Boxer Rebellion

Boxer Rebellion
Boxer Rebellion
Traditional Chinese

Simplified Chinese

Literal meaning

Righteous Harmony Society Movement

Transcriptions
Mandarin
- Hanyu Pinyin Yhtun Yndng

The Boxer Rebellion, also known as Boxer Uprising or Yihetuan Movement, was a proto-nationalist movement
by the Righteous Harmony Society in China between 1898 and 1901, opposing foreign imperialism and
Christianity. The uprising took place in response to foreign "spheres of influence" in China, with grievances ranging
from opium traders, political invasion, economic manipulation, to missionary evangelism. In China, popular
sentiment remained resistant to foreign influences, and anger rose over the "unequal treaties", which the weak Qing
state could not resist. Concerns grew that missionaries and Chinese Christians could use this decline to their
advantage, appropriating lands and property of unwilling Chinese peasants to give to the church. This sentiment
resulted in violent revolts against foreign interests.
In June 1900 in Beijing, Boxer fighters threatened foreigners and forced them to seek refuge in the Legation Quarter.
In response, the initially hesitant Empress Dowager Cixi, urged by the conservatives of the Imperial Court, supported
the Boxers and declared war on foreign powers. Diplomats, foreign civilians and soldiers, and Chinese Christians in
the Legation Quarter were under siege by the Imperial Army of China and the Boxers for 55 days. The Chinese
government was split between destroying the foreigners in the Legation Quarter and extending olive branches.
Clashes were reported between Chinese factions favoring war and those favoring conciliation, the latter led by Prince
Qing. The supreme commander of the Chinese forces, Ronglu, claimed three years later that he acted to protect the
besieged foreigners. The siege was ended when the Eight-Nation Alliance brought 20,000 armed troops to China,
defeated the Imperial Army, and captured Beijing. The Boxer Protocol of 7 September 1901 ended the uprising and
provided for severe punishments, including an indemnity of 67 million pounds (450 million taels of silver), more
than the government's annual tax revenue, to be paid as indemnity over a course of thirty-nine years to the eight
nations involved.[1]

Origins of the Boxers

The Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists, known by foreigners as the Boxers, or "Yihe Magic Boxing", was a
secret society founded in the northern coastal province of Shandong consisting largely of people who had lost their
livelihoods due to imperialism and natural disasters.[2] The group originated from the L sect of the Ba gua religion
group.[3] Foreigners came to call the well-trained, athletic young men "Boxers" due to the martial arts and
calisthenics they practiced. The Boxers' primary feature was spirit possession, which involved "the whirling of
swords, violent prostrations, and chanting incantations to Taoist and Buddhist spirits."[4]
The Boxers believed that through training, diet, martial arts, and prayer they could perform extraordinary feats, such
as flight. Further, they popularly claimed that millions of spirit soldiers would descend from the heavens and assist
them in purifying China of foreign influences. The Boxers consisted of local farmers/peasants and other workers
who were made desperate by disastrous floods and widespread opium addiction and laid the blame on Christian
missionaries, Chinese Christians, and the Europeans colonizing their country. Missionaries were protected under the

Boxer Rebellion
policy of extraterritoriality. Chinese Christians were alleged also to have filed false lawsuits.[5] The Boxers called
foreigners "Guizi" ( , literally: demons), a deprecatory term, and condemned Chinese Christian converts and
Chinese working for foreigners. The Boxers were only lightly armed with rifles and swords, claiming supernatural
invulnerability towards blows of cannon, rifle gunshots, and knife attacks. The Boxers were typical of millennarian
movements, such as the American Indian Ghost Dance, often rising in societies under extreme stress.[6]
Several secret societies in Shandong predated the Boxers. In 1895, Yuxian, a Manchu who was then prefect of
Caozhou and would later become provincial governor, acquired the help of the Big Sword Society in fighting against
bandits. Although the Big Swords had heterodox practices, they were not seen as bandits by Chinese authorities.
Their efficiency in defeating banditry led to a flood of cases overwhelming the magistrates' courts, to which the Big
Swords responded by executing the bandits that were apprehended.[7] The Big Swords relentlessly hunted the
bandits, but the bandits converted to Catholic Christianity, gaining them legal immunity from prosecution and also
placed them under the protection of the foreigners. The Big Swords responded by attacking bandit Catholic churches
and burning them.[8] As a result, Yuxian executed several Big Sword leaders, but did not punish anyone else. More
secret societies started emerging after this.[9]
The early years saw a variety of village activities, not a broad movement or a united purpose. Like the Red Boxing
school or the Plum Flower Boxers, the Boxers of Shandong were more concerned with traditional social and moral
values, such as filial piety, than with foreign influences. One leader, for instance, Zhu Hongdeng (Red Lantern Zhu),
started as a wandering healer, specializing in skin ulcers, and gained wide respect by refusing payment for his
treatments.[10] Zhu claimed descent from Ming dynasty Emperors, since his surname was the surname of the Ming
Imperial Family. He announced that his goal was to "Revive the Qing and destroy the foreigners" ("Fu Qing mie
yang").[11]

Boxer Rebellion

Causes of conflict and unrest

International tension and domestic unrest fueled the growth and spread of the Boxer movement. First, a drought
followed by floods in Shandong province in 18971898 forced farmers to flee to cities and seek food. As one
observer said, "I am convinced that a few days' heavy rainfall to terminate the long-continued drought... would do
more to restore tranquility than any measures which either the Chinese government or foreign governments can
take."[12]
A major cause of Chinese discontent was the Christian missionaries,
both Protestant and Catholic, who came to China in ever increasing
numbers. The exemption of missionaries from various laws angered
the local Chinese. On 1 November 1897 a band of twenty to thirty
armed men stormed into the residence of a German missionary, George
Stenz, and killed two priests who were his guests while looking for
Stenz, who was sleeping in the servant's quarters. Christian villagers
then came to his defense, driving off the attackers. This event was
known as the Juye Incident. When Kaiser Wilhelm II received news of
these murders, he dispatched the German East Asia Squadron to
occupy Jiaozhou Bay on the southern coast of Shandong.[13]
In October 1898, a group of Boxers attacked the Christian community
of Liyuantun village, where a temple to the Jade Emperor had been
converted into a Catholic church. Disputes had surrounded that church
since 1869, when the temple had been granted to the Christian
residents of the village. This incident marked the first time the Boxers
used the slogan "Support the Qing, destroy the foreigners" (
) that would later characterize them.[14]

A French political cartoon depicting China as a

king cake is about to be carved up by Queen
Victoria (Britain), Wilhelm II (Germany),
Nicolas II (Russia), Marianne (France), and a
samurai (Japan) while a Mandarin official
helplessly looks on.

Aggression toward missionaries and Christians gained the attention of

foreign (mainly European) governments.[15] In 1899, the French
Minister in Beijing helped the missionaries to obtain an edict granting official status to every order in the Roman
Catholic hierarchy, enabling local priests to support their people in legal or family disputes and bypass the local
officials. After the German government took over Shandong, many Chinese feared that the missionaries and quite
possibly all Christians were imperialist attempts of "carving the melon," i.e., to divide and colonise China piece by
piece.[16] A Chinese official expressed the animosity towards foreigners succinctly, "Take away your missionaries
and your opium and you will be welcome."[17]
The growth of the Boxer movement coincided with the Hundred Days Reform (11 June21 September 1898).
Progressive Chinese officials, with support from Protestant missionaries, persuaded Emperor Guangxu to institute
reforms, which alienated many conservative officials by their sweeping nature. Such opposition from conservative
officials led the Empress Dowager to intervene and reverse the reforms. The failure of the reform movement
disillusioned many educated Chinese, thus further weakened the Qing government. After the Reforms ended, the
conservative Empress Dowager Cixi seized power and placed the reformist Guangxu Emperor under house arrest.
The European powers were sympathetic to the imprisoned emperor, and opposed Cixi's plan to replace him.
By 1900, the great powers had already been chipping away at Chinese sovereignty for sixty years. They had forced
China to import opium, thus leading to widespread addiction, defeated China in several wars, asserted a right to
promote Christianity and imposed unequal treaties under which foreigners and foreign companies in China were
accorded special privileges, extraterritorial rights and immunities from Chinese law, causing resentment and
xenophobic reactions among the Chinese. France, Japan, Russia, and Germany carved out spheres of influence, so
that by 1900 it appeared that China would likely be dismembered, with foreign powers each ruling a part of the

Boxer Rebellion

country. Thus, by 1900, the Qing dynasty, which had ruled China for more than two centuries, was crumbling and
Chinese culture was under assault by powerful and unfamiliar religions and secular cultures.[18]
Pro western Chinese Governors like Yuan Shikai used their modernized armies
to systematically suppress and kill Boxers in Shandong. He was largely
successful in eradicating them in Shandong by the time the Boxer Rebellion
broke out. The Imperial Government could not call in the support of most of
China's armies, who were under the command of these pro western Governors
like Zhang Zhidong and Li Hongzhang. Those armies were used to repress anti
foreignism by the regional governors and stayed out of the Boxer Rebellion,
refusing to fight the foreigners.

A Boxer during the revolt.

1900: A year of disasters

Boxer rebels

In January 1900, with a majority of conservatives in the Imperial

Court, the Empress Dowager changed her long policy of suppressing
Boxers, and issued edicts in their defense, causing protests from
foreign powers. In Spring 1900, the Boxer movement spread rapidly
north from Shandong into the countryside near Beijing. Boxers burned
Christian churches, killed Chinese Christians, and intimidated Chinese
officials who stood in their way. American Minister Edwin H. Conger
cabled Washington, the whole country is swarming with hungry,
discontented, hopeless idlers. On 30 May the diplomats, led by British
Minister Claude Maxwell MacDonald, requested that foreign soldiers
come to Beijing to defend the legations. The Chinese government
reluctantly acquiesced, and the next day more than 400 soldiers from
eight countries disembarked from warships and traveled by train to
Beijing from Tianjin. They set up defensive perimeters around their
respective missions.[19]

On 5 June, the railroad line to Tianjin was cut by Boxers in the countryside and Beijing was isolated. On 13 June, a
Japanese diplomat was murdered by the soldiers of General Dong Fuxiang and that same day the first Boxer, dressed
in his finery, was seen in the Legation Quarter. The German Minister, Clemens von Ketteler, and German soldiers
captured a Boxer boy and inexplicably executed him.[20] In response, thousands of Boxers burst into the walled city
of Beijing that afternoon and burned many of the Christian churches and cathedrals in the city. American and British
missionaries had taken refuge in the Methodist Mission and an attack there was repulsed by American Marines. The
soldiers at the British Embassy and German Legations shot and killed several Boxers,[21] alienating the Chinese
population of the city and nudging the Qing government toward support of the Boxers. The Muslim Kansu braves
and Boxers, along with other Chinese then attacked and killed Chinese Christians around the legations in revenge for
foreign attacks on Chinese.[22] Sometimes, the Kansu braves used swords to kill Christians, setting their homes on
fire, calling them spies and agents for the foreigners in the legations.[23]

Boxer Rebellion

Conflicting attitudes within the Imperial Court

On 16 or 17 June 1900, the Emperor and the Empress Dowager held a mass audience for high officials to hear their
opinions of whether the strategy towards the Boxers should be to pacify them or to suppress them. In response to a
high official who doubted the efficacy of the Boxers' magic, Cixi replied that, "Perhaps their magic is not to be relied
upon; but can we not rely on the hearts and minds of the people? Today China is extremely weak. We have only the
people's hearts and minds to depend upon. If we cast them aside and lose the people's hearts, what can we use to
sustain the country?" Both sides of the debate at court realized that popular support for the Boxers in the countryside
was almost universal and that suppression would be both difficult and unpopular.[24]
The Chinese government was split into two factions: the conservative traditionalists who wished to use the Boxers to
remove foreigners from China and the moderates, most likely those who benefitted from the Western influences.
Reflecting this inconsistency, some Chinese soldiers were quite liberally firing at foreigners under siege from its
very onset. The Dowager Empress did not personally order Chinese Imperial troops to conduct a siege, and on the
contrary had ordered them to protect the foreigners in the legations. Prince Duan led the Boxers to loot his enemies
within the Imperial court and the foreigners, although Imperial authorities expelled Boxer troops after they were let
into the city and went on a looting rampage against both the foreign and the Chinese Imperial forces. Older aged
Boxers were sent outside Beijing to halt the approaching foreign armies, while younger men were absorbed into the
Muslim Kansu army.[25]
With conflicting allegiances and priorities motivating the various forces inside Beijing, the situation in the city
became increasingly confused. The foreign legations continued to be surrounded by both Imperial and Kansu forces.
While Dong Fuxiang's Kansu army, now swollen by the addition of the Boxers, wished to press the siege, Ronglu's
Imperial forces seem to have largely attempted to follow the Dowager Empress's decree and protect the legations.
However, to satisfy the conservatives in the Chinese imperial court Ronglu's men also fired on the legations and let
off firecrackers to give the impression that they, too, were attacking the foreigners. Inside the legations and out of
communication with the outside world, the foreigners simply fired on any targets that presented themselves,
including messengers from the Chinese court, civilians and besiegers of all persuasions.[26]
When Cixi received an ultimatum demanding that China surrender total control over all its military and financial
affairs to foreigners,[27] she defiantly stated before the entire Grand Council, "Now they [the Powers] have started
the aggression, and the extinction of our nation is imminent. If we just fold our arms and yield to them, I would have
no face to see our ancestors after death. If we must perish, why not fight to the death?"[28] It was at this point that
Cixi began to blockade the legations with the Peking Field Force armies, which began the siege. Cixi stated that "I
have always been of the opinion, that the allied armies had been permitted to escape too easily in 1860. Only a united
effort was then necessary to have given China the victory. Today, at last, the opportunity for revenge has come.", and
said that millions of Chinese would join the cause of fighting the foreigners since the Manchus had provided "great
benefits" on China.[29]
Pro Foreign Faction
Prince Qing, Ronglu, and Li Hongzhang made up the pro foreign faction at the Imperial Court. They advocated for
suppression of the Boxers and to not fight against the Eight Nation Alliance. Several regional governors in China
who commanded substantial modernized armies, like Yuan Shikai and Zhang Zhidong actually took the side of the
pro foreign faction and refused to join in the Imperial Court's declaration of war against the Eight Nation Alliance.
Yuan Shikai used his own forces to suppress and kill large numbers of Boxers in Shandong,[30] and Zhang entered
into negotiations with the foreigners to keep his army out of the conflict. The neutrality of the provincial and
regional Governors left the majority of China out of the Boxer Rebellion.

Boxer Rebellion

Siege of the Legations

The legations of the United Kingdom, France,
Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary, Spain, Belgium, the
Netherlands, the United States, Russia and Japan were
located in the Beijing Legation Quarter south of the
Forbidden City. On 19 June, the Empress Dowager
notified the legations that the diplomats and other
foreigners should depart Beijing under escort of the
Chinese army within 24 hours.
The next morning, the German envoy, Klemens
Freiherr von Ketteler, was killed on the streets of
Beijing by a Manchu captain. The other diplomats
feared they also would be murdered if they left the
Locations of foreign diplomatic legations and front lines in Beijing
legation quarter and they defied the Chinese order to
during the siege.
leave. The legations were hurriedly fortified. Isolated
legations, such as the Spanish and Belgian, and foreign
businesses were abandoned. Most of the foreign civilians, which included a large number of missionaries and
businessmen, took refuge in the British legation, the largest of the diplomatic compounds. Chinese Christians were
primarily housed in the adjacent palace (Fu) of Prince Su who was forced to abandon his property by the foreign
soldiers. On June 21, Empress Dowager Cixi declared war against all foreign powers. However, a number of
regional governors including Li Hongzhang and Zhang Zhidong quietly refused to cooperate. Shanghai's Chinese
elite supported the provincial governors of southeastern China in resisting the Imperial declaration of war.[31]
The Imperial army was ordered to absorb "young and strong Boxers" so they could be controlled more easily.[32]
Chinese Generals in other areas like Mukden were recalled to Beijing with their armies to defend the capital. Among
them were General Zeng Qi and Ma Yukun.[33]
The Chinese army and Boxer irregulars besieged the Legation Quarter from 20 June to 14 August 1900. A total of
473 foreign civilians, 409 soldiers from eight countries, and about 3,000 Chinese Christians took refuge there.[34]
Under the command of the British minister to China, Claude Maxwell MacDonald, the legation staff and security
personnel defended the compound with small arms, three machine guns, and one old muzzle-loaded cannon, which
was nicknamed the International Gun because the barrel was British, the carriage Italian, the shells Russian, and the
crew American. Chinese Christians in the legations led the foreigners to the cannon and it proved important in the
defense. Also under siege in Beijing was the Northern Cathedral (Beitang) of the Catholic Church. The Beitang was
defended by 43 French and Italian soldiers, 33 Catholic foreign priests and nuns, and about 3,200 Chinese Catholics.
The defenders suffered heavy casualties especially from lack of food and mines which the Chinese exploded in
tunnels dug beneath the compound.[35] The number of Chinese soldiers and Boxers besieging the Legation Quarter
and the Beitang is unknown, but certainly there were many thousands.
On 22 and 23 June Chinese soldiers and Boxers set fire to areas north and west of the British Legation, using it as a
"frightening tactic" to attack the defenders. The nearby Hanlin Academy, a complex of courtyards and buildings that
housed "the quintessence of Chinese scholarship ... the oldest and richest library in the world," caught fire. Each side
blamed the other for the destruction of the invaluable books it contained.[36]
After the failure to burn out the foreigners, the Chinese army adopted an anaconda-like strategy. The Chinese build
barricades surrounding the Legation Quarter and advanced, brick by brick, on the foreign lines, forcing the foreign
soldiers to retreat a few feet at a time. This tactic was especially used in the Fu, defended by Japanese and Italian
soldiers and inhabited by most of the Chinese Christians. Fusillades of bullets, artillery, and firecrackers were
directed against the Legations almost every night - but did little damage. Sniper fire took its toll among the foreign

Boxer Rebellion
soldiers. Despite, however, their advantage in numbers, the Chinese did not attempt a direct assault on the Legation
Quarter although in the words of one of the besieged, "it would have been easy by a strong, swift movement on the
part of the numerous Chinese troops to have annihilated the whole body of foreigners... in an hour."[37] American
missionary Frank Gamewell and his crew of "fighting persons" played an invaluable role in fortifying the Legation
Quarter.[38] Gamewell impressed Chinese Christians to do most of the physical labor of building defenses.[39]
The Germans and the Americans occupied perhaps the most crucial of all defensive positions: the Tartar Wall.
Holding the top of the 45ft (14m) tall and 40ft (12m) wide wall was vital. The German barricades faced east on
top of the wall and 400yd (370m) west were the west facing American positions. The Chinese advanced toward
both positions by building barricades even closer. "The men all feel they are in a trap," said the American
commander, Capt. John T. Myers, "and simply await the hour of execution."[40] On June 30, the Chinese forced the
Germans off the Wall, leaving the American Marines alone in its defense. At the same time, a Chinese barricade was
advanced to within a few feet of the American positions and it became clear that the Americans had to abandon the
wall or force the Chinese to retreat. At 2am on July 3, 56 British, Russian, and American soldiers under the
command of Myers launched an assault against the Chinese barricade on the wall. The attack caught the Chinese
sleeping, killed about 20 of them, and expelled the rest of them from the barricades.[41] The Chinese did not attempt
to advance their positions on the Tartar Wall for the remainder of the siege.[42]
Sir Claude MacDonald said July 13 was the "most harassing day" of the siege.[43] The Japanese and Italians in the Fu
were driven back to their last defense line. The Chinese detonated a mine beneath the French Legation pushing the
French and Austrians out of most of the French Legation.[44] On July 16, the most capable British officer was killed
and a journalist named George Ernest Morrison was wounded.[45] But American Minister Conger established contact
with the Chinese government and on July 17, an armistice was declared by the Chinese.[46] More than 40 percent of
the legation guards were dead or wounded. The motivation of the Chinese was probably the realization that an allied
force of 20,000 men had landed in China and retribution for the siege was at hand. The armistice, although
occasionally broken, endured until August 13 when, with an allied army approaching Beijing to relieve the siege, the
Chinese launched their heaviest fusillade on the Legation Quarter. As the foreign army approached, Chinese forces
melted away. The British army reached the legation quarter on the afternoon of August 14 and relieved the Legation
Quarter. The Beitang was relieved on August 16, first by Japanese soldiers and then, officially, by the French.[47]

Generals at cross purposes

The Manchu General Ronglu concluded that it was futile to fight all of the powers simultaneously, and declined to
press home the siege.[48] The Manchu prince Zaiyi, an anti-foreign friend of Dong Fuxiang, wanted artillery for
Dong's troops to destroy the legations. Ronglu blocked the transfer of artillery to Zaiyi and Dong, preventing them
from attacking.[49] Ronglu and Prince Qing sent food to the legations, and used their Manchu Bannermen to attack
the Muslim Kansu Braves of Dong Fuxiang and the Boxers who were besieging the foreigners. They issued edicts
ordering the foreigners to be protected, but the Kansu warriors ignored it, and fought against Bannermen who tried to
force them away from the legations. Ronglu also deliberately hid an Imperial Decree from General Nie Shicheng.
The Decree ordered him to stop fighting the Boxers because of the foreign invasion, and also because the population
was suffering. Due to Ronglu's actions, General Nie continued to fight the Boxers and killed many of them even as
the foreign troops were making their way into China. Ronglu also ordered Nie to protect foreigners and save the
railway from the Boxers.[50] Because parts of the Railway were saved under Ronglu's orders, the foreign invasion
army was able to transport itself into China quickly. General Nie committed thousands of troops against the Boxers
instead of against the foreigners. Nie was already outnumbered by the Allies by 4,000 men. General Nie was blamed
for attacking the Boxers, as Ronglu let Nie take all the blame. At the Battle of Tianjin (Tientsin), General Nie
decided to sacrifice his life by walking into the range of Allied guns.[51]

Boxer Rebellion

Massacre of missionaries and Chinese Christians

Protestant and Catholic missionaries and their Chinese converts were
massacred throughout northern China, some by Boxers and others by
government troops and authorities. After the declaration of war on
Western powers in June 1900, Yuxian, who had been named governor
of Shanxi in March of that year, implemented a brutal anti-foreign and
anti-Christian policy. On July 9, reports circulated that he had executed
forty-four foreigners (including women and children) from missionary
families whom he had invited to the provincial capital Taiyuan under
the promise to protect them.[52] Although the purported eye witness
accounts have recently been questioned as improbable, this event
became a notorious symbol of Chinese madness, known as the Taiyuan
Massacre.[53]
The Holy Chinese Martyrs

By the summer's end, more foreigners and as many as 2,000 Chinese

Christians had been put to death in the province. Journalist and
historical writer Nat Brandt has called the massacre of Christians in Shanxi "the greatest single tragedy in the history
of Christian evangelicalism."[54] A total of 136 Protestant missionaries and 53 children were killed, and 47 Catholic
priests and nuns. Thirty thousand Chinese Catholics, 2,000 Chinese Protestants, and 200 to 400 of the 700 Russian
Orthodox Christians in Beijing were estimated to have been killed. Collectively, the Protestant dead were called the
China Martyrs of 1900.[55] The Boxers went on to murder Christians across 26 prefectures.[56] One specific rampage
was set off after the German diplomat Clemens von Ketteler beat a Chinese boy to death. Anger against Chinese
Christians set off again, and the Boxers burned down several churches, roasting some victims alive.[57]

Evacuation of Imperial Court from Beijing to Xi'an

In the early hours of August 15, just as the Foreign Legations were being relieved, the Empress Dowager, dressed in
the padded blue cotton of a farm woman, the Emperor Guangxu, and a small retinue climbed into three wooden ox
carts and escaped from the city covered with rough blankets. Legend has it that the Empress Dowager then either
ordered that the Emperor's favorite, the Pearl Concubine, be thrown down a well in the Forbidden City or tricked her
into drowning herself. The journey was made all the more arduous by the lack of preparation, but the Empress
Dowager insisted this was not a retreat, rather a "tour of inspection." After weeks of travel, the party arrived in Xi'an
in Shaanxi province, beyond protective mountain passes where the foreigners could not reach, deep in Chinese
Muslim territory and protected by the Kansu Braves. The foreigners were unable to pursue, and had no such orders
to do so, so they decided no action should be taken. Lenox Simpson commented that the Chinese shrewdly
outsmarted the foreign forces, and succeeded in embarrassing the foreigners by escaping from their grasp, where
they could not attack them or extract revenge.[58]

Boxer Rebellion

The allied interventions and the Boxer War

Forces of the Eight-Nation Alliance
(1900 Boxer Rebellion)

Troops of the Eight nations alliance in 1900.

Left to right: Britain, United States, Russia, British India,
Germany, France, Austria-Hungary, Italy, Japan
Countries

Warships
(units)

Marines
(men)

Army
(men)

Japan

18

540

20,300

Russia

10

750

12,400

United Kingdom

2,020

10,000

France

390

3,130

United States

295

3,125

Germany

600

300

AustriaHungary

296

Italy

80

Total

54

4,971

49,255

Foreign navies started building up their presence along the northern

China coast from the end of April 1900. Several international forces
were sent to the capital, with various success, and the rebellion was
ultimately quashed by the Eight-Nation Alliance of Austria-Hungary,
France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the
United States.

First international force

Painting of Western and Japanese troops

On May 31, before the sieges had started and upon the request of
foreign embassies in Beijing, an international force of 435 navy troops from eight countries were dispatched by train
from Dagu (Taku) to the capital (75 French, 75 Russian, 75 British, 60 U.S., 50 German, 40 Italian, 30 Japanese, 30
Austrian). After covering the 80 miles distance to the capital, these troops joined the legations and were able to
contribute to their defense.

Boxer Rebellion

10

Seymour Expedition
As the situation worsened, a second international force of 2,000 sailors
and marines under the command of the British Vice-Admiral Edward
Seymour, the largest contingent being British, was dispatched from
Dagu to Beijing on June 10. The troops were transported by train from
Dagu to Tianjin with the agreement of the Chinese government, but the
railway between Tianjin and Beijing had been severed. Seymour
resolved to move forward and repair the railway, or progress on foot if
necessary, keeping in mind that the distance between Tianjin and
Beijing was only 120km. However, Seymour left Tianjin, and started
Japanese marines who served in the Seymour
toward Beijing, which angered the Chinese Imperial court. As a result,
Expedition.
the Pro Boxer Manchu Prince Duan became leader of the Zongli
Yamen (foreign office), replacing Prince Ching; orders were then
given to Imperial army to attack the foreign forces. Confused by conflicting orders from Beijing, Chinese General
Nie let Seymour's army pass by in their trains.[59]
After leaving Tianjin, the convoy was surrounded, the railway behind and in front of them was destroyed, and they
were attacked from all parts by Chinese irregulars and even Chinese governmental troops. News arrived on June 18
regarding attacks on foreign legations. Seymour decided to continue advancing, this time along the Beihe river,
toward Tongzhou, 25km from Beijing. By the 19th, they had to abandon their efforts due to progressively stiffening
resistance and started to retreat southward along the river with over 200 wounded. Commandeering four civilian
Chinese junks along the river, they loaded all their wounded and remaining supplies onto them and pulled them
along with ropes from the riverbanks. By this point they were very low on food, ammunition and medical supplies.
Luckily, they then happened upon The Great Xigu Arsenal, a hidden Qing munitions cache of which the Allied
Powers had had no knowledge until then. They immediately captured and occupied it, discovering not only German
Krupp-made field guns, but rifles with millions of rounds in ammunition, along with millions of pounds of rice and
ample medical supplies.

Admiral Seymour returning to Tianjin with his

wounded men, on 26 June.

There they dug in and awaited rescue. A Chinese servant was able to
infiltrate through the Boxer and Qing lines, informing the Eight Powers
of their predicament. Surrounded and attacked nearly around the clock
by Qing troops and Boxers, they were at the point of being overrun. On
June 25, a regiment composed of 1800 men, (900 Russian troops from
Port-Arthur, 500 British seamen, with an ad hoc mix of other assorted
Alliance troops) finally arrived. Spiking the mounted field guns and
setting fire to any munitions that they could not take (an estimated 3
million worth), they departed in the early morning of June 26, with 62
killed and 228 wounded.[60]

Boxer Rebellion

11

Gaselee Expedition
With a difficult military situation in Tianjin and a total breakdown of
communications between Tianjin and Beijing, the allied nations took
steps to reinforce their military presence significantly. On 17 June they
took the Dagu Forts commanding the approaches to Tianjin, and from
there brought increasing numbers of troops on shore.
The international force with British Lieutenant-General Alfred Gaselee
acting as the commanding officer of the Eight-Nation Alliance,
The Boxers bombarded Tianjin in June 1900, and
eventually numbered 55,000, with the main contingent being
Dong Fuxiang's Muslim troops attacked the
composed of Japanese soldiers: Japanese (20,840), Russian (13,150),
British Admiral Seymour and his expeditionary
force.
British (12,020), French (3,520), U.S.(3,420), German (900), Italian
[61]
(2080), Austro-Hungarian (75) and anti-Boxer Chinese troops.
The
international force finally captured Tianjin on 14 July under the command of the Japanese Colonel Kuriya, after one
day of fighting.
Notable exploits during the campaign were the seizure of the Dagu
Forts commanding the approaches to Tianjin, and the boarding and
capture of four Chinese destroyers by Roger Keyes. Among the
foreigners besieged in Tianjin was a young American mining engineer
named Herbert Hoover.[62]
The march from Tianjin to Beijing of about 120km consisted of about
20,000 allied troops. On August 4, there were approximately 70,000
The capture of the southern gate of Tianjin.
British troops were positioned on the left,
Imperial troops with anywhere from 50,000 to 100,000 Boxers along
Japanese troops at the centre, French troops on
the way. The allies only encountered minor resistance, fighting battles
the right.
at Beicang and Yangcun. At Yangcun, the 14th Infantry Regiment of
the U.S. and British troops led the assault. The weather was a major
obstacle, extremely humid with temperatures sometimes reaching 110 F (43C).
The international force reached and occupied Beijing on August 14.
All the nationalities in the international force raced to be the first to
liberate the besieged Legation Quarter with the British winning the
race. The U.S. was able to play a minor role in suppressing the Boxer
Rebellion due to the presence of U.S. ships and troops deployed in the
Philippines, which had been stationed there since the U.S. conquest of
the Philippines during the Spanish American War and the subsequent
Philippine Insurrection. In the U.S. military, the suppression of the
Corporal Titus scaling the walls of Peking.
Boxer Rebellion was known as the China Relief Expedition. American
soldiers scaling the walls of Beijing is an iconic image of the Boxer Rebellion.[63]

Russian invasion of Manchuria

The Russian Empire and the Qing Empire had maintained a long peace, starting with the Treaty of Nerchinsk in
1689, but Czarist forces took advantage of Chinese defeats to impose the Aigun Treaty of 1858 and the Treaty of
Peking of 1860 which ceded territory in Manchuria much of which is held by Russia to the present day. The
Russians aimed for control over Amur River for navigation, and the all weather ports of Dairen and Port Arthur in
the Liaodong peninsula. The rise of Japan as an Asian power provoked Russia's anxiety, especially in light of
expanding Japanese influence in Korea. Following Japan's victory in the First Sino-Japanese War of 1895, the Triple
Intervention of Russia and France forced Japan to return the territory won in Liaodong, leading to a de facto

Boxer Rebellion

12

Sino-Russian alliance.
Local Chinese in Manchuria were incensed at these Russian advances and began to harass Russians and Russian
institutions, such as the Chinese Eastern Railway. In June 1900, the Chinese bombarded the town of
Blagoveshchensk on the Russian side of the Amur, and in retaliation, the Russians massacred several thousand
Chinese and Manchus in that town. The Czar's government used the pretext of Boxer activity to move some 200,000
troops into the area to crush Boxers. The Chinese used arson to destroy a bridge carrying a railway and a barracks in
July 27. Boxers destroyed railways and cut lines for telegraphs and burned the Yantai mines.[64] In battles on the
Amur river, Western newspapers reported that the Chinese forces treated Russian civilians leniently and allowed
them to escape to Russia, even notifying that they should leave the war zone. By contrast, Russian Cossacks brutally
killed civilians who tried to flee in the Chinese villages. In revenge for the attacks on Chinese villages, Boxer troops
burned Russian towns and almost annihilated a Russian force at Tieling.[65] Russian forces quickly dispatched both
Boxers and Chinese Imperial troops.
By September 21, Russian troops took Jilin in Shandong, and by the end of the month completely occupied
Manchuria, where their presence was a major factor leading to the Russo-Japanese War.
The Chinese Honghuzi bandits of Manchuria, who had fought alongside the Boxers in the war, did not stop when the
Boxer rebellion was over, and continued guerilla warfare against the Russian occupation up to the Russo-Japanese
war when the Russians were defeated by Japan.

Aftermath
Occupation, looting, and atrocities
Beijing, Tianjin, and other cities in northern China were occupied for
more than one year by the international expeditionary force under the
command of German General Alfred Graf von Waldersee. The German
force arrived too late to take part in the fighting, but undertook several
punitive expeditions to the countryside against the Boxers. Although
atrocities by foreign troops were common, German troops in particular
were criticized for their enthusiasm in carrying out Kaiser Wilhelm IIs
words. On July 27, 1900, when Wilhelm II spoke during departure
ceremonies for the German contingent to the relief force in China, an
impromptu, but intemperate reference to the Hun invaders of
continental Europe would later be resurrected by British propaganda to
mock Germany during World War I and World War II.

"The Fall of the Peking Castle" from September

1900. British and Japanese soldiers assaulting
Chinese troops.

Should you encounter the enemy, he will be defeated! No quarter will be given! Prisoners will not be
taken! Whoever falls into your hands is forfeited. Just as a thousand years ago the Huns under their King
Attila made a name for themselves, one that even today makes them seem mighty in history and legend,
may the name German be affirmed by you in such a way in China that no Chinese will ever again dare
to look cross-eyed at a German.[66]
The Germans were not the only offenders. On behalf of Chinese Catholics, French troops ravaged the countryside
around
Beijing
to

Boxer Rebellion

13

collect indemnitiesand on one occasion arresting American

missionary William Scott Ament who beat them to the punch in
gathering wealth from some villages.[67] Nor were the soldiers of other
nationalities any better behaved. "The Russian soldiers are ravishing
the women and committing horrible atrocities" in the sector of Beijing
they occupied. The Japanese were noted for their skill in beheading
Boxers or people suspected of being Boxers. General Chaffee
commented, "It is safe to say that where one real Boxer has been
killed... fifty harmless coolies or laborers on the farms, including not a
few women and children, have been slain."[68]

The occupation of Beijing. British sector in

yellow, French in blue, US in green and ivory,
German in red, and Japanese in light green.

Russian troops in Beijing.

The intermediate aftermath of the siege in Beijing was what one

newspaper called a "carnival of loot," and others called "an orgy of
looting" by soldiers, civilians, and missionaries. These
characterizations called to mind the sacking of the Summer Palace in
1860.[69] All of the nationalities in the expeditionary force engaged in
looting,[] but each nationality accused the others of being the worst
looters. An American diplomat, Herbert G. Squiers, filled several
railroad cars with loot. The British Legation held loot auctions every
afternoon and proclaimed, "looting on the part of British troops was
carried out in the most orderly manner." The Catholic Beitang or North
Cathedral was a "salesroom for stolen property."[70] The American
commander General Adna Chaffee banned looting by American
soldiers, but the ban was ineffectual.[71]

The missionaries were the most condemned. Mark Twain reflected

American outrage against looting and imperialism in his essay, "To the
Person Sitting in Darkness". American Board Missionary Ament was
his target.[72] To provide restitution to missionaries and Chinese
American troops during the Boxer Rebellion.
Christian families whose property had been destroyed, Ament guided
American troops through villages to punish Boxers and confiscate their
property. When Mark Twain read of this expedition, he wrote a scathing attack on the "Reverend bandits of the
American Board."[73] Ament was one of the most respected and courageous missionaries in China and the
controversy between him and Mark Twain was front page news during much of 1901. Ament's counterpart on the
distaff side was doughty British missionary Georgina Smith who presided over a neighborhood in Beijing as judge
and jury.[74]
One witness recalled that "[t]he conduct of the Russian soldiers is atrocious, the French are not much better, and the
Japanese are looting and burning without mercy".[] It was reported that Japanese troops were astonished by other
Alliance troops raping civilians; Japanese officers had brought along Japanese prostitutes to stop their troops from
raping Chinese civilians.[75] Thousands of Chinese women committed suicide; The Daily Telegraph journalist E. J.

Boxer Rebellion

14

Dillon stated it was to avoid rape by Alliance forces, and he witnessed the mutilated corpses of Chinese women who
were raped and killed by the Alliance troops. The French commander dismissed the rapes, attributing them to
"gallantry of the French soldier". A foreign journalist, George Lynch, said "there are things that I must not write, and
that may not be printed in England, which would seem to show that this Western civilization of ours is merely a
veneer over savagery."[76][77]

Reparations
The Qing dynasty was by no means defeated when the Allies took control of Beijing, forcing the Allies to temper
their demands, conceding that China would not have to give up any territory. Many of the Dowager Empress's
advisers insisted that the war be carried on, arguing that China could have defeated the foreigners since it was
disloyal and traitorous people within China who allowed Beijing and Tianjin to be captured by the Allies, and the
interior of China was impenetrable. They also recommended that Dong Fuxiang continue fighting. The Dowager was
practical, however, and decided that the terms were generous enough for her to acquiesce when she was assured of
her continued reign after the war.[78]
On 7 September 1901, the Qing court agreed to sign the "Boxer Protocol" also known as Peace Agreement between
the Eight-Nation Alliance and China. The protocol ordered the execution of 10 high-ranking officials linked to the
outbreak and other officials who were found guilty for the slaughter of foreigners in China. Alfons Mumm (Freiherr
von Schwarzenstein), Ernest Satow and Komura Jutaro signed on behalf of Spain, Germany, Britain and Japan
respectively.

Share of reparations[79]
Country Share %
Russia

30.00

Germany

20.00

France

15.75

Britain

11.25

Japan

7.70

US

7.00

China was fined war reparations of 450,000,000 taels of fine silver (1 tael = 1.2 troy ounces) for the loss that it
caused. The reparation was to be paid within 39 years, and would be 982,238,150 taels with interest (4 percent per
year) included. To help meet the payment it was agreed to increase the existing tariff from an actual 3.18 percent to 5
percent, and to tax hitherto duty-free merchandise. The sum of reparation was estimated by the Chinese population
(roughly 450million in 1900), to let each Chinese pay one tael. Chinese custom income and salt tax were enlisted as
guarantee of the reparation. China paid 668,661,220 taels of silver from 1901 to 1939, equivalent in 2010 to ~US$61
billion on a purchasing power parity basis (see Tael).[79]

Boxer Rebellion

Execution of Boxers after the rebellion.

15
A large portion of the reparations paid to the United States was
diverted to pay for the education of Chinese students in U.S.
universities under the Boxer Indemnity Scholarship Program. To
prepare the students chosen for this program an institute was
established to teach the English language and to serve as a preparatory
school. When the first of these students returned to China they
undertook the teaching of subsequent students; from this institute was
born Tsinghua University. Some of the reparation due to Britain was
later earmarked for a similar program.

The China Inland Mission lost more members than any other missionary agency:[80] 58 adults and 21 children were
killed. However, in 1901, when the allied nations were demanding compensation from the Chinese government,
Hudson Taylor refused to accept payment for loss of property or life in order to demonstrate the meekness and
gentleness of Christ to the Chinese.[81]
The French Catholic vicar apostolic, Msgr. Alfons Bermyn wanted foreign troops garrisoned in inner Mongolia, but
the Governor refused. Bermyn petitioned the Manchu Enming to send troops to Hetao where Prince Duan's Mongol
troops and General Dong Fuxiang's Muslim troops allegedly threatened Catholics. It turned out that Bermyn had
created the incident as a hoax.[82][83]
The Qing did not capitulate to all the foreign demands. The Bannerman Governor Yuxian was executed, but the
Imperial court refused to execute the Chinese General Dong Fuxiang, although both had encouraged the killing of
foreigners during the rebellion. Instead, Dong Fuxiang lived a life of luxury and power in "exile" in his home
province of Gansu.[84] In addition to sparing Dong Fuxiang, the Qing also refused to exile the Boxer supporter
Prince Duan to Xinjiang, as the Allies demanded. Instead, he moved to Alashan, west of Ningxia, and lived in
Wangyeh Fu, where the local Mongol Prince lived. He then moved to Ningxia during the Xinhai Revolution when
the Muslims took control of Ningxia, and finally, moved to Xinjiang with Sheng Yun.[85]

Long-term consequences
The great powers stopped short of finally colonizing China. From the Boxer rebellions, they learned that the best
way to govern China was through the Chinese dynasty, instead of direct dealing with the Chinese people (as a saying
The people are afraid of officials, the officials are afraid of foreigners, and the foreigners are afraid of the people"
( )). Cixi used Boxers to fight foreigners largely
because foreigners sympathized with China's rightful monarch, the Guangxu Emperor, who Cixi had placed under
house arrest after suppressing his efforts to modernize China. Eventually, as an unwritten agreement, Cixi was
allowed to stay in power. The Guangxu Emperor spent the rest of his life under house arrest before being poisoned in
1908, likely under the orders of Cixi.[86]

Boxer Rebellion

16

In October 1900 Russia was busy occupying much of the northeastern

province of Manchuria, a move which threatened Anglo-American
hopes of maintaining what remained of China's territorial integrity and
an openness to commerce under the Open Door Policy. This behavior
led ultimately to the Russo-Japanese War, where Russia was defeated
at the hands of an increasingly confident Japan.
Among the Imperial powers, Japan gained prestige due to its military
aid in suppressing the Boxer Rebellion and was now seen as a power.
Its clash with Russia over Liaodong and other provinces in eastern
Manchuria, long considered by the Japanese as part of their sphere of
influence, led to the Russo-Japanese War when two years of
negotiations broke down in February 1904. The Russian Lease of the
Liaodong (1898) was confirmed.

French Mdaille commmorative de l'expdition

de Chine (1901). Muse de la Lgion d'Honneur.

Besides the compensation, Empress Dowager Cixi reluctantly started some reformations despite her previous view.
The imperial examination system for government service was eliminated; as a result, the classical system of
education was replaced with a European liberal system that led to a university degree. After the death of Empress
Dowager Cixi and the Guangxu Emperor (on the same day, mysteriously) in 1908, the regent (Guangxu Emperor's
brother) launched reformation. However, these efforts seemed to be too late. The revolutionaries within Han Chinese
could not wait. The imperial government's humiliating failure to defend China against the foreign powers contributed
to the growth of nationalist resentment against the "foreigner" Qing dynasty (who were descendants of the Manchu
conquerors of China). Consequently, the Qing Dynasty, weakened by the war and the 1911 revolution, led by Sun
Yat-sen, became the last dynasty in Chinese history.
The effect on China was a weakening of the dynasty as well as a weakened national defense. The structure was
temporarily sustained by the Europeans. Behind the international conflict, it further internally deepened the
ideological differences between northern-Chinese anti-foreign royalists and southern-Chinese anti-Qing
revolutionists. This scenario in the last Chinese dynasty gradually escalated to a chaotic warlord era in which the
most powerful northern warlords were hostile towards the first Chinese republic in the south until the 1930s when
the Chinese communists and Japanese imperialists became the greatest threats to the republic and the northern
warlords respectively. Before the ultimate defeat of the Boxer Rebellion, all anti-Qing movements in the previous
century such as the Taiping Rebellion were successfully suppressed by the Qing and her foreign collaborators.
Historian Walter LaFeber has argued that President William McKinley's decision to send 5,000 American troops to
quell the rebellion marks "the origins of modern presidential war powers":[87]
McKinley took a historic step in creating a new, 20th-century presidential power. He dispatched the five
thousand troops without consulting Congress, let alone obtaining a declaration of war, to fight the
Boxers who were supported by the Chinese government ... Presidents had previously used such force
against non-governmental groups that threatened U.S. interests and citizens. It was now used, however,
against recognized governments, and without obeying the Constitution's provisions about who was to
declare war.
Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. concurred, writing that:[88]
The intervention in China marked the start of a crucial shift in the presidential employment of armed
force overseas. In the 19th century, military force committed without congressional authorization had
been typically used against nongovernmental organizations. Now it was beginning to be used against
sovereign states, and, in the case of Theodore Roosevelt, with less consultation than ever.

Boxer Rebellion

17

Chinese forces
Boxers
The Boxers themselves used modern weaponry, such as Krupp artillery and rifles. The Boxers attacked both the
Qing Imperial Army under General Nie, and the foreign Allied Powers. They used sabotage tactics like razing
railroads and telegraph lines in order to deny the Alliance forces any means of transport and communication.[89]
Dong Fuxiang, a Han Chinese general who commanded Muslim soldiers (see below) supported the Boxers, and was
a sworn brother to Li Laizhong, another Boxer supporter and xenophobe, who commanded Boxers from Shanxi.[90]

The Imperial Army

Equipment and tactics
Following the defeat of Beiyang army during the humiliating First
Sino-Japanese War, the Chinese government invested heavily in
modernizing the imperial army, which was equipped with modern
Mauser repeater rifles and Krupp Artillery. Mining, engineering,
flooding, and simultaneous multiple attacks were employed by Chinese
troops. The Chinese also employed pincer movements, ambushes, and
sniper tactics with some success against the foreigners.[91] Two brand
new German destroyers were deployed along the Dagu Forts recently
Chinese forces in 18991901.
Left: two infantrymen of the New Imperial Army.
completed by German engineers. Yet, neither the European-style
Front: drum major of the regular army. Seated on
modern weapons nor the new forts could compensate for the lack of
the trunk: field artilleryman. Right: Boxers.
training of the soldiers and the backwardness of the Chinese military
tactics of the officers. It was the inability to integrate the new Western
style weapons and lack of training effectively that prevented the capture of the besieged European consulate in
Beijing, and the repulsion of the foreign invading armies.
During the war, Imperial Chinese forces deployed a weapon called "electric mines" on 15 June, at the river Beihe
(Peiho) before the Battle of Dagu Forts (1900), to prevent the Eight-Nation Alliance from sending ships to attack.
This was reported by American military intelligence in the United States. War Dept. by the United States.
Adjutant-General's Office. Military Information Division.[92][93][94][95]
Leaders
Zaiyi was not just an ordinary prince, he was a member of the imperial Aisin Gioro clan, a blood relative of the
imperial family (foreigners called him a "Blood Royal"), therefore, his son was his line for the throne. He became the
effective leader of the Boxers, and he was extremely anti foreign like his friend Dong Fuxiang, and wanted to expel
them from China. The Manchu General Ronglu, on the other hand, was not a blood relative of the Imperial Aisin
Gioro Clan, only being related by marriage to the Imperial Family, and he tried to sabotage Zaiyi and Dong Fuxiang.
Prince Qing, a Prince, was considered pro foreign and led his bannermen accordingly to attack Prince Duan's forces.

Boxer Rebellion

18

Muslim Kansu Braves

A unit of 10,000 Hui Muslims from Gansu province under the command of the
Han Chinese General Dong Fuxiang had been stationed with the rest of the
imperial army at Beijing since 1898. They were known as the "Kansu (Gansu)
Braves".[96] Dong was extremely anti-foreign, and gave full support to Cixi and
the Boxers. General Dong committed his Muslim troops to join the Boxers to
attack the Eight-Nation Alliance. They were put into the rear division, and
attacked the legations relentlessly. Foreigners referred to them as the "10,000
Islamic rabble".[97] Casualties suffered by the Alliance at the hands of the
Muslim troops were high enough that the United States Marine Corps, which was
tasked with guarding U.S. embassies, as it is today, was involved.[98][99] A
Japanese chancellor, Sugiyama Akira was killed by the Muslim warriors, who
also assaulted and beat up several other foreigners.
Chinese Muslim troops from Gansu
of the Qing imperial army serving
under General Dong Fuxiang; they
were also known as the "Kansu
Braves" or "Gansu Braves".

Dong refused to use foreign uniforms and musical instruments for his band,
instead, his Muslim troops wore Chinese military uniform and played Chinese
instruments. However, he armed his troops with modern foreign weapons like
Krupp Artillery and Mauser rifles.[100] The Muslim troops had threatened the
foreign Legations after the Hundred Days Reform ended in September 1898.[101]
The Islamic troops were organized into eight battalions of infantry, two
squadrons of cavalry, two brigades of artillery, and one company of
engineers.[102] In contrast to the Manchu and other Chinese soldiers who used
arrows and bows, the Kansu cavalry had the newest carbine rifles. The Muslims
were mostly cavalry, wearing black turbans, waving scarlet and black banners,
with Mauser rifles.[103]

The Boxers were ordered by the Imperial court to take commands from Dong
Fuxiang and the Muslim Gansu troops.[104] General Dong and Manchu Prince
Duan were linked through Prince Duan's father, Prince Dun, who reached an
agreement with Dong in 1869. Dong Fuxiang's 5,000 troops, including Muslim
General Ma Fuxiang, posted in southern Beijing at Hunting Park, attacked and
defeated the Eight Nation Alliance led by the British Admiral Seymour at the
Battle of Langfang on 18 June.[105] The Chinese won a major victory, and forced
Han Chinese General Dong Fuxiang,
who commanded Muslim soldiers
Seymour to retreat back to Tianjin by 26 June, and Seymour's Alliance army
suffered heavy casualties.[106][107] As the allied European army retreated from
Langfang, they were constantly fired upon by cavalry, and artillery bombarded their positions. It was reported that
the Chinese artillery was superior to the European artillery, since the Europeans did not bother to bring along much
for the campaign, thinking they could easily sweep through Chinese resistance. The Europeans could not locate the
Chinese artillery, which was raining shells upon their positions.[108] General Ronglu, who was supervising Dong
Fuxiang's attack on the Legations, forced Dong to pull back from completing the siege and destroying the legations,
thereby saving the foreigners and making diplomatic concessions.[48] Six thousand of the Muslim troops under Dong
Fuxiang and 20,000 Boxers repulsed a relief column, driving them to Huang Cun.[109] The Muslims made camp
outside the temples of Heaven and Agriculture.[110]

Boxer Rebellion

19
The Muslim Kansu Braves escorted the imperial family to Xi'an when they
decided to flee. One of the officers, Ma Fuxiang, was rewarded by the Emperor,
being appointed governor of Altay for his service. His brother, Ma Fulu and four
of his cousins died in combat during the attack on the legations.[111] Ma Fuxing
also served under Ma Fulu to guard the Qing Imperial court during the
fighting.[112] Originally buried at a Hui cemetery in Beijing, in 1995 Ma Fulu's
remains were moved by his descendants to Yangzhushan in Linxia County.[113]
The imperial government refused to punish General Dong when the foreigners
demanded his execution.[114] Upon General Dong's death in 1908, all honors
which had been stripped from him were restored and he was given a full military
burial.[84]

Muslim Leader Ma Fuxiang

General Dong Fuxiang took part in a number of battles, including Cai Cun (Ts'ai
Ts'un) 24 July, Hexiwu (Ho Hsi Wu) 25 July, Anping (An P'ing)26 July, and
Matou (Ma T'ou) 27 July.[108]
The German Kaiser Wilhelm II was so alarmed by the Chinese Muslim troops
that he requested the Caliph Abdul Hamid II of the Ottoman Empire to find a
way to stop the Muslim troops from fighting. He agreed to the Kaiser's demands
and sent Enver Pasha to China in 1901, but the rebellion was over by that
time.[115] Enver Pasha's official mission was to help the eight nation alliance
"pacify" the Muslims of China, from whom they feared would join the Boxers in
offering fierce resistance. Some westerners pointed out that the Ottomans had
very little knowledge and connection to the Chinese Muslims, who did not
recognize the Ottoman Sultan as Caliph.

Muslim Commander Ma Fuxing

The Muslim General Ma Anliang personally joined the Kansu Braves as they
escorted the Imperial Court to safety. Ma Anliang had a long military career in
the Chinese Imperial Army, having previously led Chinese Imperial Army
Muslim troops to fight the Turkic Muslim Andijani Uzbek fighters of Yaqub
Beg, who was backed by the Ottoman Turks and the British.

Another General, Ma Yugun, who commanded a separate unit, was believed to be the son of the Muslim General Ma
Rulong by the Europeans. Ma Yugun fought with some success against Japan in the First Sino-Japanese War and in
the Boxer Rebellion at the Battle of Yangcun and Battle of Tientsin.[116][117] Ma Yugun was under General Song
Qing's command as deputy commander.[118]
Han troops
The Han Chinese Imperial army forces were led by Generals Nie
Shicheng, Ma Yukun, and Song Qing. Some of the Chinese Imperial
army forces fought the Boxers and the Alliance forces at the same
time. General Nie's army was one of these. The Boxers and General
Nie's army both beat the Alliance army under Seymour.[119]

Chinese troops in 1900

Boxer Rebellion

20

Manchu Bannermen
Three modernized divisions consisting of Manchu Banner armies protected the
Beijing Metropolitan region. Two of them wer under the command of the pro
foreign Ronglu and Prince Qing, while the Hushenying was commanded by the
anti foreign Prince Duan. Prince Qing declined to join the attack on the legations
and even ordered his own Manchu Bannermen to attack the Boxers and the
Muslim Kansu braves, while Prince Duan's Hushenying Manchu banners joined
the Kansu Braves and Boxers in attacking the foreigners and against Prince
Qing's banners. It was a Hushenying Manchu captain who assassinated the
German diplomat Ketteler. They were totally smashed at the end of the war and
left only the Muslim Kansu Braves to guard the Imperial court. Among the
Han General Nie Shicheng who
Manchu dead was the father of the writer Lao She. Prince Duan commanded his
fought both the Boxers and the Allies
own Manchu Bannermen division, Hushenying, "Marksmen for the Tiger Hunt,"
also known as the "Tiger Spirit Division" ( ). It had 10,000 troops in it. It was one of the three modernized
Manchu Banner Divisions. The Russians invaded Manchuria during the fighting. The defending Manchu bannermen
were annihilated as they fought to the death, their garrisons falling one at a time against a five pronged Russian
invasion. The Russians looted their villages and property and then burnt them to ashes.[120]

Controversies and changing views of the Boxers

From the beginning, views differed as to whether the Boxers were
better seen as anti-imperialist or as "uncivilized" and futile opponents
of inevitable change. The historian Joseph Esherick comments that
"confusion about the Boxer Uprising is not simply a matter of popular
misconceptions," for "there is no major incident in China's modern
history on which the range of professional interpretation is so
great."[121]
The failures of the Boxer Rebellion initially humiliated educated
Chinese nationalists, who disdained them for their superstition and
aggression. Dr. Sun Yat-sen, the founding father of the Republic of
China and of the Nationalist Party at first believed that the Boxer
Movement was stirred up by the Qing governments rumors, which
A company of Boxers in Tianjin.
caused confusion among the populace, and led to his scathing
criticism of the Boxers anti-foreignism and obscurantism. Sun
praised the Boxers for their "spirit of resistance" but called them "bandits," as many educated Chinese of his
generation did. Students of the time shared an ambivalent attitude to the Boxers, stating that while the uprising
originated from the "ignorant and stubborn people of the interior areas", their beliefs were "brave and righteous", and
could "be transformed into a moving force for independence".[122] After the fall of the Qing dynasty, nationalist
Chinese too became sympathetic to the Boxers. In 1918 Sun praised the Boxers for fighting against foreign
imperialism. He said the Boxers were courageous and fearless, fighting to the death against the Alliance
armies,specifically the Battle of Yangcun.[123] Chen Duxiu forgave the "barbarism of the Boxer... given the crime
foreigners committed in China", and contended that it was those "subservient to the foreigners" that truly "deserved
our resentment".[124]
Views of the Boxers Chinese were complex and contentious even among certain foreigners. Mark Twain said that
"the Boxer is a patriot. He loves his country better than he does the countries of other people. I wish him

Boxer Rebellion
success."[125] The Russian writer Leo Tolstoy also praised the Boxers. He was harshly critical of the atrocities he
heard reports of being committed by the Russians and other western troops. He accused them of engaging in
slaughter when he heard reports about the lootings, rapes, and murders, in what he saw as Christian brutality. He
accused Nicholas II of Russia and Wilhelm II of Germany of being chiefly responsible.[126]
In the People's Republic of China, orthodox textbooks used to analyze the Boxer movement as an anti-imperialist,
patriotic peasant movement whose failure was due to the lack of leadership from the modern working class. In recent
decades, however, large-scale projects of village interviews and explorations of archival sources have led historians
to take a more nuanced view. Some non-Chinese scholars, such as Joseph Esherick, have seen the movement as
anti-imperialist; while others view this interpretation as anachronistic in that the Chinese nation had not been formed
and the Boxers were more concerned with regional issues. Paul Cohen's recent history includes a survey of "the
Boxers as myth," showing how their memory was used in changing ways in 20th-century China from the New
Culture Movement to the Cultural Revolution.[127]
In recent years the Boxers have been debated in the People's Republic, Hong Kong, and Taiwan. The philosopher
Tang Junyi viewed the Boxer Uprising as a religious war between the Chinese and Christianity.[128] In 1998, the
critical scholar Wang Yi argued that the Boxers had features in common with the Cultural Revolution. Both events
had the external goal of liquidating all harmful pests and the domestic goal of eliminating bad elements of all
descriptions and this relation was rooted in cultural obscurantism. Wang traced the changes in attitudes towards
the Boxers from the condemnation of the May Fourth Movement to the approval expressed by Mao Zedong during
the Cultural Revolution.[129] In 2006 Yuan Weishi, a professor of philosophy at Zhongshan University in
Guangzhou, criticized the official government-issued middle schools history textbooks. Yuan wrote that the Boxers
by their "criminal actions brought unspeakable suffering to the nation and its people! These are all facts that
everybody knows, and it is a national shame that the Chinese people cannot forget."[130] For many years, history text
books had been lacking in neutrality in presenting the Boxer Rebellion as a "magnificent feat of patriotism", and not
presenting the view that the majority of the Boxer rebels were both violent and xenophobic.[131] These views were
criticized and some labeled Yuan Weishi "Hanjian" ( , betrayer of the Han).[132]

Terminology of the Boxers: "rebellion" or "uprising"?

The first reports coming from China in 1898 referred to the village activists as Yihequan, (Wade-Giles: I Ho
Ch'uan). The first known use of the term "Boxer" was September 1899 in a letter from missionary Grace Newton in
Shangdong. It appears from context that "Boxer" was a known term by that time, possibly coined by the Shandong
missionaries Arthur H. Smith and Henry Porter.[133] Smith says in his book of 1902 that the name
I Ho Ch'uan... literally denotes the 'Fists' (Ch'uan) of Righteousness (or Public) (I) Harmony (Ho), in
apparent allusion to the strength of united force which was to be put forth. As the Chinese phrase 'fists
and feet' signifies boxing and wrestling, there appeared to be no more suitable term for the adherents of
the sect than 'Boxers,' a designation first used by one or two missionary correspondents of foreign
journals in China, and later universally accepted on account of the difficulty of coining a better one.[134]
On 6 June 1900 the Times of London used the term rebellion in quotation marks, presumably to indicate their view
that the rising was in fact instigated by the Empress Dowager.[135] The historian Lanxin Xiang refers to the so called
Boxer Rebellion, and explains that while peasant rebellion was nothing new in Chinese history, a war against the
worlds most powerful states was.[136] The name Boxer Rebellion, concludes Joseph Esherick, another recent
historian, is truly a misnomer, for the Boxers never rebelled against the Manchu rulers of China and their Qing
dynasty and the most common Boxer slogan, throughout the history of the movement, was support the Qing,
destroy the Foreign. He adds that only after the movement was suppressed by the Allied Intervention did both the
foreign powers and influential Chinese officials realize that the Qing would have to remain as government of China
in order to maintain order and collect taxes to pay the indemnity. Therefore in order to save face for the Empress
Dowager and the Manchu court, the argument was made that the Boxers were rebels and that support from the court

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Boxer Rebellion
came only from a few Manchu princes. Esherick concludes that the origin of the term rebellion was purely
political and opportunistic, but it has shown a remarkable staying power, particularly in popular accounts.[137]
Other recent Western works refer to the "Boxer Movement," "Boxer War," or Yihetuan Movement.
Chinese studies use (Yihetuan yundong), that is, "Yihetuan Movement."

In fiction
Probably the first reference to the Boxer Rebellion was made in the Polish play The Wedding by Stanisaw
Wyspiaski, first published on 16 March 1901, even before the rebellion was finally crushed. The character of
Czepiec asks the Journalist (Dziennikarz) one of the best-known questions in the history of Polish literature: "Cz
tam, panie, w polityce? Chiczyki trzymaj si mocno!? ("How are things in politics, Mister? Are the Chinese
holding out firmly!?").[138]
G. A. Henty, With the Allies to Pekin, a Tale of the Relief of the Legations (New York: Scribners, 1903; London:
Blackie, 1904). Juvenile fiction by a widely read author, depicting the Boxers as "a mob of ruffians".
A falsified diary, Diary of his Excellency Ching-Shan: Being a Chinese Account of the Boxer Troubles, including
text written by Edmund Backhouse, who said he recovered the document from a burnt building. It is suspected
that Backhouse falsified the document, as well as other stories, because he was prone to tell tales dubious in
nature, including claims of nightly visits to the Empress Dowager Cixi.
The rebellion is mentioned in the Herg Tintin story "The Blue Lotus" by Tintin's Chinese friend Chang
Chong-Chen when they first meet after Tintin saves the boy from drowning. It is a pivotal and poignant moment
relating to the views Chinese and European people had of each other at the time. The boy asks Tintin why he
saved him from drowning as, according to Chang's uncle who fought in the Rebellion, all white people were
wicked.
The novel Moment In Peking (1939), by Lin Yutang, opens during the Boxer Rebellion, and provides a child's-eye
view of the turmoil through the eyes of the protagonist.
The Douglas Reeman novel The First to Land (New York, 1984), part of the Bluewood saga, depicts an officer of
Royal Marines during the siege of Peking.
The Diamond Age or, A Young Lady's Illustrated Primer (New York, 1996), by Neal Stephenson, includes a
quasi-historical re-telling of the Boxer Rebellion as an integral component of the novel
The novel The Palace of Heavenly Pleasure (2003), by Adam Williams, describes the experiences of a small
group of foreign missionaries, traders and railway engineers in a fictional town in northern China shortly before
and during the Boxer Rebellion.
The Last Empress (Boston, 2007), by Anchee Min, describes the long reign of the Empress Dowager Cixi in
which the siege of the legations is one of the climactic events in the novel.
In the videogame Bioshock Infinite, the fictional 'floating city' of Columbia was said to be involved in the Boxer
rebellion by gunning down Chinese civilians.

Film, stage, and television

The 1937 movie Alarm in Peking was a German adventure film with the Boxer rebellion as background. Starring
Gustav Frhlich, it was shot in Berlin and internationally released in Portugal, Norway, the Netherlands, and in
Japan, in 1937 and 1938.
The 1963 film 55 Days at Peking was a dramatization of the Boxer rebellion starring Charlton Heston, Ava
Gardner and David Niven. Shot in Spain, it needed thousands of Chinese extras, and the company sent scouts
throughout Spain to hire as many as they could find.[139]
In 1975 Hong Kong's Shaw Brothers studio produced the film Boxer Rebellion ( , Pa kuo lien chun)
under director Chang Cheh with one of the highest budgets to tell a sweeping story of disillusionment and
revenge.[140] It depicted followers of the Boxer clan being duped into believing they were impervious to attacks

22

Boxer Rebellion

by firearms. The film starred Alexander Fu Sheng, Chi Kuan Chun, Wang Lung-Wei and Richard Harrison.
In 1981, Hong Kong's Shaw Brothers released Legendary Weapons of China under director Lau Kar Leung, this
one more of a comedy starring Hsiao Ho (Hsiao Hou) as a disillusioned boxer of the Magic Clan who is sent to
assassinate the former leader of a powerful boxer clan who refuses to dupe his students into believing they are
impervious to firearms.
In the Buffy the Vampire Slayer episode "Fool for Love" (2001) Spike recounts his killing of a Slayer at the Boxer
Rebellion, and the following Angel episode "Darla" shows the same events from Darla's point of view.
The 2003 movie, Shanghai Knights, starring Jackie Chan and Owen Wilson, shows that the Boxers still exist,
working for Lord Rathbone, who wants to assassinate many members of the British Royal Family.
The movie Fearless / Huo Yuan Jia (Original title) (2006), by "Ronny Yu", featuring Jet Li as "Huo Yuan Jia" is
a biopic of master Huo's life from 1869-1910 and describes the creation of the "Chin Woo Athletic Association".
In the movie Huo defeats enemies from different imperialistic nations of the time in a competition that was meant
to ridicule China. Based on historical events, the movie alludes to the creation of The Association of Heavenly
Fists and one can infer that the boxer rebellion occurred after these events because Huo's actions inspired the
Chinese people to rise in defiance. After his death, Huo became a national hero and is remembered to this day as a
symbol of national pride and unity.

In the Dad's Army episode Museum Piece Jones and Walker find a rocket-artillery launcher used against the
Boxers (to which Jones replies "the poor creatures!"). Back at the Church Hall Jones and Walker show the
weapon to the rest of the Platoon but Mainwaring says they'll take it back to the museum as it's too antiquated,
claiming something like "warfare has progressed a bit since the rocket".
In Torchwood: Miracle Day episode, "The Blood Line", Jack Harkness tells Gwen Cooper and Oswald Danes that
he was in China for the Boxer Rebellion.

In art
The rebellion was covered in the foreign illustrated press by artists and photographers. Paintings and prints were also
published including Japanese wood-blocks.[141]

Bibliography and further reading

Further reading
In addition to the specialized studies below, there are useful accounts in most of the general surveys of modern
China. Among the texts with fuller coverage are Jonathan Spence, In Search of Modern China (New York: Norton,
1990; revised edition 1999) which puts the movement in the context of developing Chinese nationalism and
Immanuel Hsu, The Rise of Modern China (New York: Oxford University Press, various editions), which is
especially strong on the international diplomacy. Diana Preston's book (below) is the most recent popular history.
Peter Fleming, Fifty Five Days at Peking (below) tells the exciting story of the Boxer summer from the point of view
of the foreigners. The newer scholarly studies begin the task of presenting various points of view of Chinese at the
time.

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Boxer Rebellion

General accounts and analysis

Robert A. Bickers and R. G. Tiedemann, eds., The Boxers, China, and the World. Lanham: Rowman &
Littlefield, 2007. ISBN 978-0-7425-5394-1. A collection of articles from fresh viewpoints which "explores the
causes of the Boxer Uprising and the ... the Boxer War," reportage in the world press, looting, and the "impact on
the foreign imagination."
Robert A. Bickers, The Scramble for China: Foreign Devils in the Qing Empire, 18001914 (London: Allen
Lane, 2011). Vividly tells the story of foreign intervention in China and the people on both sides, with extensive
notes and comments on sources.
David D. Buck, "Recent Studies of the Boxer Movement," Chinese Studies in History 20 (1987). Introduction to a
special issue of the journal devoted to translations of recent research on the Boxers in the People's Republic.
Cohen, Paul A. (1997). History in Three Keys: The Boxers as Event, Experience, and Myth Columbia University
Press. online edition [142]. Influential study which views Boxer "history" as event, as experience, and as myth or
memory. Includes both a brief narrative of the Boxer movement and how it was viewed and reinterpreted over the
course of the 20th century.
Esherick, Joseph W. (1987). The Origins of the Boxer Uprising University of California Press. ISBN
0-520-06459-3. A key work in revising scholarly views of the Boxers by using anthropological views of the
Boxers as motivated by religion and new research from the People's Republic of China, including oral histories.
Elliott, Jane E. Some Did It for Civilisation, Some Did It for Their Country: A Revised View of the Boxer War.
Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press, 2002. ISBN 962-201-973-0. Challenges earlier views that China was
militarily incompetent and lacked moern patriotism. David D. Buck, "Review," The China Quarterly 173 (2003):
234237. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/20058979> calls this a strong "revisionist" account but will require more
evidence.
Harrington, Peter (2001). Peking 1900: The Boxer Rebellion. Oxford: Osprey. p.96. ISBN1-84176-181-8.
Illustrated history emphasizing the military intervention.
*O'Connor,Richard. The Spirit Soldiers: A historical narrative of the Boxer Rebellion Putnam's, NY.1973. Relies
on now outdated English sources to produce a lively narrative.
Preston, Diana (2000). The Boxer Rebellion. Berkley Books, New York. ISBN 0-425-18084-0. online edition
[143]
; British title: Besieged in Peking: The Story of the 1900 Boxer Rising (London: Constable, 1999) A well
balanced popular history using recent English language scholarship.
Purcell, Victor (1963). The Boxer Uprising: A background study. online edition [144] The first Western scholar to
use extensive Chinese sources, but the conclusion that the Boxers were a continuation of earlier Secret Societies is
no longer accepted.
David Silbey. The Boxer Rebellion and the Great Game in China. New York: Hill and Wang, 2012. 273p. ISBN
9780809094776.
Xiang, Lanxin (2003). The Origins of the Boxer War: A Multinational Study. Psychology Press. ISBN
0-7007-1563-0. Detailed Examination of the sources and the international diplomacy of the war set off by the
Boxer siege of the Legations arguing that the war was not inevitable, but grew out of the court's (ungrounded) fear
of foreign intervention.
"In Our Time - discussion show on The Boxer Rebellion" [145]. BBC Radio4.

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Boxer Rebellion

Missionary experience and personal accounts

Brandt, Nat (1994). Massacre in Shansi. Syracuse University Press. ISBN 0-8156-0282-0. The story of the
Oberlin missionaries at Taigu, Shanxi.
Broomhall, Marshall (1901). Martyred Missionaries of The China Inland Mission; With a Record of The Perils
and Sufferings of Some Who Escaped [146]. London: Morgan and Scott.. A contemporary account.
Price, Eva Jane. China Journal, 18891900: An American Missionary Family During the Boxer Rebellion,
(1989). ISBN 0-684-19851-8. Review: Susanna Ashton, "Compound Walls: Eva Jane Price's Letters from a
Chinese Mission, 18901900." Frontiers 1996 17(3): 8094. ISSN: 0160-9009. The journal of the events leading
up to the deaths of the Price family.
Sharf, Frederic A., and Peter Harrington (2000). China 1900: The Eyewitnesses Speak. London: Greenhill. ISBN
1-85367-410-9. Excerpts from German, British, Japanese, and American soldiers, diplomats, and journalists.
Sharf, Frederic A., and Peter Harrington (2000). China 1900: The Artists' Perspective. London: Greenhill. ISBN
1-85367-409-5
Thompson, Larry Clinton.0786440082 William Scott Ament and the Boxer Rebellion: Heroism, Hubris, and the
"Ideal Missionary". [147] Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2009. Well balanced biography of a missionary of the
ABCFM who was controversial for his tactics in gathering reparations for Chinese and western victims of the
Boxers.

The allied intervention, the Boxer War, and the aftermath

Lynn E. Bodin and Christopher Warner. The Boxer Rebellion. London: Osprey, Men-at-Arms Series 95, 1979.
ISBN 0-85045-335-6 (pbk.) Illustrated history of the military campaign.
Fleming, Peter. The Siege at Peking. New York: Dorset Press. 1990 (originally published 1959). ISBN
0-88029-462-0. A classic narrative of the summer of 1900 from the foreign point of view.
James L. Hevia, "Leaving a Brand on China: Missionary Discourse in the Wake of the Boxer Movement,"
Modern China 18.3 (1992): 304332.
James Hevia. English Lessons: The Pedagogy of Imperialism in Nineteenth-Century China. Durham; Hong Kong:
Duke University Press; Hong Kong University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-8223-3151-9
Michael H. Hunt, "The American Remission of the Boxer Indemnity: A Reappraisal," Journal of Asian Studies 31
(Spring 1972): 539559.
Michael H. Hunt, "The Forgotten Occupation: Peking, 19001901," Pacific Historical Review 48.4 (November
1979): 501529.

Accounts and sources from the time

We can now search the online archives of many newspapers, magazines, and journals from the time which give us
vivid and detailed accounts. These must be used with care to sort out the genuine on the spot insights from claims
which are not reliable. As Robert Bickers warns, "there was a dearth of authenticity in this much faked war,
characterized and impelled as it was by forgery and wild rumor." One newspaper editor claimed that "half the
telegrams were deliberately 'faked'," and much of what was printed was not true.[148] Among the books which can be
accessed through Google Books and other indexes are:
Broomhall, Marshall (1901). Martyred Missionaries of The China Inland Mission; With a Record of The Perils
and Sufferings of Some Who Escaped [146]. London: Morgan and Scott.. A contemporary account.
Sarah Pike Conger, Letters from China with Particular Reference to the Empress Dowager and the Women of
China (Chicago: A.C. McClurg, 2d, 1909). Electronic resource:[149]
E. H. Edwards, Fire and Sword in Shansi: The Story of the Martyrdom of Foreigners and Chinese Christians
(New York: Revell, 1903).[150]

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Boxer Rebellion
Isaac Taylor Headland, Chinese Heroes; Being a Record of Persecutions Endured by Native Christians in the
Boxer Uprising (New York,Cincinnati: Eaton & Mains; Jennings & Pye, 1902). ISBN 02029920
Arnold Henry Savage Landor, China and the Allies (New York: Scribner's, 1901). 01008198 Google Book[151]
Pierre Loti, The Last Days of Pekin (Boston: Little, Brown, and Co., 1902: tr. of Les Derniers Jours De Pkin
(Paris: Lvy, 1900). Google Book:[152]
W. A. P. Martin, The Siege in Peking, China against the World (New York,: F. H. Revell company, 1900).Google
Book.[153]
Putnam Weale, Bertram Lenox, (1907). Indiscreet Letters from Peking: Being the Notes of an Eyewitness, Which
Set Forth in Some Detail, From Day to Day, The Real Story of the Siege and Sack of a Distressed Capital in
1900 The Year of Great Tribulation. Dodd, Mead. A vivid account by a British journalist who probably did not
see all that he claimed to.
Arthur H.Smith, China in Convulsion (New York: F. H. Revell Co., 1901). ISBN 01027588. Vol. I Google
Book.[154] A detailed, often cited account of the Boxers and the siege by a missionary who had lived in a North
China village.

Notes
[1] Spence, In Search of Modern China, pp. 230235; Keith Schoppa, Revolution and Its Past, pp. 118123.
[2] Kazuko Ono (1989). Chinese women in a century of revolution, 18501950 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=o-L1ctqjxNgC& pg=PA48&
dq=efforts+ gospel+ missionaries+ white+ person+ imperialism+ seize+ land+ and+ property+ for+ churches+ perverse+
demands#v=snippet& q=workers who had lost their lands and jobs with the inroads made by imperialism and China's endemic natural
disasters& f=false). Stanford University Press. p.49. ISBN0-8047-1497-5. . Retrieved 2010-10-31.
[3] " " (http:/ / www. qinghistory. cn/ tws/ qsyj/ ztyj/ shs/ 2006-01-23/ 30913. shtml). Qinghistory.cn. 2009-11-09. .
Retrieved 2012-09-06.
[4] Thompson, Larry Clinton (2009-01). William Scott Ament and the Boxer Rebellion: heroism, hubris and the " Ideal Missionary" (http:/ /
books. google. com/ ?id=5K9BN96p1hcC& printsec=frontcover& dq=Boxer+ Rebellion#v=onepage& q& f=false). McFarland & Company.
ISBN978-0-7864-4008-5. .
[5] Lanxin Xiang (2003). The origins of the Boxer War: a multinational study (http:/ / books. google. com/ booksid=lAxresT12ogC&
pg=PA112& dq=german+ stenz+ + kaiser+ china#v=onepage& q=christian converts falsified lawsuits& f=false). Psychology Press. p.114.
ISBN0-7007-1563-0. . Retrieved 2010-06-28.
[6] "accessed 9 February 2011" (http:/ / www. bu. edu/ mille/ people/ rlpages/ millennialism-mw-encyl. html). Bu.edu. . Retrieved 2012-09-06.
[7] Sterling Seagrave, Peggy Seagrave (1992). Dragon lady: the life and legend of the last empress of China (http:/ / books. google. com/
?id=J07_tPJu9M8C& dq=in+ November+ 1897+ a+ particularly+ aggressive+ German+ priest+ named+ George+ Stenz+ so+ outraged+
villagers+ in+ the& q=magistrate+ yu+ hsien+ big+ swords+ collaring). Knopf. p.294. ISBN978-0-679-73369-0. . Retrieved 2010-06-28.
[8] Paul A. Cohen (1997). History in three keys: the boxers as event, experience, and myth (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=ky4_whmgIZcC& pg=PA19& dq=bandits+ after+ suffering+ defeat+ at+ big+ swords+ claimed+ membership+ in+ the+ catholic+
church#v=onepage& q=bandits after suffering defeat at big swords claimed membership in the catholic church& f=false). Columbia
University Press. p.19. ISBN0-231-10651-3. . Retrieved 2010-06-28.
[9] Paul A. Cohen (1997). History in three keys: the boxers as event, experience, and myth (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=jVESdBSMasMC& pg=PA114& dq=big+ swords+ bandits+ converted#v=onepage& q& f=false). Columbia University Press.
p.114. ISBN0-231-10651-3. . Retrieved 2010-06-28.
[10] Paul A. Cohen (1997). History in three keys: the boxers as event, experience, and myth (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=ky4_whmgIZcC& pg=PA30& lpg=PA30& dq=One+ Boxer+ leader,+ Zhu+ Hongteng#v=onepage& q& f=false). Columbia
University Press. p.30. ISBN0-231-10651-3. . Retrieved 2010-06-28.
[11] Lanxin Xiang (2003). The origins of the Boxer War: a multinational study (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=lAxresT12ogC&
pg=PA115& dq=Zhu+ Hongteng+ ming+ boxer#v=onepage& q& f=false). Psychology Press. p.115. ISBN0-7007-1563-0. . Retrieved
2010-06-28.
[12] Thompson, 9
[13] Joseph Esherick (1988). The origins of the Boxer Uprising (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=jVESdBSMasMC& pg=PA363&
dq=george+ stenz#v=onepage& q=george stenz hacked nies and henle& f=false). Berkeley California: University of California Press. p.123.
ISBN0-520-06459-3. . Retrieved 2010-06-28.
[14] Joseph Esherick, The Origins of the Boxer Uprising (1987), pp. 14344 and 163.
[15] Spence (1999) pp. 231232.
[16] "Imperialism, for Christ's Sake," Ch. 3 , Esherick, The Origins of the Boxer Uprising, pp. 6895.
[17] Thompson, 12

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Boxer Rebellion
[18] Thompson, Larry Clinton. William Scott Ament and the Boxer Rebellion: Heroism, Hubris, and the Ideal Missionary. Jefferson, NC:
McFarland, 2009, 78
[19] Thompson, 42.
[20] Weale, B. L. (Bertram Lenox Simpson), Indiscreet Letters from Peking. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1907, pp. 501.
[21] Morrison, p. 270
[22] Sterling Seagrave, Peggy Seagrave (1992). Dragon lady: the life and legend of the last empress of China (http:/ / books. google. com/
?id=tURwAAAAMAAJ& q=kansu+ braves+ baron+ von& dq=kansu+ braves+ baron+ von). Knopf. p.320. . Retrieved 2010-06-28.
[23] Sterling (1914). The Atlantic monthly (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=rcdkmohiuuQC& pg=PA80& dq=kansu+ braves&
cd=2#v=onepage& q=kansu braves). 113. Making of America Project. p.80. . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
[24] Joseph Esherick (1988). The origins of the Boxer Uprising (http:/ / books. google. com. hk/ books?id=jVESdBSMasMC& lpg=PA289&
dq=Perhaps their magic is not to be relied upon& pg=PA289#v=onepage& q=hearts and minds were with the Boxers& f=false). University of
California Press. p.289. ISBN0-520-06459-3. . Retrieved 2010-06-28.
[25] Grant Hayter-Menzies (2008). Imperial masquerade: the legend of Princess Der Ling (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=sNPFc7kkjwAC& pg=PA88& dq=muslim+ dong+ fuxiang#v=onepage& q=muslim troops of general dong fuxiang young boxers
older ones& f=false). Hong Kong University Press. p.88. ISBN962-209-881-9. . Retrieved 2010-10-31.
[26] Grant Hayter-Menzies, (2008). Imperial masquerade: the legend of Princess Der Ling (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=sNPFc7kkjwAC& pg=PA88& dq=muslim+ dong+ fuxiang#v=onepage& q=ronglu protect safety barricaded& f=false). Hong Kong
University Press. p.89. ISBN962-209-881-9. . Retrieved 2010-10-31.
[27] Keith Laidler (2003). The Last Empress: The She-Dragon of China (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=QLPZ7294oSIC& pg=PA221&
dq=have+ started+ the+ aggression,+ and+ the+ extinction+ of+ our+ nation+ is+ imminent+ + no+ face+ ancestors+ death& hl=en& sa=X&
ei=oGsLT5rpEqHu0gGY29nuBQ& ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=tight lipped& f=false). John Wiley & Sons. p.221.
ISBN0-470-86426-5. . Retrieved 1-9-2011. "Unexpectedly, a second Imperial Council was summoned, where Yehonala, black-faced and
tight-lipped, announced that she had now received a four-point demand from the foreign governments. The Powers now required that the
Emperor be given a special place of residence; that all revenues should be gathered by the foreign ministers; and that all military affairs be
overseen by foreign representatives. . . These demands amounted to the destruction of the regime"
[28] Chester C. Tan (1967). The Boxer catastrophe (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?ei=oGsLT5rpEqHu0gGY29nuBQ&
id=_gcOAQAAMAAJ& dq=have+ started+ the+ aggression,+ and+ the+ extinction+ of+ our+ nation+ is+ imminent+ + no+ face+ ancestors+
death& q=extinction+ nation) (reprint ed.). Octagon Books. p.73. ISBN0-374-97752-6. . Retrieved 1-9-2011. "affairs to be committed to
their hands. The fourth point was not mentioned. She then made the following statement: " Now they [the Powers] have started the aggression,
and the extinction of our nation is imminent. If we just fold our arms and yield to them, I would have no face to see our ancestors after death.
If"
[29] Richard O'Connor (1973). The spirit soldiers: a historical narrative of the Boxer Rebellion (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?ei=oGsLT5rpEqHu0gGY29nuBQ& id=P4NxAAAAMAAJ& dq=have+ started+ the+ aggression,+ and+ the+ extinction+ of+ our+
nation+ is+ imminent+ + no+ face+ ancestors+ death& q=extinction+ imminent) (illustrated ed.). Putnam. p.85. . Retrieved 1-9-2011. "3. All
military operations were to be controlled by the foreign . . .Council: "Now they have started the aggression, and the extinction of our nation is
imminent. If we just fold our arms and yield to them, I would have no face to see our ancestors after death. If we must perish, why not fight to
the death? She then elaborated on the great benefits the Manchu dynasty had conferred upon China and predicted that the grateful Chinese
would flock to her banners by the millions. "I have always been of the opinion," she added, "that the allied armies had been permitted to
escape too easily in 1860. Only a united effort was then necessary to have given China the victory. Today, at last, the opportunity for revenge
has come.""
[30] Peter Harrington, Michael Perry (2001). Peking 1900: the Boxer rebellion (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=xxE6rybpvHQC&
pg=PA25& lpg=PA25& dq=kansu+ braves+ imperialist+ western& source=bl& ots=0_hG3LCTop&
sig=g8dXvkcG3h8ePNCZWTFLyRIfMjk& hl=en#v=onepage& q=Small fraction mobilised neutral fought& f=false). Oxford: Osprey
Publishing. p.25. ISBN1-84176-181-8. . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
[31] "The Gathering Storm," Ch 7, "Prairie Fire," Ch 10 Esherick, pp. 167205, 271313.
[32] Keith Laidler (2003). The Last Empress: The She-Dragon of China (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=QLPZ7294oSIC& dq=have+
started+ the+ aggression,+ and+ the+ extinction+ of+ our+ nation+ is+ imminent+ + no+ face+ ancestors+ death& q=That+ same+ day+ an+
edict+ commanded+ that+ 'young+ and+ strong+ Boxers'+ should+ be+ recuirted+ into+ the+ army. + It+ seems+ that+ Yehonala+ had+
taken+ on+ board+ some+ of+ the+ moderates'+ views+ and+ that+ she+ was+ attempting+ to+ assimilate+ the+ potentially+ dangerous+
Boxer+ mob+ by+ drawing+ off+ the+ best+ of+ their+ number+ into+ the+ armed+ forces,+ where+ they+ could+ be+ subject+ to+ military+
discipline. #v=snippet& q=young strong recruited& f=false). John Wiley & Sons. p.221. ISBN0-470-86426-5. . Retrieved 1-9-2011. "That
same day an edict commanded that 'young and strong Boxers' should be recruited into the army. It seems that Yehonala had taken on board
some of the moderates' views and that she was attempting to assimilate the potentially dangerous Boxer mob by drawing off the best of their
number into the armed forces, where they could be subject to military discipline."
[33] Chester C. Tan (1967). The Boxer catastrophe (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?ei=oGsLT5rpEqHu0gGY29nuBQ&
id=_gcOAQAAMAAJ& dq=have+ started+ the+ aggression,+ and+ the+ extinction+ of+ our+ nation+ is+ imminent+ + no+ face+ ancestors+
death& q=instructions+ mukden+ speed) (reprint ed.). Octagon Books. p.73. ISBN0-374-97752-6.76. . Retrieved 1-9-2011.
[34] Thompson, 8485
[35] Thompson, 85, 170171

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Boxer Rebellion
[36] "Destruction Of Chinese Books In The Peking Siege Of 1900. Donald G. Davis, Jr. University of Texas at Austin, USA Cheng Huanwen
Zhongshan University, PRC" (http:/ / www. ifla. org/ IV/ ifla62/ 62-davd. htm). International Federation of Library Association. . Retrieved 26
October 2008.
[37] Smith, Arthur H. China in Convulsion. 2 vols. New York: Fleming H. Revell, 1901, pp. 316317
[38] Weale, Putnam. Indiscreet Letters from Peking. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1907, pp. 142143
[39] Payen, Cecile E. Besieged in Peking. The Century Magazine, January 1901, pp 458460
[40] Myers, Captain John T. Military Operations and Defenses of the Siege of Peking. Proceedings of the U.S. Naval Institute, September 1902,
pp. 54250.
[41] Oliphant, Nigel, A Diary of the Siege of the Legations in Peking. London: Longman, Greens, 1901, pp 7880
[42] Martin, W.A.P. The Siege in Peking. New York:Fleming H. Revell, 1900, p. 83
[43] Fleming, 157
[44] Fleming, 157158
[45] Thompson, Peter and Macklin, Robert The Man who Died Twice: The Life and Adventures of Morrison of Peking. Crows Nest, Australia:
Allen & Unwin, 2005, pp 190191
[46] Conger, Sarah Pike, Letters from China. Chicago: A.C. McClurg, 1910, p. 135
[47] Fleming, 220221
[48] Paul A. Cohen (1997). story in three keys: the boxers as event, experience, and myth (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=8hiGU_tJEocC&
pg=PA54& dq=yangcun+ dong+ fuxiang#v=onepage& q=ronglu not boxers made sure siege was never pressed home& f=false). Columbia
University Press. p.54. ISBN0-231-10650-5. . Retrieved 2010-06-28.
[49] X. L. Woo (2002). Empress dowager Cixi: China's last dynasty and the long reign of a formidable concubine: legends and lives during the
declining days of the Qing Dynasty (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=GiqiIYdocKMC& pg=PA216& dq=ronglu+ legations#v=onepage&
q=ronglu legations& f=false). Algora Publishing. p.216. ISBN1-892941-88-0. . Retrieved 2010-06-28.
[50] Lanxin Xiang (2003). The origins of the Boxer War: a multinational study (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=lAxresT12ogC& pg=PA235&
dq=ronglu+ supplies+ legations#v=onepage& q& f=false). Psychology Press. p.235. ISBN0-7007-1563-0. . Retrieved 2010-06-28.
[51] Jane E. Elliott (2002). Some did it for civilisation, some did it for their country: a revised view of the boxer war (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=wWvl9O4Gn1UC& q=li+ was+ well+ aware+ of+ marked+ value+ of+ weaponry#v=onepage& q=exposed himself to fire died&
f=false). Chinese University Press. p.499. ISBN962-996-066-4. . Retrieved 2010-06-28.
[52] Joseph Esherick, The Origins of the Boxer Uprising (1987), pp. 190191; Paul Cohen, History in Three Keys (1997), p. 51.
[53] Roger R. Thompson, "Reporting the Taiyuan Massacre: Culture and Politics in the China War of 1900," in Robert A. Bickers and R. G.
Tiedemann, ed., The Boxers, China, and the World (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007): 6592. Thompson points out that the widely
circulated accounts were by people who could not have seen the and that these accounts closely followed (often word for word) well known
earlier martyr literature.
[54] Nat Brandt, Massacre in Shansi (http:/ / books. google. com. hk/ books?id=R0GGv-Dio1MC& lpg=PP1& dq="massacre in shansi"&
hl=zh-CN& pg=PR13#v=onepage& q=tragedy& f=false), Syracuse University Press, p. xiii.
[55] Thompson, Larry Clinton. William Scott Ament and the Boxer Rebellion: Heroism, Hubris, and the Ideal Missionary. Jefferson, NC:
McFarland, 2009, p. 184
[56] Ying Bai & Kung, James Kai-sing. Diffusing Knowledge While Spreading God's Message: Protestantism and Economic Prosperity in
China, 1940-1920 (http:/ / isites. harvard. edu/ fs/ docs/ icb. topic951425. files/ Diffusing Knowledge. pdf). The Hong Kong University of
Science and Technology. September 2011. Retrieved 2 November 2011. p.3
[57] Robert B. Edgerton (1997). Warriors of the rising sun: a history of the Japanese military (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=wkHyjjbv-yEC& pg=PA70& dq=sugiyama+ akira#v=onepage& q=provocations by foreigners& f=false). W. W. Norton &
Company. p.70. ISBN0-393-04085-2. . Retrieved 2010-11-28.
[58] Preston, Boxer Rebellion, Ch. 15 "'Tour of Inspection'" pp. 253-261/
[59] Leonhard, Robert R.. "The China Relief Expedition Joint Coalition Warfare in China Summer 1900" (http:/ / www. jhuapl. edu/ ourwork/
nsa/ papers/ China ReliefSm. pdf). The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory. p.12. . Retrieved 31 October 2010.
[60] Account of the Seymour column in "The Boxer Rebellion", pgs 100104, Diane Preston.
[61] "Russojapanesewarweb" (http:/ / www. russojapanesewar. com/ boxers. html). Russojapanesewar.com. 1902-07-01. . Retrieved 2012-09-06.
[62] Thompson, 96
[63] Thompson, 177
[64] George Alexander Lensen (1967). The Russo-Chinese War (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=HvhEAAAAIAAJ& q=the+ bridges+
and+ the+ telegraph+ lines+ were+ damaged+ constantly+ and+ fire+ had+ been+ set+ that+ very+ day+ to+ the+ coal+ mines+ at+ Yen-t'ai&
dq=the+ bridges+ and+ the+ telegraph+ lines+ were+ damaged+ constantly+ and+ fire+ had+ been+ set+ that+ very+ day+ to+ the+ coal+
mines+ at+ Yen-t'ai). Diplomatic Press. p.14. . Retrieved 2010-11-28.
[65] Appletons' annual cyclopaedia and register of important events (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=DEwoAAAAMAAJ& pg=PA105&
dq=russian+ boxer+ invaded+ manchuria#v=onepage& q& f=false). D. Appleton.. 1901. p.105. . Retrieved 2010-06-28.
[66] Wilhelm II: "Hun Speech" (1900) German History in Documents and Images (GHDI) (http:/ / germanhistorydocs. ghi-dc. org/
sub_document. cfm?document_id=755)
[67] Thompson, 206207
[68] Thompson, 204

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[69] James L. Hevia, "Looting and Its Discontents: Moral Discourse and the Plunder of Beijing, 19001901," in Bickers and Tiedemann, ed., The
Boxers, China, and the World (2007): 94. This phrase "orgy of looting" also appears in many other books about the occupation of Beijing.
[70] Chamberlin, Wilbur J. letter to his wife (11 December 1900), in Ordered to China: Letters of Wilbur J. Chamberlin: Written from China
While Under Commission from the New York Sun During the Boxer Uprising of 1900 and the International Complications Which Followed,
(New York: Frederick A. Stokes, 1903), p. 191
[71] Thompson, 194197
[72] Thompson, 207208
[73] Fleming, The Siege at Peking, 136
[74] Thompson, 200, 204214
[75] Patricia Ebrey, Anne Walthall, James Palais (2008). East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History (http:/ / books. google. com/
?id=XtmzFZS_SX0C& pg=PA301& dq=Japanese+ soldiers+ watched+ with+ amazement+ as+ western+ troops+ ran+ amok+ for+ three+
days+ in+ an+ orgy+ of+ looting,+ rape,+ and+ murder#v=onepage& q=Japanese soldiers watched with amazement as western troops ran
amok for three days in an orgy of looting, rape, and murder& f=false). Cengage Learning. p.301. ISBN0-547-00534-2. . Retrieved
2010-10-31.
[76] Diana Preston (2000). The boxer rebellion: the dramatic story of China's war on foreigners that shook the world in the summer of 1900
(http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=iWxKQejMtlMC& pg=PA285& dq=boxer+ rebellion+ japanese+ regimental+ wives#v=onepage&
q=suicide legations relieved feared right women raped to death breast& f=false). Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p.284. ISBN0-8027-1361-0. .
Retrieved 2010-10-31.
[77] Joanna Waley-Cohen (2000). The Sextants of Beijing: Global Currents in Chinese History (http:/ / books. google. com/
?id=TeCYXRkc_UUC& pg=PA201& dq=boxer+ rebellion+ chinese+ christian+ rape#v=onepage& q& f=false). W. W. Norton & Company.
p.201. ISBN0-393-32051-0. . Retrieved 2010-10-31.
[78] Diana Preston (2000). The boxer rebellion: the dramatic story of China's war on foreigners that shook the world in the summer of 1900
(http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=iWxKQejMtlMC& pg=PA312& dq=neither+ was+ china+ required+ to+ surrender+ any+ territory+
Some+ members+ of+ the+ exiled+ court+ had+ urged+ her+ to+ continue+ the+ war,+ arguing+ that+ Peking+ and+ Tientsin+ had+ fallen+
because+ of+ traitors,+ that+ the+ allies+ could+ never+ penetrate+ the+ interior+ of+ China,+ and+ that+ if+ Tung+ Fu-hsiang+ were+
allowed+ to#v=onepage& q=neither was china required to surrender any territory Some members of the exiled court had urged her to continue
the war, arguing that Peking and Tientsin had fallen because of traitors, that the allies could never penetrate the interior of China, and that if
Tung Fu-hsiang were allowed to& f=false). Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p.312. ISBN0-8027-1361-0. . Retrieved 4 March 2011.
[79] Hsu, 481
[80] "Archive.org" (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ martyredmission02broogoog). Archive.org. 2001-03-10. . Retrieved 2012-09-06.
[81] Broomhall (1901), several pages
[82] Ann Heylen (2004). Chronique du Toumet-Ortos: looking through the lens of Joseph Van Oost, missionary in Inner Mongolia (19151921)
(http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=WSl5cl_wt24C& pg=PA203& dq=ma+ fuxiang+ gelaohui#v=onepage& q=ma fuxiang gelaohui& f=false).
Leuven, Belgium: Leuven University Press. p.409. ISBN90-5867-418-5. . Retrieved 2010-06-28.
[83] Patrick Taveirne (2004). Han-Mongol encounters and missionary endeavors: a history of Scheut in Ordos (Hetao) 18741911 (http:/ /
books. google. com/ ?id=z2japTNPRNAC& pg=PA539& dq=prince+ mongol+ general+ whole+ affair+ hoax+ catholic#v=snippet& q=dong
fuxiang reportedly catholic mongol duan & f=false). Leuven, Belgium: Leuven University Press. p.684. ISBN90-5867-365-0. . Retrieved
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[84] James Hastings, John Alexander Selbie, Louis Herbert Gray (1916). Encyclopdia of religion and ethics, Volume 8 (http:/ / books. google.
com/ ?id=eEwTAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA893& dq=ma+ fu+ hsiang+ mongol#v=onepage& q=bodyguard death titles restored remians buried
highest honours& f=false). T. & T. Clark. p.894. . Retrieved 2010-06-28.
[85] Travels Of A Consular Officer In North-West China (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=fdk8AAAAIAAJ& pg=PA188& dq=ma+ fu+
hsiang+ + mongol+ an-liang#v=onepage& q=prince tuan boxer leader retired alashan& f=false). CUP Archive. p.188. . Retrieved
2010-06-28.
[86] Mu, Eric. Reformist Emperor Guangxu was Poisoned, Study Confirms" (http:/ / www. danwei. org/ front_page_of_the_day/ kindergarden.
php). Danwei. 3 November 2008. Retrieved 2 November 2011.
[87] Woods, Thomas (2005-07-07) Presidential War Powers (http:/ / www. lewrockwell. com/ woods/ woods45. html), LewRockwell.com
[88] Schlesinger, Arthur. The Imperial Presidency (Popular Library 1974), pg. 96.
[89] Jane E. Elliott (2002). Some did it for civilisation, some did it for their country: a revised view of the boxer war (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=wWvl9O4Gn1UC& q=all+ things+ modern#v=snippet& q=railway telegraph boxers cutting& f=false). Chinese University Press.
pp.480, 22. ISBN962-996-066-4. . Retrieved 2010-06-28.
[90] Victor Purcell (2010). The Boxer Uprising: A Background Study (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=2MeUoD9G9xAC& pg=PA212&
lpg=PA212& dq=li+ laichung+ boxer#v=onepage& q& f=false). Cambridge University Press. p.212. ISBN0-521-14812-X. . Retrieved 12
November 2010.
[91] Arthur Henderson Smith (1901). China in convulsion, Volume 2 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=WmAuAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA452-IA1&
dq=tung+ fu-hsiang+ japanese+ bodyguard& q=tung+ fu+ hsiang+ regular+ troops+ rifles#v=onepage& q=loopholes shooting at foreigner&
f=false). F. H. Revell Co.. p.770. . Retrieved 2010-06-28.
[92] United States. Adjutant-General's Office. Military Information Division (1901). Publication, Issue 33 Document (United States. War Dept.)
(http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=T6VAAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA533& dq=June+ 15,+ it+ was+ learned+ that+ the+ mouth+ of+ the+

29

Boxer Rebellion
river+ was+ protected+ by+ electric+ mines,+ that+ the+ forts+ at+ Taku+ were#v=onepage& q=June 15, it was learned that the mouth of the
river was protected by electric mines, that the forts at Taku were& f=false). G.P.O.. p.533. . Retrieved 19 February 2011.
[93] United States. Adjutant-General's Office. Military Information Division, Stephen L'H. Slocum, Carl Reichmann, Adna Romanga Chaffee
(1901). Reports on military operations in South Africa and China. July, 1901 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Hj8UAAAAIAAJ&
pg=PA533& dq=June+ 15,+ it+ was+ learned+ that+ the+ mouth+ of+ the+ river+ was+ protected+ by+ electric+ mines,+ that+ the+ forts+
at+ Taku+ were#v=onepage& q=June 15, it was learned that the mouth of the river was protected by electric mines, that the forts at Taku
were& f=false). Govt. print. off.. p.533. . Retrieved 19 February 2011.
[94] Monro MacCloskey (1969). Reilly's Battery: a story of the Boxer Rebellion (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=UHbxAAAAMAAJ&
dq=June+ 15,+ it+ was+ learned+ that+ the+ mouth+ of+ the+ river+ was+ protected+ by+ electric+ mines,+ that+ the+ forts+ at+ Taku+
were& q=electric+ mines). R. Rosen Press. p.95. . Retrieved 19 February 2011.
[95] Stephan L'H. Slocum, Carl Reichmann, Adna Romanza Chaffee, United States. Adjutant-General's Office. Military Information Division
(1901). Reports on military operations in South Africa and China (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=LYYLAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA533&
dq=June+ 15,+ it+ was+ learned+ that+ the+ mouth+ of+ the+ river+ was+ protected+ by+ electric+ mines,+ that+ the+ forts+ at+ Taku+
were#v=onepage& q=June 15, it was learned that the mouth of the river was protected by electric mines, that the forts at Taku were& f=false).
G.P.O.. p.533. . Retrieved 19 February 2011.
[96] Jonathan Neaman Lipman (2004). Familiar strangers: a history of Muslims in Northwest China (http:/ / books. google. com/
?id=90CN0vtxdY0C& pg=PA169& dq=ma+ fuxiang+ boxer& cd=1#v=snippet& q=gansu muslim troops had been the most steadfast).
Seattle: University of Washington Press. p.181. ISBN0-295-97644-6. . Retrieved 2010-06-28.
[97] Lynn E. Bodin (1979). The Boxer Rebellion (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=2YleP1OP4HsC& pg=PA26& dq=kansu+ braves+ rabble&
cd=1#v=onepage& q=kansu braves rabble). Osprey. pp.26, 40. ISBN0-85045-335-6. . Retrieved 2010-06-28.
[98] Chester M. Biggs (2003). The United States Marines in North China, 18941942 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=S8YtE0SIDq0C&
pg=PA25& dq=marines+ kansu+ braves& cd=1#v=onepage& q=marines kansu braves). McFarland. p.25. ISBN0-7864-1488-X. . Retrieved
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[99] Max Boot (2003). The savage wars of peace: small wars and the rise of American power (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=0lIg-lGwqBoC&
pg=PA82& dq=marines+ kansu+ braves& cd=2#v=onepage& q=marines kansu braves). Da Capo. p.82. ISBN0-465-00721-X. . Retrieved
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[100] Jane E. Elliott (2002). Some did it for civilisation, some did it for their country: a revised view of the boxer war (http:/ / books. google.
com/ books?id=wWvl9O4Gn1UC& q=chinese+ soldiers+ modern+ rifles+ krupp+ artillery#v=onepage& q=muslim soldiers wore traditional
uniform weapons& f=false). Chinese University Press. p.126. ISBN962-996-066-4. . Retrieved 2010-06-28.
[101] Lanxin Xiang (2003). The origins of the Boxer War: a multinational study (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=lAxresT12ogC&
dq=yangcun+ dong+ fuxiang& q=sheng+ jia#v=snippet& q=dong refuse use foreign artifacts brass bands sheng jia& f=false). Psychology
Press. p.207. ISBN0-7007-1563-0. . Retrieved 2010-06-28. scroll down to next page from 206 to get to 208 (http:/ / books. google. com/
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[102] Peter Harrington, Michael Perry (2001). Peking 1900: the Boxer rebellion (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=xxE6rybpvHQC& pg=PA25&
dq=kansu+ braves& cd=1#v=onepage& q=kansu braves). Oxford: Osprey. p.25. ISBN1-84176-181-8. . Retrieved 2010-06-28.
[103] Peter Fleming (1990). The Siege at Peking: The Boxer Rebellion (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=pHrZAAAAMAAJ& q=moslem+
baron+ von+ ketteler& dq=moslem+ baron+ von+ ketteler). Dorset Press. p.98. ISBN0-88029-462-0. . Retrieved 2010-06-28.
[104] Bruce A. Elleman (2001). Modern Chinese warfare, 17951989 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=Md801mHEeOkC& pg=PA124&
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[105] Leonhard, Robert R.. "The China Relief Expedition Joint Coalition Warfare in China Summer 1900" (http:/ / www. jhuapl. edu/ ourwork/
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[106] Paul A. Cohen (1997). History in three keys: the boxers as event, experience, and myth (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=ky4_whmgIZcC&
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441448. . Retrieved 2010-06-28.
[109] William Meyrick Hewlett (1900). Diary of the siege of the Peking legations, June to August, 1900 (http:/ / books. google. com/
?id=3gQWAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA10& dq=tung+ fu-hsiang+ sir+ shots& q=tung fu-hsiang sir shots). F. W. Provost. p.10. . Retrieved
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[110] Diana Preston (2000). The boxer rebellion: the dramatic story of China's war on foreigners that shook the world in the summer of 1900
(http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=iWxKQejMtlMC& dq=kansu+ braves+ ketteler& q=kansu#v=snippet& q=kansu& f=false).
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[111] Jonathan Neaman Lipman (2004). Familiar strangers: a history of Muslims in Northwest China (http:/ / books. google. com/
?id=90CN0vtxdY0C& pg=PA169& dq=ma+ fuxiang+ ma+ fuxiang+ gansu+ braves+ imperial+ xi'an& q=ma fuxiang ma fuxiang gansu
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[112] Garnaut, Anthony. "From Yunnan to Xinjiang:Governor Yang Zengxin and his Dungan Generals" (http:/ / www. ouigour. fr/
recherches_et_analyses/ Garnautpage_93. pdf). Australian National University. . Retrieved 2010-07-14.
[113] " " (Linxia Tourism), published by Linxia Hui Autonomous Prefecture Tourist Board, 2003. 146 pages. No ISBN. Page 91
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pg=PA151& dq=yangcun+ battle#v=onepage& q=yangcun battle& f=false). Hong Kong University Press. pp.149, 151. ISBN962-209-857-6.
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[124] Han, Xiaorong (February 2005). Chinese discourses on the peasant, 19001949 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=oxTe1YYZa7MC&
pg=PA59& dq=Boxer+ rebellion+ was+ not+ fair#v=onepage& q=Boxer rebellion was not fair& f=false). State University of New York
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[125] Twain, Mark (2007-11-07). Mark Twain Speeches (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=dhWMWs_7J3UC& pg=PA116& lpg=PA116&
dq="The+ Boxer+ believes+ in+ driving+ us+ out+ of+ his+ country. + I+ am+ a+ Boxer+ too,+ for+ I+ believe+ in+ driving+ him+ out+ of+
our+ country"#v=onepage& q="The Boxer believes in driving us out of his country. I am a Boxer too, for I believe in driving him out of our
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[126] William Henry Chamberlin, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution, and Peace, Ohio State University (1960). The Russian review, Volume
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about+ the+ "orgy+ of+ murder,+ raping,+ and+ looting"+ committed+ by+ the+ Western+ powers+ in+ quelling+ the+ Boxer+ rebellion,+
he+ raged+ against+ the+ brutality+ of+ the+ Christians& dq=he+ praised+ the+ Chinese+ for+ their+ heroic+ patience. + When+ he+
learned+ about+ the+ "orgy+ of+ murder,+ raping,+ and+ looting"+ committed+ by+ the+ Western+ powers+ in+ quelling+ the+ Boxer+
rebellion,+ he+ raged+ against+ the+ brutality+ of+ the+ Christians). Blackwell. p.115. . Retrieved 2010-10-31.
[127] Cohen, History in Three Keys Pt Three, "The Boxers As Myth."
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[135] Jane Elliot, Some Did It for Civilisation, p. 9, 1.
[136] Xiang, The Origins of the Boxer War p. viiviii.

31

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[137] Esherick p. xiv. Esherick notes that many textbooks and secondary accounts followed Victor Purcell, The Boxer Uprising: A Background
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[151] China and the allies Arnold Henry Savage Landor Google Boeken (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=v9ZAAAAAYAAJ&
source=gbs_navlinks_s). Books.google.com. . Retrieved 2012-05-04.
[152] The last days of Pekin Pierre Loti Google Boeken (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=mq7tpe7qUAgC& source=gbs_navlinks_s).
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[153] The siege in Peking: China against the world William Alexander Parsons Martin Google Boeken (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=gXgdAAAAMAAJ& source=gbs_navlinks_s). Books.google.com. . Retrieved 2012-05-04.
[154] China in convulsion Arthur Henderson Smith Google Boeken (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=0soNAAAAIAAJ& dq=China+
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External links
Lost in the Gobi Desert: Hart retraces great-grandfathers footsteps (http://web.wm.edu/news/archive/index.
php?id=4174), William & Mary News Story, 3 January 2005.
Boxer Rebellion (http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00j4hmv) on In Our Time at the BBC. ( listen now
(http://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/console/b00j4hmv/In_Our_Time_Boxer_Rebellion))
September 1900 San Francisco Newspaper (http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn85066387/1900-07-01/
ed-1/seq-9/)
200 Photographs in Library of Congress online Collection (http://www.loc.gov/pictures/collection/coll/item/
2004676390/)
55 Days at Peking (http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0056800/) at the Internet Movie Database
Pa kuo lien chun (http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0075031/) at the Internet Movie Database
University of Washington Library's Digital Collections Robert Henry Chandless Photographs (http://content.
lib.washington.edu/chandlessweb/index.html/)
Proceedings of the Tenth Universal Peace Congress, 1901 (http://www.archive.org/details/
proceedingstent00berngoog)
Pictures from the Siege of Peking (http://www.flickr.com/photos/24300962@N02/sets/72157622801656702/
), from the Caldwell Kvaran archives
Eyewitness account: When the Allies Entered Peking, 1900 (http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/
1900Loti-peking.html), an excerpt of Pierre Loti's Les Derniers Jours de Pkin (1902).

32

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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:China imperialism cartoon.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:China_imperialism_cartoon.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Beria, Conscious, Dahn,
Ephraim33, Gryffindor, Infrogmation, J 1982, JJ Georges, JMCC1, Janis-Fred, Jean-Frdric, KTo288, Lobo, Man vyi, Mgmax, Mindmatrix, OhanaUnited, Origamiemensch, Pmx, Popolon,
Sammyday, Shakko, Shizhao, Thib Phil, Tony Wills, WhisperToMe, Wolfmann, Xhienne, 16 anonymous edits
File:Boxer1900.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Boxer1900.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: BrokenSphere, Bryan, Conscious, Mosesofmason, Olivier2,
Plugwash, Tietew, 2 anonymous edits
File:BoxerSoldiers.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BoxerSoldiers.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bestiasonica, BrokenSphere, Infrogmation,
Miborovsky, Olivier2, Wolfmann, World Imaging, 3 anonymous edits
File:Western Legations Peking 1900 Clowes Vol VII.jpeg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Western_Legations_Peking_1900_Clowes_Vol_VII.jpeg License: Public
Domain Contributors: Captain John T Myers, U.S. Marine Corps
File:Chinese Martirs.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chinese_Martirs.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: Holy Transfiguration Monastery, Brookline, MA
File:Troops of the Eight nations alliance 1900.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Troops_of_the_Eight_nations_alliance_1900.jpg License: Public Domain
Contributors: Anonymous
File:BoxerTroops.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BoxerTroops.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: 1970gemini, Babbage, Barbe-Noire, BrokenSphere,
Miborovsky, Olivier2, Popolon, Snlf1, Stewart, Thib Phil, Thuresson, Wolfmann, World Imaging, 2 anonymous edits
File:BoxerJapaneseMarines.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BoxerJapaneseMarines.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: BrokenSphere, KTo288, Kresspahl,
Monkeybait, Reggaeman, Sirimiri, Snlf1, World Imaging
File:SeymourTianjin.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SeymourTianjin.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: BrokenSphere, Kresspahl, Man vyi, World Imaging
File:3090 recapture lg.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:3090_recapture_lg.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Nianhua print, Author Unknown
File:CaptureTianjin.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CaptureTianjin.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: BrokenSphere, Millevache, World Imaging
File:Siege of Peking, Boxer Rebellion.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Siege_of_Peking,_Boxer_Rebellion.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: . Original
uploader was Az81964444 at en.wikipedia. Later version(s) were uploaded by Zscout370 at en.wikipedia. US Army
File:Beijing Castle Boxer Rebellion 1900 FINAL.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Beijing_Castle_Boxer_Rebellion_1900_FINAL.jpg License: Public Domain
Contributors: Torajir Kasai
File:Beijing 1900.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Beijing_1900.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Unknown
File:BoxerRussianTroops.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BoxerRussianTroops.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: BrokenSphere, Kresspahl, World Imaging
File:BoxerAmericanTroops.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BoxerAmericanTroops.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: BrokenSphere, KTo288, Kresspahl,
World Imaging

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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:Execution of Boxers after the rebellion.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Execution_of_Boxers_after_the_rebellion.png License: Public Domain Contributors:
File created by Jeff Lea. Author unknown
File:French China medal 1900 1901.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:French_China_medal_1900_1901.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
Contributors: PHGCOM
File:Chinese soldiers 1899 1901.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chinese_soldiers_1899_1901.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Leipzig Illustrierte Zeitung
1900
File:Chinese Muslim Kansu Braves 1900 Boxer Rebellion.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chinese_Muslim_Kansu_Braves_1900_Boxer_Rebellion.jpg License:
Public Domain Contributors: Bestiasonica, Thib Phil,
File:Dong Fuxiang.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dong_Fuxiang.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Unknown. Most likely the Qing dynasty imperial court.
File:General Ma Fuxiang.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:General_Ma_Fuxiang.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Republic of China
File:Ma Fuxing Titai of Kashgar.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ma_Fuxing_Titai_of_Kashgar.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Zolo,
File:Chinese Soldiers 1900.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chinese_Soldiers_1900.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Infrogmation, Thib Phil,
File:General Nie Shicheng.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:General_Nie_Shicheng.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Tinjn
Yhtun Museum
File:Boxer-tianjing-left.jpeg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Boxer-tianjing-left.jpeg License: Public Domain Contributors: Stereo copyrighted 1901 by Whiting View
Company

License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported
//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/

34