Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
DOI 10.1007/s00707-008-0060-4
Received: 6 February 2008 / Revised: 23 May 2008 / Published online: 2 September 2008
Springer-Verlag 2008
Abstract The application of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) in the design of water turbines and pumps
started about 30 years ago. This paper reviews the main steps and breakthroughs in the methods that were made
during this period, through the eyes of one particular water turbine company which spear-headed some of the
first developments for practical applications. Practical examples are used to illustrate the developments of the
tools from 1978 to 2008 and to give an overview of the complete revolution in hydraulic turbine design that has
occurred over this time. Several periods with distinct levels of complexity, and hence accuracy of the physical
models and of the simulation methods can be distinguished. The first steps coincided with the introduction
of the Finite Element Method into CFD, and were characterized by simplified Quasi-3D Euler solutions and
Fully 3D potential flow solutions. Over the years the complexity continuously increased in stages: via 3D
Euler solutions, to steady RANS simulations of single blade passages using finite volume methods, extending
to steady simulations of whole machines, until today unsteady RANS equations are solved with advanced
turbulence models. The most active areas of research and development are now concerned with including the
effects of 2-phase flows (free surface flow in Pelton turbines and cavitation) and fluidstructure interaction.
1 Introduction
In 1978, when a young engineer started to develop and apply numerical methods for the hydraulic design of
water turbines and pumps, there were some tremendous challenges: up to then the software and hardware had
been rather rudimentary and only 2D geometries could be treated by conformal mapping or by the singularity
method. But in the 1970s numerical methods, such as finite difference and finite element methods, had made
big progress, first in aerodynamics and then in structural mechanics. The challenge at the time was to introduce these new numerical methods into the traditional world of hydraulic turbomachines with its emphasis on
experimental development. An overview over the different types of hydraulic turbines and their design aspects
is given by [6].
The name CFD was already known in 1978, having been coined in the title of Roaches book [37], and the
key developments in the k- turbulence model had already been made [28]. At that time however CFD was
not known at all by real turbine designers, and was far less accepted as an engineering tool. It is interesting to
look back to the first steps of CFD applications to hydraulic turbines and to imagine the complete revolution
in the design technologies since then.
H. Keck (B) M. Sick
Andritz VA TECH HYDRO Ltd, Hardstrasse 319, Postfach 2621, 8021 Zurich, Switzerland
E-mail: helmut.keck@vatech-hydro.ch
M. Sick
E-mail: mirjam.sick@vatech-hydro.ch
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Fig. 1 Main sections of a bulb turbine where one half of the symmetric intake is modelled by FEM
in (x, y, z).
(1)
(2)
these codes were able to solve potential flow problems both in 2D and 3D.
The first step of using FEM for a CFD application was just to program a post-processing tool that allowed
velocity components (and static pressure) to be calculated from the -distribution over the nodal points of the
grid and to formulate proper boundary conditions.
The specification of boundary conditions turned out to be the most critical task in order to get useful results
(which, by the way, is still the case today even with the most advanced simulation methods!).
First results were quite promising, see [18]. The flow in a bulb turbine intake which is shown in Figs. 1, 2,
3 and 4, was actually well suited to such methods as the assumption of a potential flow was justified and the
3D geometry was rather complex. The transition from a rectangular to a circular cross-section and finally to a
ring section could be treated with good accuracy in spite of a very coarse grid.
Much more important than intakes are the stationary and rotating blade rows. For axial turbines the quasi-3D
approach with calculating the meridional flow and the blade-to-blade flow separately is a reasonable approximation and was again a nice application of the FEM method as shown by [19]. By combining 3D-intake
modelling and quasi-3D blade row modelling, the flow in a complete bulb turbine (except the outlet draft tube)
was calculated [16].
It should be mentioned that the flow in the blade rows deviates (sometimes quite significantly) from a
potential flow, even if the flow is considered as inviscid. The reason is that the circulation of the blades is
usually not constant between hub and shroud and that between the inlet and outlet of a (3D) blade row shed
vorticity is generated. By introducing stream functions both in the meridional and the blade-to-blade analysis
it was possible to calculate such rotational (non-potential) flows by a quasi-3D approximation of the 3D-Euler
equations.
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Fig. 2 Three-dimensional potential flow analysis of the intake (main section through FEM grid)
Fig. 3 Selected elements of the 3D FEM grid in the transition between rectangular and circular cross section
The results obtained showed very good agreement with measurements and clearly indicated the strong
(non-linear) influence of the swirl on the flow between blade rows of Kaplan turbines, see [20] and [21].
In this period it was clear that inviscid CFD simulations could only be reasonably accurate close to the
best efficiency point. Off-design calculations were beyond the state-of-the-art. In spite of these limitations the
quasi-3D Euler calculations already provided useful guidance for turbomachinery runner designs [17].
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(A) Add 3D-boundary layer calculations to the inviscid solutions (which were either 3D-potential flows or
quasi-3D rotational flows).
(B) Develop a 3D-Euler code for incompressible flows in complex geometries.
(C) Step into the emerging technology of solving the Reynolds-averaged (turbulent) NavierStokes equations.
Option B was clearly superior for the following reasons:
the flow inside radial runners (Francis turbines) is not well approximated by the quasi-3D method and is
by no means irrotational. Adding boundary layer calculations to an incorrect inviscid solution would not
provide any progress.
in turbine runners the flow is accelerating and the Reynolds number is very high (thin boundary layers).
The major 3D-effects are not driven by viscosity but by vorticity and inviscid, so that a fully 3D Euler
simulation is the proper approach.
The step into NavierStokes simulations was too early as the methods were still in their infancy, and was
postponed until real viscosity driven flows (diffusers, separated boundary layers, vortices, etc.) could be
calculated.
In 1983 a research project together with the technical university of Lausanne (EPFL) was launched to develop
a 3D-Euler code for Francis runners. This development was based on a time marching code for transonic
flows that had previously been developed by Rizzi. Its adaptation and modification for incompressible flows
in hydraulic turbines was a long process. In 1987 the break-through was achieved: Gde et al. published the
first successful 3D-Euler simulation in a Francis runner, see [12].
4 The 3D-Euler period (19871994)
Thanks to the fully 3D-Euler analysis it was possible to demonstrate that the flow inside a Francis runner by
no means followed the axial symmetric stream-sheets as assumed by the classical quasi-3D methods but that
a complex twist of stream sheets was obtained, see Fig. 5. With this method it was also possible to perform
215
off-design calculations with high accuracy as all the vorticity-driven secondary flows were modeled correctly.
And as long as the real flow was not dominated by viscous effects, the non-viscous but fully rotational 3D-Euler
simulation showed very good results. An example for a vorticity driven secondary flow nicely modelled by
3D-Euler is shown in Fig. 6: the leading edge vortex, often observed in test rigs at off-design conditions, was
numerically modeled for the first time by [13].
Of course, qualitative comparisons with experiments were important to aid understanding, but a big effort
went into the detailed quantitative validation of the numerical results with experimental data. Comprehensive
L2F (Laser two focus) measurements at the runner inlet and outlet with scanning in circumferential direction
were performed, Fig. 7 and published by Gde et al. in 1989 [14].
Figure 8 shows the detailed variation of velocity components in circumferential direction. The upstream
effect of the leading edge is stronger in the 3D-Euler simulations than the measurements, whereas the wakeeffect downstream of the blade trailing edge is more pronounced in the L2F results (as to be expected).
Except for some local effects the agreement for the average velocity components was excellent.
In the late 1980s the progress in CFD was so fast that a fair international comparison of the accuracy
against experiment was launched. Test data of a Francis turbine from EPFL were made available as boundary
conditions for a CFD analysis. In the GAMM workshop 1989 in Lausanne the numerical results of more
than ten international CFD teams were presented and compared. The agreement at runner inlet and outlet was
generally good, but only the 3D-Euler analysis based on a stacking technique between the stationary upstream
part and the rotating runner part as presented by [13] predicted the low pressure peak at runner inlet correctly,
Fig. 9. The pronounced inlet edge cavitation observed on the EPFL-test rig for this GAMM-runner was not
known to any of the CFD-teams and only one of them was able to predict it. Interesting: the winning team
calculated its own inlet boundary conditions by means of its stacking technique, whereas all the other teams
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Fig. 7 Laser 2 focus (L2F) measurements at inlet and outlet of a Francis runner
took the measured inlet velocity profiles which were circumferentially averaged. So again: handling boundary
conditions is crucial and even measured boundary conditions can be a pitfall (especially if the averaging of
data suppresses important information). The possibility to model the flow in all kinds of turbine runners with
high accuracy in a wide operating range opened up completely new opportunities in the hydro industry. The
transfer of the 3D-Euler analysis from a research tool to a practical design tool was a challenging and exciting
task [23].
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Fig. 9 Pressure distribution at runner inlet as predicted with Euler code and stacking technique
In this period the hydraulic industry was changing: fewer new plants were being built, but a tremendous
demand for rehabilitation and upgrading of old plants was emerging. The new design tools were ideally suited
for the new challenges: it was no longer sufficient to provide new designs by interpolation and minor evolution
from previous well proven and tested designs, now new runners with typically more than 20% power increase
over the existing runner had to be designed that also had to match the often poor and hardly understood existing
stationary parts. In addition, the price of one medium size new runner was of the same order of magnitude
as a full model test. The pressure to supply new replacement runners based on CFD only, without any model
tests, increased. Again, a drastic change in the industry took place: the upgrading business started to follow
a step-by-step approach whereby the first step was a contractual CFD-analysis of the existing unit, with a
comparison between the new and the old runner by CFD (partly supported by model tests) as a second step.
The new approach, firstly promoted by [22], pushed CFD-analysis into the role of THE key pacing technology of the hydro industry. This role was then continuously consolidated by the introduction of NavierStokes
codes for turbulent flow computation in the practical design work.
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Stator
Runner
Stage interface
Stator
Runner
Stator
Runner
components. Consequently, the analysis of draft tube flow (see [8]) and of the flow in pumps (see [39]) and
pump turbines in the pump mode became far more realistic with the possibility of solving the RANS equations.
The long calculation times with fine grids that resolved the boundary layers of the CFD RANS codes meant
that during the nineties pump turbine runner design was done by a combination of both Euler and RANS
solvers as described by Sebestyen et al. in [42]. But for more sophisticated studies where viscous effects are
totally dominant such as in diffusers, see [30], and the onset of flow instabilities in pump turbines, it was clear
that RANS solver had to be used, see [10]. By 2000 it had become state-of-the-art in major refurbishment
projects to analyse and optimise components of a pump turbine entirely by means of RANS simulations. Two
such projects, Solina and Zarnowiec in Poland, are described in [38].
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Fig. 11 Entire Francis turbine, numerical hill chart versus experimental hill chart
These developments provided the basis for the shift of CFD applications from a mere design and optimisation tool to a highly complex analysis tool which today is used through all stages of a turbine refurbishment,
from the feasibility study to design and optimization [48].
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2
1.6
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ckd RSM R
UF-GE k-e R
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Fig. 13 CAD model of FLINDT turbine and diagrams showing predicted versus measured pressure recovery over nondimensional
throughflow
reached by manipulation of obscure fudge factors but by clean and precise modelling only. Factors such as the
nature of the turbine leakage flow and fine details of the impeller outlet flow distribution need to be correctly
modelled. Nevertheless, it should be mentioned that CFD prediction of draft tube flow is still an open issue
for bulb turbines which react extremely sensitively to draft tube flow quality, see for example [11].
221
the help of CFD, see [32] and [45]. Figure 14 shows the computational grid of a five nozzle Pelton turbine
distributor (left) and the predicted velocity distribution in the plane of symmetry (right) revealing the typical
zone of deceleration and backflow at all bifurcations. This recirculation zone near the bifurcation is not only a
cause of additional head loss in the distributor. Far more significant are the resulting disturbances to the flow
in the nozzles and subsequent deterioration of the jet at nozzle exit. Measurements show that poor jet quality
can lead to more than 0.5% loss in efficiency because the jet bucket interaction is no longer optimal.
While CFD prediction of Pelton distributor flow is well validated and delivers reliable results the interpretation of the flow features within the distributor with respect to their impact on jet quality and resulting
jetbucket interaction is not so clear. Turbulence intensity and strength of secondary flow or vortex structures
respectively are analyzed in order to conclude on jet quality. Thus, the CFD simulation of the jet flow itself and
of the jetbucket interaction was the next obvious step, leading CFD engineers onto a new field of modelling
and application: time dependent multiphase free-surface flow simulation.
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A new measurement technique with a needle touching the water surface had to be developed in order to
measure the jet shape which is displayed in the middle of Fig. 16 revealing a deformation which can also be
seen in the picture presented in Fig. 15, right. This deformation is known to not only cause additional loss but,
what is more severe, to cause cavitation damage in Pelton buckets. The origin of the deformation could be
understood with the help of a CFD simulation, see Fig. 16, right: the flow field in Pelton nozzles downstream
of a curved duct is characterized by a secondary flow which leads to a deformation of the jet at the stagnation
point of the secondary flow motion. Again, CFD prediction compared to measurement shows very good results.
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Fig. 17 Measurement and CFD prediction of static pressure over time in a model Pelton turbine runner bucket
Fig. 18 CFD prediction and measurement of efficiency curves (left), CFD prediction serves as input to FEM analysis (right)
bution as input to a FEM analysis of displacement and stress enables a complete analysis and optimization of
both hydraulic design and life time of a Pelton runner, see Fig. 18 on the right hand side [35], [36].
6.4 Cavitation
When the static pressure drops below vapour pressure, vapour bubbles develop which collapse as soon as the
pressure rises again. The high pressure caused by the bubble implosion causes surface erosion often damaging
the turbine surfaces. Cavitation occurs mostly in zones of low overall pressure at the runner outlet but, in case
of high incidence, at the blade inlet. It can also occur in zones of strong streamline curvature such as the bend
of the casing between guide vanes and runner, and at the tip clearance vortex. Design engineers generally
identify cavitation risk by evaluating zones of pressure below vapour pressure in computed flow fields without
a two phase model. With this approach the effect of a cavitation bubble on the flow field is neglected which in
most cases is an adequate approach.
But if more information is needed, such as the effect of cavitation on the efficiency or a more precise
prediction of the extent of a cavitation bubble, a two-phase flow simulation has to be carried out. Today, the
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Fig. 19 CFD simulation of cavitating flow in a bulb turbine runner; two phase flowRayleigh Plesset model; [41]
RayleighPlesset approach is being used for modelling the formation and decay of vapour bubbles, thereby
enabling a more accurate prediction of the cavitation zone and the associated drop in efficiency. Validation of
the CFD approach is shown for a bulb turbine runner in Fig. 19. The predicted size and position of the vapour
zone is found to be in very good agreement with the observation at the test rig, whereas the related rise and
sharp drop in efficiency with decreasing Thoma number is predicted with good, but not excellent, accuracy.
Here too, more work is needed.
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Fig. 20 Unsteady flow phenomena causing dynamic load: draft tube vortex (left), von Krmn vortex shedding (middle), interaction between stationary and rotating components (right)
Fig. 21 Cavitating draft tube vortex as observed at the test rig (left) and predicted by CFD (right), [51]
more about the nature of this flow phenomenon CFD modelling has been carried out and validated throughout
recent years. The simulations identify the rolling up of the vortices at the shear layer between the outer flow
and the inner region with back flow leading to a periodically rotating helical vortex as can be seen in Fig. 21.
Most important was the finding that the CFD simulation of the draft tube vortex requires great care with respect
to turbulence modelling, see [47]. Generally, two-equation models fail because of the assumption of isotropy
which is not applicable for such strongly curved flow paths. Instead, turbulence modelling has to be done with
the Reynolds stress models, Large Eddy Simulation or similar approaches.
Due to the strong curvature of the flow path, the static pressure in the vortex core drops below vapour
pressure causing a cavitating vortex rope which can then be observed at the test rig. Draft tube vortex simulation with a two-phase approach using the Rayleigh Plesset model is a serious challenge with respect to spatial
resolution and accuracy because of the steep pressure gradient to be resolved as can be seen in Fig. 22 which
shows the pressure distribution across the vortex core as predicted with several levels of spatial discretization
and with different turbulence models. In order to predict cavitation as observed at the test rig, the pressure has
to drop below vapour pressure (dashed line), which is achieved with high quality spatial resolution only. In
his PhD thesis [52] Stein showed that an accurate simulation of the draft tube vortex would require about 500
million grid nodes in order to achieve the accuracy needed for a realistic prediction of the volume of vapour in
the vortex core. The latter is important for an accurate prediction of both the rotation frequency of the vortex
and the dynamic response of the entire system to the excitation by the draft tube vortex. But such a size of
computation is not yet possible in the industry.
6.7 Von Krmn vortex shedding
Finer grid resolution together with improved discretization methods (schemes of second order accuracy or
TVD schemes) may reveal small scale unsteadiness which could not be found beforehand. This sometimes
happens without being wished by the CFD engineer who often is interested in steady state average flow information. But in case of fatigue failure of stay vanes the detailed flow analysis around the stay vanes revealed
von Krmn vortex shedding, thereby contributing to a better understanding of the cause of the failure and
problem solution, see [29]. Again, in the case of von Krmn vortex shedding the turbulence model has been
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Fig. 22 Validation CFD prediction: lateral forces and bending moments on shaft due to draft tube vortex (top) pressure drop in
vortex core (bottom): influence of discretization method and turbulence model, [49]
Fig. 23 CFD prediction of vorticity: effect of turbulence model; standard k- model (left), SAS model (right)
identified as being an important numerical parameter with respect to the accuracy of the solution, see Fig. 23
which demonstrates the unrealistic high diffusion in case of the k- model leading to a smoothed shape of the
vortex street, [25]. Furthermore, a detailed study of the effect of the transition laminarturbulent boundary
layer on the Strouhal number which is described by [40], could be identified in a CFD study by [53].
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Fig. 24 CFD simulation of the pressure field in a pump turbine (left), comparison CFD predictionmeasurement (right) [26]
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H. Keck, M. Sick
Extrapolation from the experience over the last 30 years would suggest that large strides are still possible, and that careful systematic analysis and validation of the numerical methods will be the key to the next
breakthroughs.
Similar to detailed experimental investigations highly sophisticated and expensive CFD studies will be
increasingly used to understand complex flow mechanisms and multi physical problems. The knowledge
gained from complex numerical studies will lead to improved design rules and to better understanding and use
of standard design tools. A two-fold development is foreseen: fast, well calibrated CFD methods for design
which are automatized to a high degree on one hand and, on the other hand, highly complex multi physics
studies for special applications and investigations in order to improve design procedures.
Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the large number of present and former colleagues at Andritz VA TECH
HYDRO (formerly Escher Wyss/Sulzer Hydro) for their contributions during the last 30 years to CFD in hydraulic turbomachines.
Special thanks are expressed to the authors teachers in Fluid Mechanics, Prof. Dr. W. Schneider, Vienna, Prof. Dr. K.O. Felsch
and Prof. Dr. J. Zierep, Karlsruhe.
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