419

IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, Vol. 12, No. 4, December 1997

INVESTIGATION OF OSCILLATORY PROBLEMS OF HYDRAULIC

GENERATING UNITS EQUIPPED WITH FRANCIS TURBINES
D.N. Konidaris, Member, IEEE
Public Power Corporation, Greece

J.A. Tegopoulos, Life Fellow, IEEE

National Technical University of Athens, Greece

Abstracfiln the present paper a method Is presented

for the study of oscillatory problems of hydraulic
generatlng units equipped with Francis turbines. The
accurate equatlons of the turbine are implemented
for the simulation, taking into account water hammer
effect. Partial derivatives of turbine flow rate and
torque with respect to head and gate opening are
deduced from real measurements for the whole
loading range. Speed governor dynamics are fully
simulated, and the influence of torsional vibrations is
studied. The vibration response of the unit to draft
tube surges Is investigated and the risk of excessive
oscillations Is evaluated. The approach was developed for diagnosis of excessive vibrations of
Kastraki hydro power station in Greece.
Keyword$ :Hydraulic units, Francis turbines, Draf7 tube
su ges, Vi rations, Diagnosis
LIST OF SYMBOLS
6, , 6, differential angular position of turbine, generator
6 transient speed droop coefficient
(J permanent speed droop coefficient
w differential angular velocity
a velocity of water hammer waves in penstock
T, pilot valve time constant
T, dashpot time constant
T
, water starting time constant
T, distributor valve time constant
T, penstock elastic time constant
K torsional stiffness of shaft
h differential head
m differential mechanical torque of turbine
G&s) turbine transfer function (torque to speed relation)
fh penstock characteristic frequency
g drfferential gate opening
J, , J inertia constant of turbine, generator
p, s derivative and Laplace operator

PE-575-EC-0-02-1997 A paper recommended and approved by the

IEEE Energy Development and Power Generation Committee of the
IEEE Power Engineering Society for publication in the IEEE
Transactions on Energy Conversion. Manuscript submitted August 27,
1996; made available for printing February 10, 1997.

I. INTRODUCTION
Vibrational problems of hydraulic generating units have
long been recognized as a cause of decreased availability
and increased production cost. Sometimes vibration level is
so high that the operator has to reduce the power output
below optimum. Large Francis turbines have been exceptionally subject to vibrational difficulties due to flow induced
structurdl vibrations, [I]. When operated at partial load
Francis turbines may experience severe vibrational problems due to the presence of intense pressure surges in the
draft tube, [Z]. Electromechanicaloscillations may also arise
leading to power swing, vibrations and noise.
A hydroelectric plarit may be considered as a system
consisting of several subsystems : the penstock including
any surge chamber, the hydraulic machine, the speed
governor, the tailrace and, finally, the generator and electrical network. Excitation of vibrations may arise from various
sources, such as flow variation in the penstock, part load
vortex in the draft tuble, load rejection, etc. The present
state of knowledge perrnits to provide remedies to vibration
problems in the field, after commissioning of the plant.
Nevertheless the main cause is to predict vibration in the
design stage.
Simulation of hydro turbines has traditionally been
performed neglecting water column elasticity, [3]. Although
such models have been1 extensively used for system stability
studies, they are not suitable for vibration analysis of
hydroelectric plants, especially when long penstocks are
implemented. The water column elasticity principle, [4], has
recently been used for the identification of higher order
hydraulic turbine models, [5],as well as for design purposes,
161 & [71.
Speed governor dynamics greatly influences hydro plant
dynamic response in the significant frequency range of up to
about 100 rls. Detailed hydro governor models are necessary to account for its filtering action on high frequencies of
the penstock -turbine transfer function, [3] & [8].
Pressure surges in the draft tube have been extensively
studied, and a great deal of knowledge has been gained and
published, [I], [9] & [IO]. Information is nowadays available
about the frequency, intension and inception of vortex
phenomenon.
Technical literature lacks papers making use of the recent
contributions to the study of the dynamic response of the
integrated hydro plant, [Ill, [I21 & [13].
In the present paper a transfer function approach is used
for vibration analysis of hydro plants with Francis turbines.
Full equations are implemented for the accurate simulation
of the turbine - penstock subsystem, taking into consideratiin water column elasticity. Torsionals of the shaft system
are also taken into consideration, while speed governor is

0885-8969/97/$10.00 0 1997 IEEE

420

simulated by the full representation model. The approach is

demonstrated on diagnosis of vibrational problems of
Kastraki hydro power plant in Greece.

II. SIMULATION MODEL

A. Penstock - Turbine Model
According to the water hammer theory, which has been
developed by Allievi in the early 19OO's, pressure waves
may arise in long penstocks propagating with water hammer
velocity a. Water hammer theory takes into consideration
the water column elasticity, [4], and in terms of transfer functions can be translated for the frictionless case of a uniform
conduit as followes :
hlq (s) = - (TWIT,) tanh(T,s)

.,
B = a11 - a21a12/a22
As it can be seen from (4) the gain and phase of these
transfer functions depend upon the operating point, by
means of parameters a,]. Water starting time constant T,
depends upon the length L and cross section area S of the
penstock :
T=
,

L Qb/g s Hb

where Q, and H, are the base values of flow rate and head
respectively. Penstock elastic time constant T, is the time
taken for the pressure wave to travel the length of the
penstock at velocity a :

(1)
1
, = Lla

where :
h(s) is the differential head at the turbine inlet (P.u.),
q(s) is the differential flow rate (P.u.),
T, is the water starting time constant (s),
T, is the penstock elastic time constant (s).
It is worth noting that the relationship between the turbine
rate of flow and the turbine head depends only on the
penstock, being independent of turbine's characteristics. If
friction losses are to be taken into account, a second term
4, has to be subtracted from the right hand side of (I).
The
p.u. value of this term is in the order of I x I O - ~ ,proportional
to the steady state flow rate, and is usually neglected in
frequency response analysis, [5] & [Ill.
For small variations around an equilibrium point the
turbine can be represented by the following linearized
equations :
4 = all

a12 Wt

a13

m = a2, h + aZ2ut + a23 g

where :
wt (s) is the differential angular speed of the turbine (P.u.),
g(s) is the differential gate opening (P.u.),
m(s) is the differential mechanical torque (P.u.).
Parameters a,J are the partial derivatives of q & m with
respect to h, wt and g respectively, and they remain constant for variations near the equilibrium point (qo, mo). The
values of these parameters depend upon the initial steady
state point of the machine, and they have to be measured
accurately in the field, or taken from model tests. The
influence of these coefficients on the model accuracy is
critical.
From (1) & (2) the following equation may be deducted:
+

G,w

(3)

where the transfer functions G&S) & G,(s) relate the mechanical torque with the gate opening and speed respectively

G&s) = a23[1+A(T,/T,)tanh(T,s)]/[l+a~l(Tw/Te)tanh(Tes)]

(6)

Apart of the length of the penstock, reflection time depends

also upon water hammer velocity a in the conduit. Computation of this velocity is not so straight forward as usually
presented in bibliography, since it varies not only according
to the geometric dimensions of the pipe but depends upon
the type of its fixings too, [4].
A close examination of G,(s) reveals that this transfer
function gain varies between two limit values at the odd and
even harmonics of its characteristic hydraulic frequency f,
= 1/4 T, respectively :
limit1 I G,(s) 1 = a23 1 AI /a,,

(7)

limit2 1 Gg(s)I = a23

(8)

It has to be noted here that this characteristic frequency f,

in the order of about 1 Hz, does not vary with load and
depends only upon the dimensions of the penstock.
The transfer function G,(s) has a similar behaviour, and
the same equations hold for its maxima and minima, except
that a23 & A are replaced by a22 & B respectively.
In Fig.(l) the gain of the transfer function G,(s) is shown,
for a typical unit, at full load. Standard values for parameters
a,, for an ideal lossless turbine at full load are :
a,, = 0.5, aI2 = 0.0, a13= 1 0,
a21= 1.5, a22= 0.0, a23 = 1.0
where the dependence upon speed has been neglected. In
fact partial derivatives can be extracted by differentiation of
the following equations representing the laws of similitude :
Q

m = G,g

(5)

=G

M = Q H (n/n,)/n

(9)

where capital letters have been used for the absolute p.u.
values and n = noin, is the ratio of efficiencies at the current
operating point over that of base values. For deviations
around rated speed and head, the partial derivatives versus

421
load are deduced:

all = 0.5G0, a13 = 1.0,

a21= 1.5 n Go, a23 = n
where Go is the p.u. piston displacement at the current
operating point 0.Variation of flow rate with speed, a,2, is
usually considered to be negligible, [14], in which case the
transfer function G (s) depends mainly on the so called
turbine gain a23. Tur%ine gain is a critical parameter for an
accurate approximation of unit dynamics, and has to be
measured precisely in the field. The deviation of mechanical
torque with speed, a22, known as turbines self regulation, is
negative with an absolute value usually near unity. In case
that this dependency of mechanical torque deviation upon
speed is neglected, the transfer function GJs) disappears.
It is worth noting that more accurate values of turbine
parameters, with the exception of ~123,can be deduced from
the characteristic curves of the turbine, drawn from model
tests, [15].

B. Speed Governor Model

0.01

0,l

FREcaJwcy (W)
Fig.1 Transfer functicln G (s) of an ideal turbine at full load
(T, = 0.384 s, T, = 1.637 s)

RATE
LIMITS

In the steady state the shaft speed signal is compared to

the speed reference, modified by the permanent speed
droop times gate position. When gate position is changing,
a transient droop setting is developed to oppose fast
changes in gate position, [8]. The transfer function of a
mechanical-hydraulic governor, Fig.2, is shown in Fig. 3 :

va;wE

POSITW
LlMIT!j

OISTRIBUTOR vncE
AN0 GATE

SERVOMOTOR

SERVOMOTOR

TRANSIENT DROOP
COMPENSATION

PERMANENT D K W
COMPENSATION

Fig.2 Speed governor

It can be readily seen that the speed governor operates as

a low pass filter, when combined with the penstock - turbine
transfer function. Fig.4 shows the gain of the transfer
function G (s)G (s), i.e. the mechanical torque to speed
relation, inlhe s byane.

50

40

-20

30

-40

C. Shah+torsionals

z.

The hydro turbine generator set may, under specific

circumstances, oscillate due to the torsional elasticity of the
interconnecting shaft. The application of Newtons second
law of motion to the rotating inertias of turbine and generator is translated into the following matrix equation :

z< O

20

3 0

J p2d K d = I
f

(11)

where :
J = diag [Jj, Jg] is the diagonal inertia matrix,
K i s the stlffness matrix, and
I=[T, -T,JT is the column matrix of excitation torques.
The eigenfrequency ft of this subsystem can be easily
computed from the charaderistio equation :

?lo

-120
-140

-20

-30

-160

-40

-180

0,Ol

0.1

10

FREQUENCY (Hz)

Fig.3 Transfer ,function G,(s) of speed governor

(.--- gain, --- phase)

qI

422

[IO], it is known that this frequency varies between 0.25 and

0.5 of the frequency corresponding to synchronous speed.
The relative amplitude of pressure surges in the draft tube
has been studied theoretically by Hosoi, [IO], and was found
to depend upon the geometric dimensions of the draft tube
and runner as well as upon Thoma's coefficient of cavitation. Usual relative amplitude of draft tube surges varies up
to 5% of rated head, and even more, under the most
unfavourable conditions.

40

20
h

n
U

-23

Ill. KASTRAKI HPP CASE STUDY

-40

om

01

FRE
I

(W
-I

Fig.4 Transfer function of turbine with speed governor, at full load

(torque to - speed relation)

det [H -'K - (2n ft )* I] = 0

(12)

so ft = [K (Jt + Jg)/JtJ, ] "121-1

(13)

Table I

D. Network interaction

Raka for dl units

Generator rotor is coupled to the electric network via the

electrical torque. The differential electrical torque acting on
generator rotor can be written in the following form, making
use of the well known synchronizing and damping torque
coefficients :
T, = K, 6, + K, wg

(14)

where the torque is expressed in terms of two components,

the synchronizing and damping torque. The synchronizing
and damping torque coefficients K, and K, are variable in s,
depending upon the automatic voltage regulator, system
configuration, operating point of generator and parameter
values, [16]. Under the ovlersimplified assumption of a
generator without voltage regulator, connected to an infinite
bus with nominal voltage, the synchronizing coefficient
equals tan6,, where 6o is the angle between generator bus
and the infinite system. This interconnection of generator
rotor to the network produces the electromechanical oscillation frequency :
feI= (1/2n) [U, K,/2JJ

"

Kastraki Hydro Power Plant consists of four units of 80

MW each, equipped with vertical Francis turbines, operating
at a head of 74.5 m at 166.67 rpm. There are four metallic
outdoor penstocks which are different in length. The power
station experienced strong vibrations from the commissioning date in 1969. These vibrations are so high that unit I is
only used for full load operation.
In order to simulate unit performance, a model was
constructed according to section II. A synopsis of main data
is shown in Table I.

nominal net head 74.5 m

nominal flow 122 m3/s
rated generator output 80000 kW
penstock cross section 26.421 in2
penstock wall thickness 16 mm
generator inertia constant 3.23 s
turbine inertia constant 0 108 s
shaft stiffness 6.752 p.u.
water hammer wave velocity 712 m/s

SQ.&ecl#YeLw-data

~=0,02,6=0.387,T,=5.0,T,=0.04,T,=0.2

Main data for simulation

(15)

E. Draff tube surges

Surge phenomena in the draft tube are the most frequent
source of trouble for Francis turbines. During partial load
operation the instability of flow leads to the well known
vortex rope, which rotates iin the same direction as the
runner, [I]. The oscillations of vortex rope produce pressure
fluctuations that alter the net head acting on the turbine and
lead to generator power pulsations.
The frequency of these pressure surges is variable with
load, depending upon the dimensions of draft tube and flow
conditions. By experience as well as by theoretical analysis,

Water hammer wave velocity a depends not only on the

dimensions of the penstock but also on the type of fixing
used for the different penstock sections, [4]. In other words
the ability of the pipe to move in the longitudinal direction
influences the wave velocity by as much as 10%.
Turbine gain aZ3varies with load, and has been measured

in the field, since it is critical in order to obtain close agreement between the model and the unit. Fig.5 contains
information about the values of turbine characteristic
parameters a,, in the whole loading range. Since turbine gain
aZ3gets its maximum value of about 1.2 p.u. in the range of
0.4 to 0.6 p.u. loading, it is evident that the unit responds the
strongest while partially loaded.

423

QO

Q
Q2
l a3 (14

a5 06 a7 Q8 Q9 10 11

Q2

I-mD@.U)

06

0.8

12

l-cm @.U)

Fig5 Turbine parameters a,, vs. power output (at rated head)

A. Frequency control loop

An examination of turbine transfer function of Kastraki
HPP units reveals that this is similar with the one of an ideal
turbine shown in Fig.1 only at full load. In fact at full load
Gg(s) has its maximum equal to limitl, (7),at the odd
harmonics of f,,, while at the even harmonics the minimum
occurs, equal to limit2, (8). This is a consequence of the
relative values of limitl & limit2 arising from the variation
of turbine characteristics versus load. At partial load, limitl
is less than limit2, so the turbine tranfer function exhibits its
minimum & maximum at the odd and even harmonics off,,
respectively.
In order to investigate the stability of the frequency control
loop one has to express turbines transfer function Gg(s) in
a more convenient form. Using Taylor series expansion the
fourth order approximation gives :

where :

Fig.6 Damping constant of poles ( A ) & zeros (.) of the turbine transfer
function (Kastraki HPP, unit I)

damping constants. This is an interesting conclusion stating

that for a hydro power station equipped with more than one
identical Francis units, the one with the shortest penstock
has the smallest egenfrequencies with the smallest damping
constants.
The open loop zeros of the frequency control loop,
originating from the turbine transfer function (14), are the
roots of the numerator N,(s). Due to the variability of
parameter A versus load the coefficients A, & A, become
negative for loadings, higher than about 0.5 P.u.. In this
loading range the zeros of the turbine transfer function
appear with positive damping constants, corresponding to
instability. In Fig.6 the variation of the damping constants of
the two zeros is also shown for unit I. It is evident that for
huh values of the gain the closed loop will become unstable.
It is worth noting here that the preceding analysis did not
take into consideration the friction losses in the penstock.
The inclusion of these friction losses in the transfer function
helps in increasing the damping constants.

B. Vibrationanawsis

N,(s) = s4 + A,s3 + A2s2 + A,s + A,

Dg(s) = s4 + B,s3 + B2s2+ B,s + Bo
A, = 4ATw/Te2,A,

B, = 4a,,T,/Te2,

Q4

= 12/Te2,A, = 24ATW/Te4,A, = 241Te4

8, = A, 6,= 24allT,/Te2,

Bo = A,

It can be clearly seen that the coefficients Ai & 4 depend

upon the loading of the machine through A & a,,. Since all
B;s are positive, the turbine transfer function is always
stable. An examination of the poles of Gg(s) vs. load for unit
I reveals that they form two complex conjugate pairs with
corresponding angular frequencies at 0.97 & 1.86 r/s. The
damping constants of the poles are variable with load, Fig.
6. Due to the variability of a, the poles approximate the jw
axis for high loading, resulting in lower damping. Since B,s
are inversely proportional to the penstock length L, the
poles of the turbine transfer function of unit IV are found to
have higher angular frequencies, namely 1.1 & 2.1 rls, and

In order to investigate the problem, vibration measurements were undertaken in all four units for the whole
operating zone, Table II. It can be clearly seen that vibration
level is higher in unit I, while unit IV seems to have best
vibration performance. Frequency analysis of vibration
signal showed that the vortex component increased considerably in the loading range where vibrations were maximum. Vortex frequency was found to vary from 0.7 Hz, at
0.5 p.u. output, to almost 1 Hz, at 0.75 p.u. These values
agree with measurements conducted in other Francis units,
as well as with theoretical predictions, [IO]. Fig.7 shows
units I shaft vibration spectrum at 50 MW. Main frequency
components lie at vortex frequency, synchronous frequency
as well as at 1.7 and :3.8Hz.
Given a value of about -0.8 p.u. for the turbines self
regulation it is concluded that the maximum gain of the
transfer function GJs) in the same loading range equals
about 65% of G,(s). This means that speed variations
i n f l u e n c e on mechanical torque is substantially lower than

424

trum, it is strongly amplified in the penstock due to resonance. For generator angles between 20" and 60" the electromechanical oscillations frequency varies between 1 and
1.7 Hz. At the high end of this range, elecromechanical
oscillations are expected to influence penstock cross section
vibrations by their second harmonic, in the same manner as
torsional vibrations do. This is the reason why these vibrations are higher at higher unit loadings.
IV. CONCLUSIONS

10

Fig.7 Unit's I shaft vibration spectrum at 0.6 p.u. (X direction)

Table II
unit

power output (P.u.)

0.25

0.5

Shaft vibrations near generator guide bearing (pm p-p)

that of gate position.

Due to the increasing penstock length for units I to IV, the
Characteristic frequency,,f varies from 0.687 Hz, for the first
unit, to 0.755 Hz, for the fourth. Head variations due to
vortex pulsations at this frequency cause maximum flow
rate variations, according to (1). It has already been mentioned that the frequency of vortex pressure pulsations
varies, for all units, from 0.68 Hz, at 0.5 p.ui. load, to almost
1 Hz at 0.75 p.u. load. So it is concluded that in the loading
range where pressure surges due to vortex are maximum,
the units are in hydraulic resonance, and that this phenomenon is more intense for the first wit. In that case
strong vibrations of the same frequency are induced in the
shaft.
The torsional eigenfrequency of the unit was computed
according to (11) and was found to be 3.8 Hz. Small variations in the electrical loading of the machine, always present
in the steady state, may excite weak torsialnal vibrations of
the inertias of turbine and generator. Turbine's speed
variations at t h e frequency ft excrte, through variations in the
flow rate and head, vibrations in the penstock itself. In fact
the fiFth wave egenfrequency of the penstock cross section
has been identified as 3 7 Hz. This frequency component
was found in the spectrum of shaft vibrations, due to the
well known coupling between flexural and torsional vibrations, as well as in the penstock cross section vibrations.
Although this component is rather weak in the shaft spec-

A new method was presented for the investigation of

oscillatory problems of hydro power plants equipped with
Francis turbines. The approach of transfer functions was
implemented, with the adoption of elastic water column
principle. Turbine gain, as well as the partial derivatives of
flow rate and torque with respect to head, were measured
in the field. Full nonlinear equations were used for turbine
and penstock modelling, while the full model of mechanical hydraulic speed governor was implemented. Turbine generator torsionals as well as hunting were taken into
consideration and their influence on vibrational behaviour
was investigated.
The stability of the frequency control loop was studied and
the influence of turbine characteristics as well as of conduit
design was analyzed. It was found that for a hydro power
station equipped with more than one identical Francis units,
the one with the shortest penstock has the smallest eigenfrequencies with the smallest damping constants. For
loadings higher than about 50% it was found that the unit
may experience instability, especially when high gain is
present in the frequency control loop.
Excessive vibrations in Kastraki hydro power plant, and
mainly in unit I, were also studied. The main cause of these
vibrations was found to be the near resonance of draft tube
vortex pulsations with the characteristic frequency fh in
partial loading. The shaft vibrations spectrum was explained
taking into account the torsional as well as the electromechanical oscillations behaviour of the unit. The excessive
vibrations in the penstock cross section were also identified
due to resonance of penstock's characteristic frequency
with torsional and electromechanical oscillations at high
loading.
The inclusion of shaft torsionals in the unit model proved
to be a critical parameter for the identification of penstock
cross section Vibrations. The implementation of the full
equations for the modelling of the unit, as well as the deduction of turbine's parameters from real measurements
proved to be necessary for an accurate simulation.

V. REFERENCES
Vibration Phenomena in Francis Turbines :
Trans. of rhe 7dh IAHR
Symposium, Tokyo, 1980.
[2] A.H. Glattfelder, H. Grein and P.K. Dorfler, "System
Vibrations in Hydro Plants", Escher Wyss News, 111982,
pp.27-31.
[3] IEEE Committee Report, "Dynamic Models for Steam
and Hydro Turbines in Power Systems ", IEEE Trans. PAS,
vol. PAS-104, no. 4, pp.1904-4914, 1973.

[I] H. Grein,

"

Their Causes and Prevention',

425

[4] J. Parmakian, Waterhammer Analysis, Dover Publications, Denver, Colorado, 1963.

[5] D.J. Trudnowski, J.C. Agee, Identifying a Hydraulic Turbine Model From Measured Field Data, / Trans. C,
vol. EC-10, no. 4, Dec. 1995, pp.768-773.
[6] C.K. Sanathanan, A Frequency Domain Method for
Tuning Hydro Governors, I Trans. C, vol. EC-3, no.
1, March. 1988, pp.14-17.
[7] C.K. Sanathanan, Accurate Low Order Model for
Hydraulic Turbine - Penstock, /E Trans. EC, vol. EC-2,
no. 2, Jun. 1987, pp.196-200.
[8] D.G. Ramey, J.W. Skooglund, Detailed Hydro Governor
Representation for System Stability Studies, IEEE Trans.
PAS, vol. PAS-89, no. 1, Jan. 1970, pp. 106-112.
[9] P. Ulith, E.U. Jaeger and M. Strscheletzky, Contribution
to Clarifying the Inception of Nonstationary Flow Phenomena
in the Draft Tube of High Specific Speed Francis Turbines
Operating at Partial Load, IFAC - Symposium 1974,Trans.,
pp.1-18.
[IO] Y. Hosoi, Contributions to Model Tests of Draft Tube
Surges of Francis Turbines, Bulletin of the ISME, vol. 16, no.
99, Sept. 1973.
[IllR. Oldenburg, J. Donelson, Dynamic Response of a
Hydroelectric Plant, AIEE Trans., Oct. 1962, pp. 403-419.
[I21 R. Guarga, G. Hiriart and J.J. Torres, Oscillatory
Problems at Mexicos La Angostura Plant, Water Power &
Dam Construction, Oct., 1983, pp.33-36.
[I31 S. Pejovic, D. Obradovic and A. Cajic, Resonance in
Hydropower Plants - Experience in Yugoslavia, Proc. of
Hydrosoft 84,
Yugoslavia, 1984.
[I41 L. Wozniak, A Graphical Approach to Hydro generator
Governor Tuning, IEEE Trans. EC, vol. EC-5, no. 3, Sept.
1990, pp.417-421.
[I51 H. Brekke, A Study of the Influence of Turbine Characteristics on Turbine Governing, Idlnternational Conference
on Pressure Surges, paper J2, The City University, London,
England, 1976.
[I61 D.N. Konidaris and J.A. Tegopoulos, Synchronous
Machine Stability as Affected by Excitation Control - A Study
with the Torque Coefficient Method, Proceedings of the
7992 ICEM, ~01.1,pp.78-82, UMIST, 1992.

D.N. Konldarls (M83) was born in loannina, Greece, on

May 23, 1954. He received the Diploma and Ph.D. in
Electrical Engineering in 1977 and 1996 respectively from the
National Technical University of Athens. He joined the Public
Power Corporation of Greece in 1983. From 1983-1988 he
worked as an Operation Engineer in Kardia Power Station
(4x300 MW). He is now engaged in electric measurements
and tests. He is a member of IEEE and CIGRE. (e-mail :
ppctem@compulink.gr).
J.A. Tegopoulos (M156-SM63-F75)was born in Trikala,
Greece, on September 30, 1924. He received the Diploma
in Mechanical and Electrical Engineering in 1948 from the
National Technical University of Athens and M.S. and Ph.D.
degrees from Purdue University in 1954 and 1956. From
1958-1966 he was with Westinghouse Electric Corp. and
taught at the University of Pittsburgh. Now he is a professor
of Electrical Engineeringat the National Technical University
of Athens.