hemispheres which are
covered by an outer layer and interconnected by a string of nerve fibres.
{13}
The brain is actually divided into its 'hemispheres' by a prominent
groove. At the base of this groove lies the thick bundle of nerve fibres
which enable these two halves of the brain to communicate with each
other.
But the left hemisphere usually controls movement and sensation in the
right side of the body, while the right hemisphere similarly controls the
left side of the body.

We saw that with the mammalian brain emerged feelings such as

attachment, fear and anger and associated behavioral response
patterns.
And human emotional responses depend on neuronal pathways which
link the right hemisphere to the mammalian brain {4} which in turn is
linked to the even older reptilian brain.

Fascinating is the way in which work is divided between the two halves
of the brain, their different functions and the way in which they
supplement and co-operate with each other.

Most people (about 80 per cent) are right-handed <4> and in the vast
majority of right-handed people, the ability to organise speech and the
ability to speak are predominantly localised in the left side of the brain.
But the right side can understand written and spoken language to some
extent at least. {14}
"Appreciating spatial perceptions depends more on the right
hemisphere, although there is a left hemisphere contribution. This is
especially true when handling objects" {14} and concerning abstract
geometric shapes and music.

Roger Sperry, Michael Gazzaniga and their colleagues found that, when
presented with a stimulus, both hemispheres were active and could
recognise the nature of visual stimuli as well as spoken words.
But while the left hemisphere can express itself by verbally describing a
stimulus, the right hemisphere can express itself non-verbally by
selecting the matching stimulus.
The left hemisphere deals with word choice, rules of grammar, and the
meaning of words. The right hemisphere apparently determines the
emotional content of speech. {14}

So a general overview of the functional division of activities between the

two hemispheres would be:
Left Hemisphere
Communicates by using words, has highly developed verbal
abilities, is logical and systematic, concerned with matters as they
are.

Right Hemisphere
Communicates using images (pictures), has highly developed
spatial abilities, is intuitive and imaginative, concerned with
emotions and feelings.

But the two hemispheres are interconnected and communicate, the

human mind brings together these abilities and skills into a
comprehensive whole whose operation depends on the way in which its
parts contribute and co-operate with each other.
The right hemisphere links to the primitive older part of the brain, and I
consider that it communicates using images with its primitive
'unconscious' functions. Thinking in pictures is fast. Think of how long it
takes to describe a picture, a scene, in words and compare this with the
speed of taking it in by looking at it. But images may be described, or
transformed into a narrative, by the left hemisphere.
Language is both spoken as well as written, verbal and visual. And
speech and language and associated pictures, images and memories
appear to be located all over the brain. Cognition of meaning (knowing
and understanding sentences, for example) is high level processing
which includes both semantic and visual processing. And behavior
involves the integration of activities in many different parts of the brain.

So now the human brain includes the processing and memorising of

images and of their components. And the development of language and
corresponding mental processing connected with memory and
memorising. As well as the development of a wide range of emotions, of
feelings, of care and affection, and the capability for objective and
logical thinking and evaluation. And the later development of written
languages and artificial images.

BRAIN WAVES
The brain functions by sending electrical signals from one place to
another. Very small charges pass between nerve cells, accompanied by
changes in electrical potential, in voltage.
This activity can be measured and displayed as a wave form called
brain wave or brain rhythm. The height of the wave is a measure of the
potential difference, its frequency is a measure of the rate at which
electrical charges pass through a nerve cell or nerve fiber. {1}
A person's brain is active all the time, waking and sleeping, producing
and shifting between distinct wave forms which are commonly grouped
as follows:

Table 1

Brain Waves

Frequency band
(cycles/second)

1-3

4-7

8 - 10

15 - 30

Name of
Wave
Description
Band
Delta

Generally strongest when a

person is in a deep
dreamless sleep.

Theta

May be associated with

dreamy, creative, intuitive
states.

Alpha

Associated with a calm and

relaxed state when the
person is not thinking.

Beta

Associated with being alert,

with normal thinking, with
processing information.

When delta waves predominate then one is said to be in a delta state.

People can think of relaxing and so strengthen alpha waves, or can do
mental arithmetic and so weaken them. This enables people 'to perform
an on-off decision, switching a light on or off or moving a cursor on a
screen'. {5}

BRAIN SCANNING

Electroencephalograph (EEG) {1}

The EEG measures electrical activity of the brain using pairs of

electrodes placed at different (internationally specified) points on the
scalp. It is used by doctors for diagnosis and research.
It seemed that the EEG would provide the key to understanding how the
brain functions, but it proved very difficult to interpret these brain waves,
or to deduce from where in the brain they originated.

Magnetoencephalograph (MEG) {2, 7}

The MEG, however, can measure

the oscillating millisecond fluxes of the brain in real time.
Furthermore, unlike the EEG, granted enough mathematical
sophistication and computing power, you get a good idea of the
location of the electromagnetic source in the brain.
And it can be used to
record magnetic and electrical fields within the brain
simultaneously, tracking impulses moving (a distance of) a few
millimetres at up to 200 miles per hour.
In real time, that is 'in perhaps 10 milliseconds'. And 'usually accurate to
within one or two millimetres in pre-surgical mapping'.
And in this way enabling responses to be tracked within the brain.

SLEEP AND SLEEPING

BODY-TEMPERATURE AND SLEEP RHYTHMS
Day and night alternate over 24 hours due to the rotation of the planet,
and the start and length of daylight varies with the seasons.
So internal biological clocks (controllers) evolved for controlling activities
related to the environment such as those of cold-blooded animals which
need to maintain their body temperature by warming themselves in the
sun. Reptiles are cold-blooded animals warmed by the daylight sun and
conserve energy by restricting activities when it is dark. And the
biological clock which controls their activity-rest cycle is located within
the eye. {10}

But about 180 million years ago, warm-blooded mammals evolved from
their cold-blooded reptilian ancestors by developing the ability to
maintain a constant body temperature by biological processes. This
freed them from depending on daylight and the weather for survival.
Deep sleep appeared at the same time. {4}
The earlier mammals were reproducing themselves by hatching their
young out of eggs. But about 180 to 130 million years ago, many
mammals evolved into giving birth directly from the womb, their young
being born alive after having been developed for a considerable period
within the womb. Their young have to grow and learn much for a long
time before they can survive independently, for many years in the case
of human beings. The human brain now has much greater learning
capacity.

In mammals, information about light and darkness is transmitted from

the eye to a biological clock, now situated in the mammalian brain,
which controls the sleep-wakefulness rhythm. Another biological clock
controls the body-temperature rhythm, and these biological clocks
together control the related body-temperature and sleep-wakefulness
rhythms. {10}

While the body's temperature is held at a constant level, it varies by

about 0.5 deg C from a low at about 05.00 hours to a high at about
18.00 hours. It appears that we tend to go to sleep after our body
temperature has began to fall and tend to wake up after it has started to
rise.
"The length of the geophysical day is 24 hours. Our sleep-wakefulness
rhythm (circadian rhythm) has a duration which varies from individual to
individual (usually between 25 and 28 hours) but is always longer than
24 hours. And our biological rhythms are adjusted accordingly, day by
day," by these internal biological clocks, to the external geophysical day,
to the environment. People sleep, on average, between 6.5 and 8.5
hours. {10}
The body-temperature clock also controls the appearance of REM
sleep.

SLEEPING
There are key mental states each characterised by its own brain wave
pattern <5>. When awake we can be attending or concentrating, or we
can be relaxed. When asleep we could be in SHALLOW sleep, DEEP
sleep, or REM sleep.
Shallow sleep is often referred to as 'Stage 2' sleep, and Deep sleep as
'Stage 4' sleep.
During REM sleep (Rapid-Eye-Movement sleep), the eyes move rapidly
and continuously. At times REM sleep is referred to as dreaming sleep
and sometimes called paradoxical sleep, or called paradoxical sleep
only when referring to animals.
During Deep sleep the body's muscles are relaxed, heart beat and
breathing are slow and regular. In REM sleep the body's muscles are
paralysed while heart beat and breathing fluctuate as they would during
emotional upsets in waking life.

Brain-wave frequency of the different sleep stages we pass through in

the course of a night are outlined in Figure 1 'Sleep Pattern: Day-NightDay'. From being wide awake before going to sleep, we relax, sleep
lightly (shallow) for ten to fifteen minutes before sleeping deeply.
Following Deep sleep we REM sleep after which we wake up through
relaxing to being fully awake. <6>
Figure 1
Sleep Pattern: Day - Night - Day

Back to Contents list

Deep sleep is followed by REM sleep. In order to achieve this as far as

possible within a night, the brain arranges alternating periods of deep
sleep followed by REM sleep <8>.
The illustration shows graphically what happens to the brain's electrical
activity as the night progresses, illustrated by the frequency of the brain
waves. As we progress from being awake through sleep to being awake
again, the frequency drops, reaching its lowest point while in deep sleep
and then rises again to the wide-awake level.
Amplitude, that is voltage, changes inversely. It increases when the
frequency drops, reaching its highest level during deep sleep, and then
decreases again to the wide-awake level.

Considering adults, that is excluding the young and the elderly, on the
whole we 'Deep Sleep' during the first half of the night, and 'REM Sleep'
during the second. But possibly because we cannot be certain how long
we will sleep, whether our sleeping period will be interrupted
unexpectedly, Deep sleep and REM sleep are divided into shorter sleep
periods which alternate, something like:

Table 2

One Sleep Period (One complete night)

One Sleep Period (One night)

Deep Sleep
(minutes)

REM Sleep
(minutes)

Beginning of Sleep Period

40
7
20
13
25
10
25
End of Sleep Period

Figure 2
One Sleep Period (One Night)

Back to Contents list

That we Deep sleep first and that REM sleep follows Deep sleep is
clearly shown in Figure 2. This shows how the two kinds of sleep
alternate as Deep sleep ends and REM sleep begins and proceeds.
Deep Sleep and REM Sleep each take up about 20 to 25 percent of the
night's sleep. The remainder is largely taken up by transition 'Shallow'
sleep' periods which enable brain and body to adjust to the next type of
sleep, and by occasional brief periods of intermediate 'Stage 1' and
'Stage 3' sleep <6>.

DEEP SLEEP AND REM SLEEP

We have already seen much about Deep sleep and about REM sleep
so this seems a good point to include in this section also what has been
said so far.
Both Deep sleep and REM sleep appeared about 180 million to 130
million years ago in mammals as they evolved from reptiles.
Deep sleep and REM sleep are the core sleep activities, each taking up
about 20 to 25 percent of the night's sleep, the remainder being taken
up by shallow transition sleep periods.
On the whole we Deep sleep during the first half of the night, and REM
sleep during the second. Deep sleep and REM sleep are divided up into
shorter sleep periods which alternate.

So now we can list the characteristics of Deep sleep and of REM sleep,
as follows:

Deep Sleep

Deep sleep appeared at about the time warm blooded mammals

evolved from their cold-blooded reptilian ancestors by developing the
ability to maintain a constant body temperature by biological processes.
As we progress from being awake through sleeping to being awake
again, the frequency of the brain waves drops, reaching its lowest point
while in Deep sleep and then rises again to the wide-awake level. (See
Figure 1 'Sleep Pattern: Day - Night - Day')
During Deep Sleep the body's muscles are relaxed and heart beat and
breathing are slow and regular.
Deep sleep 'dream-like experiences are more like ordinary everyday
thoughts and are usually rather banal and repetitive in content'. During
Deep sleep 'one is not dreaming but thinking.' {4}

REM Sleep (Rapid-Eye-Movement sleep)

REM sleep also appeared at about the time warm blooded mammals
evolved from their cold-blooded reptilian ancestors by developing the
ability to maintain a constant level of body temperature by biological
processes.
At this constant level there is a small but closely controlled body
temperature rhythm (we tend to go to sleep after our body temperature
has began to fall and tend to wake up after it has started to rise) and the
body-temperature clock also controls the appearance of REM sleep.

On the whole we REM sleep during the second half of the night, after
Deep sleep and before waking up through relaxing to being fully awake.

In REM sleep the body's muscles are paralysed while heart-beat and
breathing fluctuate as they would during emotional upsets in waking life.
Brain waves look like the waking pattern. The eyes move rapidly and
continuously. <7>
Persistent rapid eye movement shows that dreaming is taking place and
the brain paralyses the sleeper so that the dreams cannot be acted out.

Dreams tend to consist of "sensory illusions or hallucinated dramas"

(imagined feelings or awarenesses), are not usually remembered unless
the dreamer wakes up from the dream itself. "The length of time taken
to dream of certain events is about the same as the time it would take to
experience those events in waking reality." {4}

ROLE OF DEEP SLEEP

We saw that Deep sleep appeared about 180 million to 130 million
years ago in mammals as they evolved from reptiles. And that during
Deep sleep the body's muscles are relaxed and heart beat and
breathing are slow and regular. In Deep sleep 'one is not dreaming but
thinking'.
As reptiles evolved into mammals and mammals into human beings,
complicated and interrelated physiological and biological changes took
place. And it seems as if body maintenance and development takes
place during Deep sleep.
For example, "during sleep, the endocrine organs come to life and
secrete into the bloodstream hormones that affect the entire body" {10}.

ROLE OF REM SLEEP

"If REM sleep is prevented, it takes precedence over other kinds of
sleep until the lack of REM sleep has been made good, at least to some
extent. So human beings need REM sleep." {10}

Professor Lavie heads Haifa Technion's Sleep Laboratory. He reports

{10} "that in some way or other, we can maintain contact with reality
during REM sleep and even decide when to wake up with the help of
internal signals", and that "REM sleep allows a smooth and rapid
transition from sleep to wakefulness, and so can be viewed as a gate to
wakefulness during sleep."
"Further findings at the Technion Sleep Laboratory demonstrated an
additional advantage in awakening from REM sleep. When we
examined how people functioned after awakening from REM sleep, we
found that they performed very well at tasks which included orientation
in space. These tasks, which are controlled by the right hemisphere of
the brain, were performed with a lesser success rate after awakening
from the Deep sleep of stages 3 and 4. In other words, a person
awakening from REM sleep is immediately orientated in his
surroundings, which is of cardinal importance to a smooth transition
from sleep to wakefulness."
Which suggests to me that the left hemisphere is involved in Deep sleep
'dreaming' and the right hemisphere in REM sleep dreaming.

REM sleep appeared when, as we saw already, mammals evolved into

giving birth directly from the womb, their young being born alive after
having been developed for a considerable period within the womb. The
young have to grow and learn much for a long time before they can
survive independently, for many years in the case of human beings.
Which applies particularly to the brain which now has much greater
learning capacity.
During the first few days after birth the actual amount of REM sleep is
very great and Lavie concluded that "it plays a vital role in the maturing
stage of the nervous system" and that "it is possible that REM sleep is
particularly important for procedural types of learning in which humans
acquire motor and perceptual skills. Since during the first few months of
life infants are busy acquiring new motor and perceptual skills, these
findings may also explain the abundance of REM sleep at that particular
time in our life".

Lavie also reports that REM sleep in cats "seems to be training their
neural networks in mainly instinctive behavior" and that "several studies
have indicated a possibility that the consolidation of memory traces for
at least certain types of learning occurs during REM sleep".

So the role of REM sleep appears to be that of generating dreams, of

filing away memories for later use, and to enable us to wake up quickly
and fully orientated.

DREAMING AND DREAMS

Dreaming, whatever this may be or whatever is taking place during
REM sleeping periods, is likely to perform an essential function as
otherwise the brain would not be paralysing the body to enable
dreaming to take place.
Important also because it takes place regularly as a matter of routine
and as all individuals are normally subject to this procedure.
In other words, there must be an important reason for sleeping in this
way and for dreaming.

CONTENT OF DREAMS
The content of an individual's dreams normally corresponds with that
individual's language and memories, beliefs and culture, depends on an
individual's day-to-day life, experiences, preoccupations, likes and
dislikes.
But at times dreams seem to originate from an unknown apparently
internal source which has been given labels such as the 'unconscious'
or the 'subconscious'. Occasionally dreams contain information beyond
the experience, knowledge or understanding of the dreamer.

The dreams of the blind do not include sights or scenes but include
noises, the sense of contact and emotional experiences. Lavie found
that there were only single eye movements during their nonpictorial
dream sleep. The longer they had been blind, the sparser the eye
movements of blind people and so Lavie showed that grouped eye
movements indicate dream pictures. {10}

Lavie records that early-REM-period dreams deal with the present, and
in most cases lack story or central character. But "dream reports made
in the early hours of the morning are richer in detail, central characters,
and feelings, and, compared with dreams from the first half of the night,
they tend to deal more with the dreamer's early childhood".
First dreams are not remembered in the morning but last dreams are,
and it is these last dreams which the psychiatrist is most likely to hear.

Dreams may deal with what happened during the day which has just
passed, or are about what took place more than a week ago, but do not
as a rule deal with the events of the seven days or so which come in
between. This gap seems to show that two kinds of memory are
involved, a short-term working memory and a more permanent longterm memory, and that it may take a week or so before at least some of
the information which reached the working memory is processed and
stored in the long-term memory.

ROLE OF DREAMS
According to Jouvet "dreams arise from bursts of activity in biologically
ancient parts of the brain, and both animals and humans get up and act
out their dreams when the brain centres responsible for inhibiting
movements during sleep are incapacitated". {4}

Theta rhythms have been observed not only in REM sleep periods in
humans but also in animals when performing activities such as hunting
on which survival depends.

"Instincts are an innate form of behavior - in other words, patterns of

motor behavior which are not learned but stamped on the nervous
system before birth. The behavioral patterns of numerous species which
involve attack, defense, or copulation are instinctive, and the animal
performs these actions from birth, without being trained to do so." {10}
According to Lavie, Jouvet hypothesized
"that one of the roles of paradoxical sleep was to train the neural
networks which are related to instinctive behavior",
"that during paradoxical sleep these neural networks are activated
independently of the muscles which are linked to the nerve cells
and inhibited by the brain stem",
and that "because of the decisive importance of the instincts to
the survival of the species, the neural networks linked to instincts
are checked every night".

Dreams may "provide help in solving problems (or solutions to everyday

problems), even scientific ones" and may "also be an inspiration for
artistic creativity (for discovery and creativity)" and have also been the
source of literary and musical inspiration.

There are many stories indicating that at least some dreams may be
predicting events.
Dreams which predict events would be based on the situation as it
exists just before the dream is dreamt, and the dream itself introduces
another factor into the situation which has been predicted.

Bearing in mind the vast total number of dreams being dreamt every
night by so many people world-wide, I also think that similarities or
dream components which after the event has occurred are said to have
predicted it or to refer to it, cannot at this time be credited with being
more than coincidences.

Some people consider that dreams may be caused "by supernatural

agencies such as gods or demons and are to be understood as
messages. Dreams caused by gods are 'good' dreams sent to guide us;
dreams caused by demons are 'bad' dreams sent to destroy us" and
"people have tried to distinguish between 'good' and 'bad' dreams and
to find rules for discovering what they mean." {4}

An inquiry commissioned by the Royal College of Psychiatrists <2> has

concluded that any memory of severely traumatic events 'recovered
through ... dream interpretation ... is almost certainly false'. Dream
interpretations "usually reflect the training and personal convictions of
the therapist". Beliefs that certain events took place are apparently
being implanted and referred to as memories. {16}

LEARNING, MEMORISING AND REMEMBERING

(Receiving, Storing and Recalling)
Human beings are learning all the time, storing information and then
recalling it when it is required.
Massive volumes of information are being received continually. But only
some of this information is selected and stored, and so becomes
available for recalling later when required. Selection seems to be
necessary as otherwise it may take far too long to recall any specific
memory or possibly because we may not have sufficient capacity for
storing everything in our brain.

But on the other hand we may not be able to recall a specific memory
when we want to remember it, some stored information may have been
forgotten.

TYPES OF MEMORY
Memory and memories have been defined or classified in different
ways. Established is that there are two main types of memory, namely
'procedural memory' with information about how to proceed when doing
something, and 'declarative memory' which contains what we know.
Both procedural and declarative memories are long-term memories and
we also have a working (short-term) memory which enables the brain to
evaluate the mass of incoming information and select what is to be
retained and memorised and what is to be rejected.
Distinctions have been drawn also between different kinds of memory
and memories, such as semantic (verbal), episodic (events as part of a
sequence), eidetic (detailed mental images) and visual (images as
seen). In addition to what we see, we also remember other sensory
information such as sounds, smells, tastes and what we touch.

Procedural Memory

This memory stores information about how to proceed when doing

something, stores information such as how to drive a car, play football
or play an instrument.
This type of memory is long-lasting. The memories are actions, habits or
skills which are learned by repetition and which can be changed by
many repetitions, by training. {11, 14}

Declarative Memory

This is long-term memory and it contains all you have experienced or

learned, all the information gained by you from childhood onwards.

No one really knows where this enormous database is located but it

seems that each type of component memory is located in a kind of
memory location of its own.

Associating Memories and their Components

Suppose we remember a person saying something. The component

parts of this memory, components such as shape of face, sound of
voice, colour of hair, are stored in different locations. They are
associated with each other, cross-indexed if you like, so that a memory
can be recalled from remembering just one of its components.
Component memories are continually being associated with other old or
new component memories, enormously increasing the range and
flexibility of what can be recalled.
And so we may be able to recall a person's name by remembering the
colour of his hair, or the shape of his face.

Working Memory

The working memory enables the brain to evaluate the mass of

incoming information and select what is to be retained and memorised
and what is to be rejected.

External Memory

In addition we have the vast mass of externally prepared and stored

information which is accumulating. It has accumulated ever since
people told stories to their young who in turn retold them to later
generations and ever since writing was invented and the printed word
accumulated, followed by pictures, photographs, films and videos,
television and computerised manipulation of text and images. All of
which spread and proliferated together with corresponding search
(recall, retrieval, associating and selecting) procedures.

STORED INFORMATION (PERCEIVED CONTENT)

Much of what we are storing includes semantic information, that is
information which consists of words and is about words, information
relating to what words mean and imply.
And images, that is scenes, including events and sequences of events,
and their components.
Including what happened, when it happened and the sequence in which
it happened.

People with an eidetic (image-retaining) memory remember images,

often clearly and in detail <1>. "Many, if not all, young children
apparently do normally see and remember eidetically, but this capacity
is lost to most as they grow up. What is in young children an apparently
general capacity has become a remarkable rarity in adults." {6}

The information one receives may be fact or fiction, right or wrong,

intended to inform or to mislead, understood or misunderstood. Even
so, what is stored is the perceived content of the received information.

LEARNING (MEMORISING) AND UNDERSTANDING

Rose defines an animal's learning by "learning is a response by an
animal to a novel situation such that, when confronted subsequently
with a comparable situation, the animal's behavior is reliably modified in
such a way as to make its response more appropriate" {6} <3>
Pointing out that human memory is very different from that of a nonhuman animal, Rose says that "procedural memory dominates the lives
of non-human animals, ... but declarative memory profoundly shapes
our every act and thought." Our memory includes a verbal memory
which "means the possibility of learning and remembering without
manifest behavior."

But our memory consists of much more than just verbal memories.
Continually associating new information with older information, and
older information with other older information, is much more than
random cross-referencing.
It is because of the meaningful way in which we associate over such
large volumes of stored information, that the process of associating
amounts also to the seeking of meaningful associations.

So to me it seems that all the information we take in and retain results in

a more comprehensive view and deeper understanding of the world in
which we live, of our social organisation and physical environment.
Thus, in the end, at some time and in some way, the information we
have taken in affects and changes what we do, changes our behavior.

DEVELOPMENT OF BRAIN FUNCTIONS IN HUMANS

Development of Brain Functioning in Foetus and Newborn

Rose describes how the human brain develops before and after birth,
saying "Early brain development in the foetus and newborn is itself
associated first with a massive proliferation of cells, and then by a
steady drop in numbers, but the space once occupied by the lost cells is
taken up by an increase in the branching and synaptic connections
made by those that remain."

Role of REM Sleep in Infants

Lavie pointed out that in animals which are born fairly mature, such as
sheep, REM sleep is low and near adult level. In species which are born
immature, "such as rats, cats, and humans, initial amounts of
paradoxical (REM) sleep are very large. In kittens, during the first ten

days of life paradoxical (REM) sleep occupies 90 percent of their time."

{10}
We already saw that Jouvet hypothesised that one of the roles of REM
sleep in animals was to train the neural networks which are related to
instinctive behavior.
We also saw that during the first few days after birth the actual amount
of REM sleep in babies is very great and Lavie concluded that "it plays a
vital role in the maturing stage of the nervous system" and that "it is
possible that REM sleep is particularly important for procedural types of
learning in which humans acquire motor and perceptual skills. Since
during the first few months of life infants are busy acquiring new motor
and perceptual skills, these findings may also explain the abundance of
REM sleep at that particular time in our life". {10}
Stevens {4} says "REM sleep is thought to play an important role in
developing the infant brain and in activating those neural programmes
responsible for basic and characteristic patterns of behavior, such as
maternal bonding, environmental exploration and play."
He added that common childhood fears "of the dark, of strangers, of
rapidly approaching objects, are all ... early warning devices put there
by evolution because of the constant dangers in the ancestral
environment".
Children do not distinguish between dreams and waking life until they
are three or four years old, but can usually understand the difference
when between five and eight years old.

Changes in Sleep-wakefulness Rhythm during First Year of Infant's Life

A baby wakes and sleeps roughly every four hours in its first month.
This changes gradually until at about six months "the baby begins
sleeping almost through the night and the sleep-wakefulness rhythm
stabilises at twenty-four hours". And so during the first year "a single
and continuous sleep period and a period of continuous wakefulness
begin to emerge, and at the same time a pattern of coordination
between the sleep-wakefulness rhythm and the demands of the external
environment slowly begins to develop". {10}

Lavie notes that it is during the first months of life that the longest
duration of REM sleep occurs and that this coincides with the time when
sleep becomes consolidated into a single and continuous sleep period.

Learning by Playing and by Experience

Playing is a way of learning how to behave, of learning about social cooperation and conflict, about family relations and about bringing up a
family.
Social responsibility, the caring, giving and sharing with others, the
taking on of responsibility for others, including conflict management, can
be and is being taught. {15}
From infant through child and adolescent to being an adult, we go
through a long period in which we learn through playing and by
experience, and also absorb information from external memory, from the
mass of information now available to us from sources external to
ourselves.
And learning by experience and by gaining knowledge continues while
we are alive. Each new experience adds to our knowledge and plays a
part in shaping our view of the community and society in which we live,
of the world at large, and helps to determine what we do and how we do
it, helps to determine our behavior.

Change from Eidetic to Linear Memory

We already saw that many, if not all, young children apparently do

normally see and remember eidetically <1>, but that this capacity is lost
to most as they grow up.
Rose considers that at birth all types of input are likely to be seen as
about equally relevant, that all input is registered and ordered "so as to
enable each individual to build up his or her own criteria of significance".
Eidetic memory gives equal importance to all inputs so that all inputs
are analysed, are processed and stored.

It seems that children remember everything. But at some time before

puberty most of us cease to remember eidetically, 'there is for most of
us a transition in how we perceive and remember the world ... as we
consciously or unconsciously learn to select salient information that we
need to commit to memory from the environment around us." {6}

CONCLUSIONS - BRAIN, MIND AND BEHAVIOR

(Human Behavior and How The Mind Works)
INSTINCTS AND INSTINCTIVE BEHAVIOR
We saw that instincts are an innate form of behavior, that is a form of
behavior which is not learned but which the animal performs from birth,
without being trained to do so.
Behavior relating to survival of a species, such as attack, defence and
sexual behavior, is instinctive and responses are automatic. Territory is
acquired by force and defended. Might is right.

CONSCIOUS BEHAVIOR: LEARNING AND EVALUATING, MEMORY

AND MEMORISING
As mammals evolved from reptiles, there evolved the ability for storing
new experiences as they happen and so creating a store of experiencebased memories.
A primitive animal's memory seems to be largely procedural. Both
procedural and declarative memories are long-term memories, but
declarative memory is located and used in a different way.

Human beings are learning all the time, memorising information and
then recalling it when it is required.

What is being memorised includes what we are taught, what happens to

us and to others and any lessons learned as a result. And when it
happened and the sequence in which it happened. Including also the
meaning of words and what is implied. And in addition we have the vast
mass of externally prepared and stored information which is
accumulating at an accelerating pace.
Massive volumes of information are being received. The incoming
information is evaluated and we memorise only information which
seems to matter. Some is retained, the rest rejected. Retained shortterm (working) memories are converted to long-term memories. So only
a part of the incoming information is retained and stored, that is
memorised, so becoming available for recalling later when required.
Aspects of memories <9> are stored in different locations. Aspects such
as colour, shape, event, phrase, place, time, date. Aspects like shape of
face, sound of voice, colour of hair.
Memories are associated, crossindexed if you like, with their different
aspects and can be recalled by recalling an aspect associated with the
memory one wishes to recall. Component memories are continually
being associated with other old or new component memories,
enormously increasing the range and flexibility of what can be recalled.

A process which continually keeps available memory components which

relate to those of current interest, and memory components which are
more frequently used than others.

Human beings store memories by means of changed neural pathways,

by means of persistent modifications to the structure of neurons and
their synaptic connections, by means of biochemical changes. {6} <3>
So we are strengthening neural pathways or associations by frequently
using or recalling them, weakening memory components which are not
being used.
Hence using neural pathways holds memories at higher, more easily
accessible levels of memory, makes them more readily available.

Infrequently recalled memories would seem to be overlaid by more

frequently used ones, seem to be reduced to lower levels of awareness,
of accessibility.

COMMUNICATING NON-VERBALLY: CONVEYING INFORMATION

BY USING IMAGES

Instinctive Behavior

Dreaming trains animals and human beings in instinctive responses and

then keeps instinctive behavior fully trained.
Dreaming does so by generating situations which require responses of
the fight, flight, affection kind. A dream produces a corresponding
response which, however, is not translated into action as the dreamer's
body is normally paralysed by the mind for duration of dreaming (REM)
sleep.
Frequent replaying strengthens corresponding neural pathways and so
trains the individual to respond and to respond quickly.

Subconscious Behavior (Functioning)

As mammals evolved from reptiles, the added functions included organs

such as the autonomic nervous system for the automatic control of body
functions, of functions such as digestion, the fluid balance, body
temperature and blood pressure.
A key finding of this report is that the right hemisphere of the human
brain is able to communicate by using images with the brain's older and
more primitive component organs which have no verbal skills. And this
enables us to communicate intentionally (that is 'consciously') with our
autonomic nervous system and ask it by visualising to control body
functions and to affect our body's immune system. Any or all our senses
can be included when visualising.

Clinical trials have shown remarkable success in areas such as the

treatment of cancer and heart disease.

Communicating with one's autonomic nervous system by visualising is a

conscious activity.
Hence it is possible to direct and use the mind's subconscious
maintenance and control capabilities, and so enable environmental
experience and knowledge to be applied for one's benefit. That is, one's
knowledge and experience can be consciously applied towards
modifying the mind's subconscious control of body functions for the
benefit of the individual.

Memorising

It is while REM sleeping that dreams are generated and that we appear
to be filing away (memorising) memories for later use.

Much of dreaming may then be the creating and recalling of

associations. As the night progresses this process seems to become
more intuitive, delving deeper into stored memories and associations,
associating with earlier memories and their aspects, tending to go back
in time towards childhood.
Becoming more intuitive by going through likely or apparently
associated filed images or other stored memory components (aspects)
in their different locations.
In this way keeping long-term memories intact and relevant by
continually associating and reassociating their various parts.

So we are strengthening neural pathways or associations by frequently

using or recalling them.

This process at the same time would seem to weaken those memory
components we are not thinking about or which are not being used.

ADAPTING TO THE ENVIRONMENT: CHANGING INSTINCTIVE

BEHAVIOR
A key feature which distinguishes mammals from the reptiles from which
they evolved would seem to be that the mammalian brain contains
organs for the experience-based recognition of danger and for
responding to this according to past experience. And for some
conscious feelings about events.
Millions of neural pathways connect the organs which generate
experience-based memories, and also those which generate conscious
feelings with associated behavioral response patterns, to the reptilian
parts of the mammalian brain.
It seems that feelings such as attachment, anger and fear have
emerged with associated behavioral response patterns, and that
behavior is less rigidly controlled by instincts.
So it seems that instinctive behavior can be modified by feelings of care
and affection and also by experience, particularly when repeated
frequently.
Neural pathways are created and strengthened by being used, others
weakened by not being used. We react accordingly and it seems as if
memories are being created which modify instinctive behavioral
responses.
It also seems that instinctive behavior has to be controlled, and modified
according to the environment in which we find ourselves, in every
generation, and that the mammalian and human parts of the brain play
a major part in this.

ADAPTING TO THE WORLD IN WHICH WE LIVE: CHANGING

BEHAVIOR PATTERNS

We adapt to the world in which we live in much the same way. What
happens to us and what we do, and what happens as a result, changes
neural pathways. A trace is left, neural pathways are changed,
memories are formed.

Playing is one way of learning how to behave, of learning about social

co-operation and conflict, about family relations and about bringing up a
family. From infant through child and adolescence to being an adult, we
go through a long period in which we learn through playing and by
experience. And learning by experience and by gaining knowledge
continues while we are alive.
Social responsibility, the caring, giving and sharing with others, the
taking on of responsibility for others, including conflict management, can
be and is being taught.
What human beings do, what happens to us, is also memorised if
thought relevant. These memories can be recalled when required and in
this way will affect our future behavior.

Additionally we also absorb information from external memory, from the

mass of information now available to us from sources external to
ourselves. And the action we take, what we do, depends on evaluating
the situation, what we know and how we feel about it. The outcome itself
is evaluated and becomes part of our memories.
It seems that on the whole people may not be able to recall feelings,
that most people can only recall how they felt about something at the
time.

Each new experience adds to our knowledge and plays a part in

shaping our view of the community and society in which we live, of the
world at large, and helps to determine our behavior.

EVALUATION AND UNDERSTANDING

Behavior of the primitive animals from which human beings evolved is
instinctive. Which means that behavior relating to survival, such as
attack, defence or sexual, is automatic. Territory is acquired by force
and defended. Might is right.
The mammalian brain includes the older reptilian brain and is linked to
it. With the mammalian brain emerged feelings such as attachment, fear
and anger together with associated behavioral response patterns.
Mammalian behavior is less rigidly controlled by instincts.

The human brain (see Figure 3 'The Human Brain') includes the
mammalian brain and human emotional responses depend on neuronal
pathways which link the right hemisphere to the mammalian brain.
It takes human beings many years to bring up their children and it is the
right hemisphere which is concerned with a wide range of emotions and
feelings of care and affection for the young and for the family, and then
for other people and the community.
Figure 3
The Human Brain

Back to Contents list

For human beings, primitive (reptilian) instinctive urges and behavior

are overlaid by mammalian care and affection for one's young and
human care and affection for one's family and community. Behavior is
aimed at survival of the young and of the family, and then is for the good
of family, other people, community.

The right hemisphere is linked to the primitive older part of the brain
which has no verbal, semantic or reasoning ability and so functions
subconsciously (below the level of consciousness). Hence the right
hemisphere communicates with the 'subconscious' functions of the older
part of the brain by using images. Communicating by using images is
fast.
And so the right hemisphere communicates using images (pictures) and
has highly developed spatial abilities, is intuitive and imaginative, is
concerned with emotions and feelings.

Speech, that is thinking and communicating by using words, seems to

have evolved later. The left hemisphere communicates by using words,
has highly developed verbal and semantic abilities, is logical and
systematic, concerned with matters as they are. Images may be
described, or transformed into a narrative, by the left hemisphere.

Hence behavior is not only determined by feelings but also by

knowledge, understanding and reason.
So the human brain includes the processing and memorising of images
and of their components, and the development of language and
corresponding mental processing connected with memory and
memorising. It also includes a wide range of emotions, of feelings, of
care and affection, and the capability for objective and logical thinking
and evaluation. And the later development of written languages and
artificial images.

We are continually gaining information by learning, by reading or

studying, learning from the experiences of others, gaining verbal
information and pictorial images from external memory. The mind
evaluates this incoming information and decides what is to be retained
and memorised, rejecting the remainder. Information about what has
been happening to oneself is treated in the same way.

And when something is happening to oneself, when one is doing

something or planning to do something, we recall relevant information
from memory, add other available information, and before taking action
we evaluate all the information we now have. What happens as a result
of the action we took is again evaluated and memorised for later use.
So we are continually evaluating information and this is a key feature of
the human mind. Evaluation means estimating significance, relevance
and reliability. In other words, estimating meaning and importance,
bearing on or reference to the matter in hand, whether it can be relied
on. In this way continually becoming more aware of explanations and
causes, gaining understanding.

We memorise both verbal and image information. However, we do not

memorise feelings, possibly because they may originate within the
earlier mammalian parts of the brain . What is recalled is how we felt at
the time, the actual feeling is not reproduced, cannot be recalled.

And memorising images is fast and this would seem to apply to their
component parts and to associating. The eidetic memory of young
children usually changes to linear memory as they become more adult.
It appears that as we grow older so we start evaluating and then cease
merely to take in such information as we come across. As we become
adult we start to evaluate and develop and extend our evaluating skills.
In other words, as adults what we memorise and how we recall and use
recalled information is then governed by reason and aids
understanding.

Continually associating new information with older information, and

older information with other older information, is much more than
random cross-referencing.
It is because of the meaningful way in which we associate over such
large volumes of stored information, that the process of associating
amounts also to the seeking of meaningful associations.

So to me it seems that all the information we take in and retain results in

a more comprehensive view and understanding of the world in which we
live, of our social organisation and physical environment. And thus, in
the end, at some time and in some way, the information we have taken
in affects and changes what we do, changes our behavior.

THE STRUGGLE FOR A BETTER LIFE

When identical same-sex twins are brought up in exactly the same
environment and treated exactly the same (clothing included), they
usually behave and feel much the same.
But identical same-sex twins brought up as individuals have different
personalities, are different people. Usually one is more dominant while
the other is more emotional.
It is apparently easier for people who are 'cold and calculating' to be
dominant, to dominate those who are 'emotional'.
Add that those dominating others may in this way acquire power over
others, or social and economic gains from using, and from misusing,
people.
Such a system rewards primitive inhuman brutal (beastlike) behavior
(acquiring territory by force, might is right), held in check only by the fear
of consequences.
We also see that dominating others is conditioned, that is unnatural,
behavior which is destructive of humane behavior. A throw-back to the
level of the unthinking unfeeling primitive animal.
Humane behavior is based on feelings of care and affection for the
young and for the family, and then for other people and the community.
From this emerges a sense of social responsibility: people matter and
are important, need to be treated well and looked after, are entitled to
share equally. Backed up by knowledge, understanding and reason.

And, in the hostile environment in which humanity finds itself, what is

also needed is dedicated effort, strength and power to achieve a
humane way of living, to achieve a good standard of living and a high
quality of life.

Part of the hostile environment is an almost intentional-seeming

conditioning which frequently portrays brutal behavior as a norm, by
media and other opinion-forming sources. This has the effect of
brutalising society, seemingly legalising, making acceptable,
inconsiderate and unfeeling behavior towards other people.
What we see is a world-wide struggle for a humane life {8, 9} which
shows people struggling to achieve a humane way of life, each
struggling to advance at their own level of development and
achievement, struggling against those who wish to dominate others,
against those who wish to exploit others, against those who wish to
oppress so as to exploit.
Struggling to achieve the satisfaction of needs which are entirely in line
with what we have seen here in this report about the evolution and
development of the human brain and human mind. Needs and wants
such as those for survival (food, shelter, clothing) and secure existence,
affection and esteem, friendly and trustful co-operation and
companionship, independence from domination by others, high quality
of life and living, self-realisation and development. And "people will cooperate with each other and work hard and well to satisfy these needs
and gain much satisfaction from doing so". {8, 9}

MAIN CONCLUSIONS
As a result of the work reported here there has emerged a much clearer
appreciation of what happens during the course of a night's sleep, and
clear explanations of the role of dreaming and the meaning of dreams.
The report explores the functioning and role of the two halves of the
human brain and the relationship between them. It is the right half which
usually communicates with the primitive parts of the human brain.

A key finding of this report is that the right hemisphere of the human
brain is able to communicate by using images with the brain's older and
more primitive component organs which have no verbal skills. This
enables us to communicate intentionally (that is 'consciously') with our
autonomic nervous system and ask it by visualising to control body
functions and to affect our body's immune system. Any or all our senses
can be included when visualising.
Hence it is possible to direct and use the mind's subconscious
maintenance and control capabilities, and so enable environmental
experience and knowledge to be applied for one's benefit. That is, one's
knowledge and experience can be consciously applied towards
modifying the mind's subconscious control of body functions for the
benefit of the individual.
The report also relates the functioning of the brain to behavior, showing
to some extent how human behavior is affected by the primitive instincts
of our reptilian ancestors.

NOTES AND REFERENCES

NOTES
<1> The name 'photographic' memory is not an
adequate description of this kind of memory since
the memoriser can manipulate the image. {6}
<2> The original report was submitted to the Royal
College of Psychiatrists in the summer of 1996,
"watered-down" guidelines were issued in October
1997, and a revised version of the original report is
to be published as an article in the British Journal of
Psychiatry in April 1998 "thus distancing the College
from the controversy".
<3> This book {6} is a comprehensive description of the
biochemical, physiological, chemical and electrical
processes which are and may be taking place in the

brain, and of the structures of neurons, their

synaptic connections and electrical properties. Also
covered is the author's leading work on what takes
place in the brain when learning, memorising or
recalling information.
<4> Implies that the left side of the brain has more
highly developed hand-controlling circuits. {14}
<5> The summary descriptions given here are based to
a considerable extent on information published by
Professor Peretz Lavie {10}. This book contains
much detailed and background information,
providing fascinating insights based on
comprehensive knowledge clearly expressed in
meaningful language.
Correlations and illustrations are my own.
<6> What are commonly known as 'Stage 1' and 'Stage
3' sleep periods are brief periods of intermediate
transition sleep during which brain and body adjust
from one activity to the next. These brief transition
sleep periods are not listed or described in Figure 1,
nor are they discussed in this report.
<7> REM sleep is sometimes called 'paradoxical' sleep
or 'dreaming' sleep. 'Paradoxical' refers to the
apparent contradiction between brain activity
resembling waking life while the body's muscles are
paralysed.
<8> Much can happen during the course of a night. One
can wake up early or late. Alternating the periods of
the two kinds of sleep is a procedure which ensures
that REM sleep follows Deep sleep at least to some
extent even when the night's sleep is interrupted, is
short.
<9> Memories of images and of speech. Visual, verbal
and audio (sound) memories.

REFERENCES
{ 1}

How it Works: Electroencephalograph

Helen Davies
Guardian, 14/05/96

{ 2}

Scanner can see Brain in Action

John Illman
Observer, 10/11/96

{ 3}

A Triune Concept of the Brain and Behavior

P D MacLean
University of Toronto Press, 1973

{ 4}

Private Myths: Dreams and Dreaming

Anthony Stevens
Penguin Books, 1996

{ 5}

Scientists aim to 'talk' to patients in coma

Tim Radford
Guardian, 11/09/96

{ 6}

The Making of Memory (From molecules to mind)

Professor Steven Rose
Bantam Books, 1993

{ 7}

The Life of the Brain

Professor Steven Rose
Guardian, 01/12/94

{ 8}

Motivation Summary
http://www.solhaam.org/
Manfred Davidmann

{ 9}

The Will to Work: What People Struggle to Achieve

http://www.solhaam.org/
Manfred Davidmann

{10} The Enchanted World of Sleep

Peretz Lavie
Yale University Press, 1996
{11} Limbic system
Diana Weedman Molavi
Washington University School of Medicine
http://thalamus.wustl.edu/course/limbic.html
13/8/97
{12} Hypothalamus and autonomic nervous system
Diana Weedman Molavi
Washington University School of Medicine
http://thalamus.wustl.edu/course/hypoANS.html
13/8/97
{13} Brain and Mind (Cogito)
http://www.educ.drake.edu/romig/cogito/brain_and_mind.html
Sep 1997
{14} Cerebral Cortex II
Robert Wood Johnson Medical School
Lecture Handout; Spring 1996
http://www2.umdnj.edu/~neuro/neuro/handouts/cortex2.html
{15} To Give or Not To Give
'Everyman' TV documentary
Editor: Jane Drabble; Producer: Angela Kaye
Broadcast on 5/1/92 by BBC 1
Based on book 'The Altruistic Person' by Professor Sam
Oliner
{16} Row over Psychiatrists who Destroy Lives
Rory Carroll
Guardian, 12/1/98