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CHAPTER 3

HARMONICALLY EXCITED VIBRATIONS

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Introduction
Forced vibration external energy is supplied during vibration by applied
force or imposed displacement excitation.
Harmonic excitation
harmonic response
Suddenly applied non-periodic excitationtransient response.

F(t) = F0 (+) = F0 cos ( + ) = F0 sin ( + )

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HARMONICALLY EXCITED VIBRATIONS


Equation of Motion
m + c + kx = F(t)
(1)
Non homogeneous differential equation, with solution
x(t) = xh (t) + xp (t)
Homogeneous
solution

Particular
solution

Homogeneous solution represents free damped vibrations and


will die out for all cases of damping and initial conditions
Hence the general solution of (1) reduces to particular solution
representing steady state vibration and will be present as long
as forcing function is present

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HARMONICALLY EXCITED VIBRATIONS


Homogeneous, particular and general solution

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HARMONICALLY EXCITED VIBRATIONS


Magnification Factor
Consider an undamped system subjected to harmonic force
m + kx = F0 cos
(2)
Homogeneous solution is assumed as
x(t) = C1 cos n t + C2sin n t
(3)
As F(t) is harmonic , particular solution , xp (t) is also assumed as harmonic
xp (t) = X cos
(4)
X maximum amplitude
Substituting (4) in (2)
X=

0
2

(5)

Total solution is
x(t) = C1 cos n t + C2sin n t +

0
2

cos (6)
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HARMONICALLY EXCITED VIBRATIONS


Magnification Factor
Initial conditions:
x(t) = x0 (displacement at t = 0)
= 0 (velocity at t = 0)
(t)
Substitute initial conditions in (6)
C1 = x0 -

0
,
2

C2 =

Total solution is
x(t) = (x0 Let , r =

0
)
2

Magnification factor =

(7)

cos n t + (

1
1

) sin n t +

1
1 2

0
2

cos (8)

(9)
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HARMONICALLY EXCITED VIBRATIONS


Magnification Factor
Case 1: When 0 < r <1, denominator of (9) is positive and
response is given by (4)

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HARMONICALLY EXCITED VIBRATIONS


Magnification Factor

M = 1 2

Case 2: When r > 1, denominator of (9) is negative and steady state response
can be expressed as
xp (t) = - X cos
(10)
Amplitude X is redefined as
X=

(11)

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HARMONICALLY EXCITED VIBRATIONS


Magnification Factor
Case 3: When r =

= 1, amplitude X given by (9) or (11) becomes infinite

leading to resonance .
Rewriting (8) as
x(t) = x0 cos n t + (

) sin n t +

cos cos
1

(12)

Last term in (12) is infinite when r = 1.


Applying L Hospitals rule
lim

cos cos
1

= lim

(cos

cos )

[1

sin n t

(13)

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HARMONICALLY EXCITED VIBRATIONS


Magnification Factor
The response of the system at resonance becomes
x(t) = x0 cos n t + (

) sin n t +

sin n t

(14)

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HARMONICALLY EXCITED VIBRATIONS


Total Response: Another representation
x(t) = A cos (n t ) +

x(t) = A cos (n t ) +

cos

for r < 1

(15)

cos

for r >1

(16)

A and are determined by initial conditions

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HARMONICALLY EXCITED VIBRATIONS


Response of Damped System Under Harmonic Force

EoM of a system is
m + c + kx = F0 cos
(17)
Particular solution of (17) is also assumed as harmonic
xp (t) = X cos ( )
(18)
Substituting (18) in (17),
X [ ( k- m 2 ) cos ( ) - c sin ( ) ] = F0 cos
Using trigonometric entities and equating coefficient of cos and sin , we
obtain
0
c
1
X=
,

=
tan
(19)
2
2
2
2
2
1/2
k
m

[(k m ) + c ) ]

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HARMONICALLY EXCITED VIBRATIONS


Response of Damped System Under Harmonic Force

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HARMONICALLY EXCITED VIBRATIONS


Response of Damped System Under Harmonic Force
X=

[(k m2 )2 + c2 2) ]1/2

, = tan1

c
k m 2

(19)

Divide numerator and denominator by k and using expressions for n , , and


r, we get Magnification factor / Amplification factor / Quality Factor
2

1
1
M=
=
, = tan
(20)
2

1 2 2+ 2 2

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HARMONICALLY EXCITED VIBRATIONS


Magnification Factor

M=

1
1 2 2+ 2

tan1

2
1 2

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HARMONICALLY EXCITED VIBRATIONS


Magnification Factor

M=

When =0, equation (20) reduces to (9).


For r = 0, M=1
Reduction in M in the presence of damping is
very significant at or near resonance.

For 0 < <

1
2

1
1 2 2+ 2

, maximum value of M occurs

when r = 1 22
The maximum value of X when r =

1 22

X
1
)max =
st
2 1 2

(21)

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HARMONICALLY EXCITED VIBRATIONS


Magnification Factor

M=

1
1 2 2+ 2

Experimental determination of the measure


of damping is obtained from value of X
when =n
X
1
( )=
(22)
st 2
1
dM
For = ,
= 0 when r = 0

2
For >

, graph of M monotonically
2
decreases with increasing values of r

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HARMONICALLY EXCITED VIBRATIONS


Magnification Factor

= tan1

2
1 2

Phase Angle:
1. For = 0, phase angle is 0 for 0 < r < 1 and 1800
for r >1. The excitation and response are in phase
for 0 < r < 1 and out of phase r >1.
2. For > 0 and 0 < r < 1, phase angle is 0 < < 900,
hence response lags excitation
3. For > 0 and r > 1, phase angle is 900 < < 1800,
hence response leads excitation
4. For > 0 and r = 1, phase angle is = 900, hence
phase difference between response and excitation
is 900
5. For > 0 and large value of r , phase angle is
approaching 1800, hence response and excitation
are out of phase
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HARMONICALLY EXCITED VIBRATIONS


Magnification Factor
Total response:
x(t) = xp (t) + xh (t)
= X0 cos (d t- 0 )+ X cos (t- )
X and are given by equation (19)
X0 and 0 are determined from initial conditions.
Initial conditions:
x(t) = x0 (displacement at t = 0)
= 0 (velocity at t = 0)
(t)
By substituting initial conditions in equation (23)
x0 = X0 cos 0 + X cos
0 = X0 cos 0 + X d sin 0 + X sin

(23)

(24)
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Problem 1
Find the total response of a single degree of freedom system with m = 10kg,
c =20 Ns/m, k =4000 N/m, x0 =0.01 m and 0 = 0 under the following
conditions
1. An external force F(t) = F0 cos t acts on the system with F0= 100 N and
= 10 rad/sec
2. Free vibration

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BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Problem 2
A spring mass system with k = 5000 N/m, is
subjected to a harmonic force of magnitude
30 N and frequency 20 Hz. The mass is found
to vibrate with an amplitude of 0.2m. Assume
initial condition to be zero, determine mass of
the system

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HARMONICALLY EXCITED VIBRATIONS


Quality Factor and bandwidth

M=

1
1 2 2+ 2

For small value of damping ( <0.05), we can take


X
X
1
( )max = ( )at =n = = Quality factor, Q (25)
2
st
st
The points R1 and R2 where the amplification factor

falls to
are called half power points because the
2

power absorbed (W) by the damper is proportional


to square of amplitude
W = X2
(26)
The difference between frequencies associated with
half power points R1 and R2 is called the bandwidth
of the system.
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HARMONICALLY EXCITED VIBRATIONS


M=

Quality Factor and bandwidth

1
1 2 2+ 2

To find R1 and R2 , let


X

= in equation (20),
2
st

1
=
=
2 2 2

1
1 2 2+ 2

r4 r2 (2-4 2 )+ (1- 8 2) = 0
Solution of (27)

12 = (1-22 ) - 2 1 + 2 , 22 = (1-22 ) + 2
For small values of
12 = 1-2 and 22 = 1+2

(27)

1 + 2

(28)
(29)
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HARMONICALLY EXCITED VIBRATIONS


Quality Factor and bandwidth
12 = 1-2 and 22 = 1+2
r1 =

and r2 =

By (29)
22 - 12 = (2 - 1 ) (2 + 1 ) = 22 12 2 4 2
Also
2 + 1 = 2 n
Using (30) and (31)
Bandwidth = 2 - 1 = 2 n
By (25) and (32),

(29)

(30)
(31)
(32)

(33)
2 2 1
Quality factor can be used for estimating the equivalent viscous damping in a
mechanical system
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Problem 3
A uniform slender bar of mass m , may be supported in one of the two ways
as indicated in Figure. Determine the arrangement that result in a reduced
steady-state response of the bar under a harmonic force , F0 sin , applied
at the middle of the bar, as shown in figure.

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HARMONICALLY EXCITED VIBRATIONS


Base Excitation

Base / support of a spring mass damper


system undergoes harmonic motion
y(t) displacement of base
x(t) displacement of mass from its static
equilibrium position
Equation of Motion is
m + c( - ) + k(x-y) = 0
(34)
If y (t) = Y sin , equation (34) becomes
m + c + kx = ky + c
= kYsin + cYcos
= A sin (- ) (35)
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HARMONICALLY EXCITED VIBRATIONS


Base Excitation
A = Y 2 +(c22 ) and = tan1

(36)

This shows that giving excitation to base is equivalent to applying a harmonic force
of magnitude A to the mass
By using the solution indicated by (19), the steady state response of the mass,
xp (t) can be expressed as
xp (t) =

2 +(c22 )

[(k m2 )2 + c2 2) ]1/2

sin (t-1 - )

(37)

Where

1 =

tan1

c
k m 2

(38)

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HARMONICALLY EXCITED VIBRATIONS


Base Excitation
Using trigonometric identities, equation (37, 38) can be rewritten in more
convenient form. As xp (t) = X sin (t-)

1+ 2

)2

)2

1 2 2

1
2

,=

tan1

23
1+ 4

2 1

(39)

The ratio of response xp (t) to that of the base motion y(t) , i.e.
displacement transmissibility

is called

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HARMONICALLY EXCITED VIBRATIONS


Base Excitation

Transmissibility

1+ 2

1
2

)2

2)2 + 1 2

= tan

23
1+ 42 1 2

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HARMONICALLY EXCITED VIBRATIONS


Base Excitation

Transmissibility

Some aspects of displacement transmissibility , Td:


Value of Td = 1 when r = 0 and close to unity when r is small.
For undamped system, Td , at resonance
< 1, for values of r > 2 for any amount of damping
= 1, for values of r = for any amount of damping
For r < 2, smaller damping ratios leads to larger values of
For r > 2, smaller damping ratios leads to smaller values of
(soft spring)
attains a maximum for 0 < < 1, at r = < 1 given by
=

1
2

+ 82

1
2

1+ 2

1
2

)2

2)2 + 1 2

(40)

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HARMONICALLY EXCITED VIBRATIONS


Base Excitation
Force Transmitted:
Force transmitted to the base / support due to reactions from spring and dashpot
= + ( - )= - m
(41)
Assume the solution as xp (t) = X cos (- )
(42)
By (41 & 42),
F= m 2 X sin (- ) = FT sin (- ) (43)
FT is the amplitude / maximum value of the force transmitted to the base is given by
FT

= 2

1+ 2

1
2

)2

2)2 + 1 2

(44)

Force Transmissibility

The transmitted force is in phase with the motion of the mass x(t).

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HARMONICALLY EXCITED VIBRATIONS


Base Excitation

FT

1+ 2

1
2

)2

2)2 + 1 2

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HARMONICALLY EXCITED VIBRATIONS


Base Excitation
Relative Motion:
If z = x y ( motion of mass relative to the base / rattle
space), equation of motion (34) becomes
m + c + k z = -m = m 2 Ysin
(45)
Steady state solution of (45) is given by,

2
( 2)2 + 1 2 2)

, 1 = tan

2
1 2

(46)

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HARMONICALLY EXCITED VIBRATIONS


Base Excitation

1 = tan1

2
1 2

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Problem 1
(a) Figure shows a simple model of a motor
vehicle that can vibrate in the vertical
direction while traveling over a rough road.
The vehicle has a mass of 1200 kg. The
suspension system has a spring constant of
400kN /m and a damping ratio of = 0.5. If
the vehicle speed is 20 km/hr, determine the
displacement amplitude of the vehicle. The
road surface varies sinusoidally with an
amplitude of Y=0.05 m and wavelength of
6m.
(b) If the vehicle speed increases to 100 km/hr,
what will be the displacement amplitude of
the vehicle?
(c ) Analyse the system under the condition of
= 0.05 and speed of 20 km/hr and 100 km/hr.
Comment .
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BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Problem 2
An automobile is modeled as a single degree of freedom system vibrating
in the vertical direction. It is driven along a road whose elevation varies
sinusoid ally. The distance from peak to trough is 0.2 m and the distance
along the road between the peaks is 35 m. If the natural frequency of
automobile is 2 Hz and the damping ratio of shock absorber is 0.15,
determine the amplitude of vibration of the automobile at a speed of 60
km/hr. If the speed of the automobile is varied, find the most unfavourable
speed for passenger

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Comparison of objectives

r=2
Displacement of mass

Rattle space

Force Transmitted to ground

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Conflicting Objectives in damper design


The traditional engineering practice of designing a spring
and a damper, are two separate functions that has been a
compromise from its very inception in the early 1900s.
Passive suspension design is a compromise between ride
comfort and vehicle handling, as shown in Figure . In
general, only a compromise between these two conflicting
criteria can be obtained if the suspension is developed by
using passive springs and dampers.. This also applies to
modern wheel suspensions and therefore a break-through
to build a safer and more comfortable car out of passive
components is below expectation. The answer to this
problem seems to be found only in the development of an
active suspension system

ACCELERATION

RATTLE SPACE

P. Kousik, Pravin M Singru and Narayan Manjrekar, Comparing PID and H- Controllers on a 2-DoF Nonlinear Quarter
Car Suspension System Journal of Vibro-Engineering (paper No. 15281) available online from 19.11.2014. (IF=0.66)

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Rotating Unbalance
Unbalance is main cause of vibration in many
machines
M- total mass of machine
m/2 two eccentric masses rotating in opposite
directions with constant angular velocity
Centrifugal force (me2)/2 due to each mass
will cause excitation of two masses
As masses are rotating in opposite direction,
horizontal components cancel each other
Vertical component along AA causes excitation

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Rotating Unbalance

2
1 2 2+ 2

Angular position of the masses is measured


from a horizontal position, total vertical
component of the excitation F(t) = me2 sin t
Equation of motion is
M + c + kx = me2 sin t
(47)
Solution is
xp (t) = X sin (t-)

2
1 2 2+ 2

,
2

tan1

2
1 2

(48)

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Rotating Unbalance
= tan1

2
1 2

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Rotating Unbalance
All curves begin at zero amplitude. The amplitude near
resonance is markedly affected by damping. So if machine is to
be run near resonance, damping should be introduced
purposefully to avoid dangerous amplitudes.

At very large speeds r>>1,


is almost unity and effect of

damping is negligible
For 0 < <

1
,
2

maximum of(

Solution of (49) gives , r =


Maximum of (
For >

1
,
2

)=

1
2 12 2

) occurs when

1
12 2

=0

(49)

>1,
(50)

does not attain a maximum. Its value grows from

0 at r =0 to 1 at r

Peak occurs to the right of the resonance


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Problem 3
When an exhaust fan of mass
380 kg is supported on springs
with negligible damping, the
resulting static deflection is found
to be 45 mm. If the fan has
rotating unbalance of 0.15 kg-m,
find (a) the amplitude of vibration
at 1750 rpm. (b) the force
transmitted to the ground at this
speed.

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Problem 4
One of the tail rotor blades of a
helicopter has an unbalanced
mass of m = 0.5 kg at a distance
of e = 0.15 m from the axis of
rotation. The tail section has a
length of 4m, mass of 240 kg,
flextural stiffness (EI) of 2.5 MNm2 and a damping ratio of 0.15.
The mass of the tail rotor blades,
including their drive system, is 20
kg.
Determine
the
forced
response of the tail section when
blades rotate at 1500 rpm.
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SOLUTION

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Whirling of Shaft
In practical applications like turbines,
compressors, motors, a heavy rotor is
mounted on a lightweight, flexible shaft
supported on bearings.
Unbalance in rotors due to manufacturing
considerations.
Unbalance effects, stiffness & damping of
shaft, gyroscopic effects and fluid friction in
bearings will bend the shaft at certain
rotational speeds, called whirling /
Definition: Rotation of the plane
whipping / critical speeds
made by the line of centers of the
bearings and bent shaft
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Whirling of Shaft
Equation of Motion:
Assumption : Rotor is subjected to steady
state excitation due to mass unbalance
Forces acting on rotor
Inertia force
Spring force due to shaft elasticity
External and internal damping
O is equilibrium position of shaft when
balanced perfectly

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Whirling of Shaft

C- geometric center
G CENTER OF MASS

Shaft (line CG) is assumed to rotate with a constant


angular velocity,
In steady state, rotor deflects radially by a distance A
=OC (x,y)
a- eccentricity = CG
Angular velocity of the line OC = (Whirling
speed,)
EOM
Inertia force = elastic force + internal damping force
+ external damping force
(51)
Radius vector of CG of disc, OG ,
R= (x+a cos t) + (y + a sin t)
(52)
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Whirling of Shaft
Inertia force Fi = m
(52)
Fi =m[( a2 cost) + ( a 2 sint) ] (53)
Elastic force Fe = - k (x + y )
(54)
k shaft stiffness
Internal damping force
Fdi = -ci [( + y) + ( + x)
(55)
- internal / rotary damping coefficient
Fde = -c ( + )
(56)
c- external damping coefficient.
Substituting (52) to (56) in (51), EOM in scalar form
m + ( c+ ci) + kx - ci y = m a 2 cost
(57)
m + ( c+ ci) + ky - ci x = m a 2 sin t
(58)

EOM of lateral vibration of shaft,


Coupled ,Dependent on
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Whirling of Shaft
Define a complex quantity
w = x + iy
Adding (57) + i (58), EOM
m + ( c+ ci) + kw - i ci w = m a 2

(59)
(60)

Critical speed
- Shaft is said to be revolving at critical speed when frequency of rotation =
one of the natural frequency
- When shaft is revolving at critical speed , there are large deflections , causing
bearing failure
- A rapid transition through critical speed is expected to limit whirl
amplitude.
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Whirling of Shaft
Response of the system
Assume that the excitation to be harmonic force due to the unbalance of the
rotor and internal damping (ci ) is negligible
Solving (60)
m + c + kw = m a 2
(61)
Assume a solution
w(t) = C ( + ) + A ()
Homogeneous
solution

Particular
solution

(62)
Whirl

C, , A, are constants

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Whirling of Shaft
Substituting steady state part of (62) in (61)
m a 2
X=
=
[(k m2 )2 + c2 2) ]1/2

= tan1

2
1 2 2+ 2

(63)

c
k m 2

Differentiating (63) w.r.t. and setting result to


zero, we get maximum whirling / critical speed
=

.
1

2 05
12

(64)

Critical speed is same as only when c = 0

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Whirling of Shaft
At low speeds, amplitude is determined by
spring constant, k since the two terms
m2 and c2 2 are small. Also the value of
phase angle is zero.
As speed increases, amplitude reaches a
peak (at resonance)
At resonance, response is limited by damping
term and phase lag is 900
As speed increases, amplitude is dominated
by the mass term m24 . This term is 1800 out
of phase with the unbalanced force, the shaft
rotates in a direction opposite to that of the
unbalance force and hence response is
limited.

m a 2
X=
[(k m2 )2 + c2 2) ]1/2
c
= tan1
k m 2
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Whirling of Shaft
Bearing Reactions: Find deflection of mass center
of the disc from the bearing axis, R
R= (x + a cos t) + (y + a sin t)
(52)
2 = 2 + 2 +2Aa cos
(65)
Using (63), (65) can be written as
=

1+ 2

)2

)2

1 2 2

1
2

(66)

The bearing reactions can then be determined from


centrifugal force m 2 R.

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Problem 5
A steel shaft of diameter 25 mm and length 1 m is supported at the two
ends in bearings. It carries a turbine disc, of mass 20 kg and eccentricity
0.005 m, at the middle and operates at 6000 rpm. The damping in the
system is equivalent viscous damping with =0.01.
(i) Determine the whirl amplitude of the disc at (a) operating speed (b)
critical speed, 1.5 times the critical speed.
(ii) Find the bearing reactions and the maximum bending stress induced in
the shaft at (a) operating speed (b) critical speed, 1.5 times the critical
speed.

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TUTORIAL TEST
A centrifugal pump, weighing 600 N and operating at 1000 rpm, is mounted on
six springs 6000 N/m each. Find the maximum permissible unbalance in
order to limit the steady state deflection to 5 mm peak to peak

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Problem 6
A shaft , having a stiffness of 3.75 MN/m, rotates at 3600 rpm. A rotor, having
a mass of 60 kg and eccentricity of 2000 micron, is mounted on the shaft.
Determine (a) the steady state whirl amplitude of the rotor (b) the maximum
whirl amplitude of the rotor (b) the maximum whirl amplitude of the rotor
during startup and stopping conditions. Assume the damping ratio = 0.05

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Experimental Vibration Analysis


Why we should measure vibrations?
1. Operating speeds have increased and weights of structures have reduced
due to increasing demand for higher productivity and economical designs.
This makes occurrence of resonance more frequent and reduce reliability.
So periodic measurements of vibration characteristics is essential.
2. Identifying natural frequency of system experimentally leads to selecting
useful operating speed.
3. Assumed behavior may be different forcing us to characterize the actual
system
4. Survivability of equipment under certain conditions need to be ascertained.
5. System identification in terms of its mass, stiffness and damping

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Experimental Vibration Analysis


Basic vibration measuring scheme:

Choice of equipment depends on:


1. Expected range of frequencies and amplitudes
2. Sizes of the machines / structures involved
3. Conditions of operation of machines / equipment / structure

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Experimental Vibration Analysis


Transducers: a device that transforms values of physical variables into
equivalent electrical signals.
Examples:
1. Variable resistance transducers- strain gage
2. Piezoelectric transducer
3. Electrodynamic transducer
4. Linear variable differential transformer transducer

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Experimental Vibration Analysis


Variable resistance transducers- strain gage

K- Gage factor

= 0
1 2
r0 =
1 + 2

(65)

- STRAIN MEASURED =

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Experimental Vibration Analysis


Piezoelectric transducer:
Quartz, tourmaline, lithium sulfate, Rochelle
salt generate electric charge when subjected to
a deformation / mechanical stress. Charge
disappears on removal of load
E = v t px
(66)
v- voltage sensitivity
t thickness of crystal

When base vibrates, load acts on piezoelectric


crystal, output voltage generated by crystal will
be proportional to the acceleration
Compact, rugged, high sensitivity and high
frequency range.
BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Experimental Vibration Analysis


Electrodynamic transducer:
When a conductor coil moves in a magnetic field,
voltage E is generated = DL v
(67)
D- magnetic flux density (Tesla)
L- length of conductor
v-velocity of conductor w.r.t. magnetic field.

Velocity pickups
Basis of electrodynamic shaker

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Experimental Vibration Analysis


Linear variable differential transformer transducer

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Vibration Measurements
Vibration pickups:
A transducer is used in conjunction with another
device to measure vibrations.
Seismic instrument
Instrument is fastened to the body
Bottom ends of spring and damper will have
same motion as the cage, y and their vibrations
excites the mass by x
Displacement of mass relative to cage , z = x-y
m + c( - ) + k(x-y) = 0
(68)
y (t) = Y sin
(69)

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Vibration Measurements
Vibration pickups:
m + c + k z = -m = m 2 Ysin (70)
Steady state solution of (70) is given by,
z(t) = Z sin (t- )
(71A)

2
( 2

= tan1

)2

2
1 2

1 2 2)

, (71)
(72)

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Vibration Measurements
Seismometer / Vibrometer
It is observed that 1, when 3
Relative displacement between mass and the base (sensed
by the transducer) is essentially same as the displacement of
the base. Consider (71)
z(t) Y sin (t- )
(73)

if

2
( 2)2 + 1 2 2 )

(74)

Comparison of (73) with y(t) = Y sin t shows that z(t) gives


directly the motion y(t) except for phase lag
Phase lag 1800 for = 0
Recorded displacement z(t) lags behind the displacement

being measured y(t) by time t = and this time lag is not


important if y(t) consists of a single harmonic component.
BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Vibration Measurements
Since r = 3 is large and the value of
is fixed, the natural frequency nmust be low.
Mass must be large and spring must have low
stiffness, so instrument becomes bulky
(undesirable)
In practice, r is not very large and hence Z Y
exactly, but compensation technique is used to
make it exact.

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Problem 7
A vibro-meter having natural frequency of 4 rad/s and =0.2 is attached to a
structure that performs a harmonic motion. If the difference between the
maximum and minimum recorded values is 8 mm, find the amplitude of
motion of the vibrating structure when its frequency is 40 rad/s

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Vibration Measurements
Accelerometers

Measures acceleration of vibrating body


By (71A) and (71)
- 2 =

1
[ 2

)2

This shows that if

{- Y 2 sin ( )}

(75)

1 2 2]
1

[( 2)2 + 1 2 ]

(76)

Equation (75) becomes - 2 = {- Y 2 sin ( )}

(77)

Comparing (77) with (t)


= - Y 2 sin , the term - 2 gives acceleration of the base , except
for phase lag .

Time lag by which recording lags acceleration, t =

This time lag is not important if y(t) consists of a single harmonic component.
BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Vibration Measurements
Accelerometers

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Vibration Measurements
Accelerometers

1
[(

2)2

+ 1

2 2]

Refer equation LHS of (76) is plotted.


LHS lies between 0.98 to 1.02 for 0 0.6, if
lies between 0.65 to 0.7
Since r is small, of the instrument has to be
large compared to the frequency of vibration to be
measured.
Mass needs to be small and spring need to be
have large value of k (short spring), so the
instrument is small.
ACCELEROMETER
OPERATING
WINDOW
BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Vibration Measurements
Accelerometers

Sensitivity 101.3 mV/g

Sensitivity 102.2 mV/g.


BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Problem 8
An accelerometer has a suspended mass of 0.01 kg with a damped natural
frequency of vibration of 150 Hz. When mounted on an engine undergoing an
acceleration of 1 g at an operating speed of 6000 rpm, the acceleration is
recorded at 9.5 m/s2 by the instrument. Find the damping constant and the
spring stiffness of the accerometer.

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Vibration Measurements
Vibration Exciter / Shaker
Used in determination of dynamic characteristics of machines and structures
Types

Mechanical
Electromechanical
Electrodynamic
Hydraulic

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Vibration Measurements
Vibration Exciter / Shaker
Electrodynamic Shaker:
Reverse of electrodynamic transducer.
When current passes through a coil placed in
a magnetic field, force ,F proportional to the
current, I and magnetic flux density D is
produced which accelerates the component
placed on shaker table
F= D I L
(78)
Magnitude of acceleration depends on the
maximum current and the masses of the
component and moving elements of the shaker
If current is harmonic , force produced is
harmonic
BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Vibration Measurements
Vibration Exciter / Shaker
Coils and moving element should have a
linear motion, so they are suspended
from a flexible support (small stiffness)
Two natural frequencies
(i) flexible support (small)
(ii) moving element (large)
Operating range of exciter lies between
these two resonant frequencies

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Vibration Measurements
Vibration Exciter / Shaker
Modal Shop 2110E electrodynamic shaker / exciter
Up to 110 lbf pk sine force.
A large armature (3.25 in / 8.3 cm diameter platform table
supporting payloads up to 10 lb / 4.5 kg)
Designed with a through hole armature and includes a chuck and
collet attachment, providing simple set-up with stingers for
experimental modal analysis applications.
When used in this configuration, these stingers greatly simplify test
setup with an easy connection to the force sensor and test
structure, and help decouple cross-axis force inputs, minimizing
force measurement errors.

Modal Shop 2110E


electrodynamic shaker
BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Vibration Measurements
Vibration Exciter / Shaker
http://www.modalshop.com/filelibrary/110lbf-Vibration-Shaker-Datasheet%28DS-0078%29.pdf

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Vibration Measurements
Signal Analysis:
Response of a system under known
excitation presented in convenient form
Time response doesnt give useful
information
Frequency response gives one or more
discrete frequencies around which
energy is concentrated

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Vibration Measurements
Spectrum analyser
Analyses a signal in the frequency domain by
separating the energy of the signal into various
frequency bands
The separation of signal energy into frequency
bands is accomplished through a set of filters
(ex. Octave band)
Real time analyzers useful in machinery health
monitoring
Digital filtering
Fast Fourier transform method (FFT)

Crystal Spider 81 Analyser

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Vibration Measurements
Spectrum analyser

Bandpass Filter:
Circuit that permits the passage of frequency
components of a signal over a frequency band and
rejects all other frequency components of the signal
Practical filter will have deviation
Good bandpass filter will have minimum ripples and
the slopes of filter skirts will be steep to maintain the
actual bandwidth close to the ideal value
Cuttoff frequencies: the frequencies fi and fu at
which the response is 3 dB below its mean bandpass
response
BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Vibration Measurements
Spectrum analyser
Bandpass Filter:
1. Constant percent bandwidth filters
Ratio of bandwidth to constant tuned frequency (

) is constant

Octave, one half octave and one-third octave band filters

2. Constant bandwidth filters


Bandwidth is constant

Difference lies in details provided by various bandwidths

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Vibration Measurements
Filters
Constant percent bandwidth filters:

Ratio of bandwidth to center (tuned) frequency is

constant
Octave, one half octave and one-third octave
Octave band filters: Gives less detailed (too coarse)
analysis for practical vibration / noise measurement
one half octave filters provide twice the information but
requires twice the amount of time to obtain the data.
Generally octave and one-third octave filters are used in
spectrum analyzers.
Each filter is tuned to different central frequency to cover
entire frequency range. The lower cut-off frequency of a
filter is equal to upper cut-off frequency of previous filter.
BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Vibration Measurements
Filters
Constant bandwidth filters:
The bandwidth is constant
Used to obtain a more detailed analysis
High frequency analysis

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Problem 9
Determine the maximum percent error of an accelerometer in the frequency
ratio range 0 < r < 0.65 with (a) damping ratio = 0, (b) damping ratio =
0.75

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Problem 10
A vibration pickup has natural frequency of 5 Hz and a damping ratio of 0.5.
Find the lowest natural frequency that can be measured with 1 % error.

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

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