STRENGTHENING MECHANISM :

Plastic deformation occurs when large numbers of dislocations move and multiply so as to
result in macroscopic deformation. In other words, it is the movement of dislocations in the
material which allows for deformation. If we want to enhance a material's mechanical
properties (i.e. increase the yield and tensile strength), we simply need to introduce a
mechanism which prohibits the mobility of these dislocations. Whatever the mechanism may
be, (work hardening, grain size reduction, etc.) they all hinder dislocation motion and render
the material stronger than previously.

STRENGTHENING FROM GRAIN BOUNDARIES

STRAIN AGING
SOLID-SOLUTION STRENGTHENING

STRENGTHENING FROM FINE PARTICLES

FIBER STRENGTHENING

MARTENSITE STRENGTHENING

STRAIN HARDENING`
ANNEALING

STRENGTHENING FROM GRAIN BOUNDARIES

In a polycrystalline metal, grain size has a tremendous influence on the mechanical

properties. Because grains usually have varying crystallographic orientations, grain
boundaries arise. While undergoing deformation, slip motion will take place. Grain
boundaries act as an impediment to dislocation motion for the following two reasons:
1. Dislocation must change its direction of motion due to the differing orientation of
grains.[4] 2. Discontinuity of slip planes from grain one to grain two. [4]
The stress required to move a dislocation from one grain to another in order to
plastically deform a material depends on the grain size. The average number of
dislocations per grain decreases with average grain size (see Figure 3). A lower
number of dislocations per grain results in a lower dislocation 'pressure' building up
at grain boundaries. This makes it more difficult for dislocations to move into
adjacent grains. This relationship is the Hall-Petch relationship and can be
mathematically described as follows:
The fact that the yield strength increases with decreasing grain size is accompanied
by the caveat that the grain size cannot be decreased infinitely. As the grain size
decreases, more free volume is generated resulting in lattice mismatch..

STRAIN AGING

Strain aging is a type of behavior, usually associated with the 'yield-point

phenomenon, in which the strength of a metal is increased and the ductility is
decreased on heating at a relatively low temperature after cold-working.
Strain ageing of metals was first observed during the 19th century when the
maximum load carrying capacity of a test piece was increased after it had been
retested after a previous series of testing in the plastic range.
General acceptance has been recognized that strain ageing is due to the diffusion of
carbon and/or nitrogen atoms in solution to dislocations that have been generated by
plastic deformation however the resulting characteristics are the result of a complex
series of metallurgical reactions`

SOLID-SOLUTION STRENGTHENING

For this strengthening mechanism, solute atoms of one element are added to
another, resulting in either substitutional or interstitial point defects in the crystal (see
Figure 1). The solute atoms cause lattice distortions that impede dislocation motion,
increasing the yield stress of the material. Solute atoms have stress fields around
them which can interact with those of dislocations. The presence of solute atoms
impart compressive or tensile stresses to the lattice, depending on solute size, which
interfere with nearby dislocations, causing the solute atoms to act as potential
barriers

PRECIPITATION HARDENING :

DISPERSION STRENGTHENING :

FIBER STRENGTHENING:

MARTENSITE STRENGTHENING

STRAIN HARDENING`

ANNEALING

Annealing, in metallurgy and materials science, is a heat treatment that alters the
physical and sometimes chemical properties of a material to increase its ductility and
reduce its hardness, making it more workable. It involves heating a material to above
its recrystallization temperature, maintaining a suitable temperature, and then
cooling.
In annealing, atoms migrate in the crystal lattice and the number of dislocations
decreases, leading to the change in ductility and hardness.
In the cases of copper, steel, silver, and brass, this process is performed by heating
the material (generally until glowing) for a while and then slowly letting it cool to room
temperature in still air. Copper, silver[1] and brass can be cooled slowly in air, or
quickly by quenching in water, unlike ferrous metals, such as steel, which must be
cooled slowly to anneal. In this fashion, the metal is softened and prepared for
further worksuch as shaping, stamping, or forming.

Mechanism of plastic Deformation:

When a metal is stressed below its elastic limit, the resulting deformation or
strain produced in the metal is temporary. This strain or deformation vanishes
after the removal of stress and the metal goes back to the original dimensions.
When it is stressed above the elastic limit, permanent deformation takes place
and the metal does not returns to its original shape after the removal of stress.
The ability of a metal to undergo plastic deformation is one of the important
property which is utilised for shaping of metals by various fabrication process
such as rolling, forging, drawing, extrusion etc.
Types
Slip and twinning
Slip:
Slip is a permanent displacement of one part of crystal relative to the other part.
slip involves sliding of one plane of atoms over the other. The plane on which the
slip occurs are called slip planes and the direction in which this occurs are called
slip direction. Slip occurs when shear stress applied exceeds a critical
value.During slip each atom usually moves same integral number of atomic
distances along the slip plane producing a step,but the orientation of the crystal
remains the same. Slip planes are usually the most close packed planes i.e., the
planes of maximum atomic density. Such planes obviously will be widely spaced
i.e., the interplanar distance between such planes is more. Slip results from the
motion of dislocations from one place to the other place. There are two basic
types of dislocations movements called as glide and climb. In glide, the
dislocation moves in a surface defined by its line and Burgers vector (glide is
conservative motion of dislocations). In climb, the dislocation moves out of the
glide surface and therefore, climb becomes a non conservation motion of
dislocation. Slip is the most common manifestation of glide.

Slip in face centered cubic (fcc) crystals occurs along the close packed plane. Specifically, the
slip plane is of type {111}, and the direction is of type <110>. In the diagram, the specific
plane and direction are (111) and [110], respectively. Given the permutations of the slip plane
types and direction types, fcc crystals have 12 slip systems. In the fcc lattice, the norm of the
Burgers vector, b, can be calculated using the following equation:

Where a is the lattice constant of the unit cell.

When a single crystal is deformed under a tensile stress, it is observed that plastic
deformation occurs by slip on welldefined parallel crystal planes. Sections of the crystal
slide relative to one another, changing the geometry of the sample as shown in the diagram.
Slip always occurs on a particular set of crystallographic planes, known as slip planes. Slip
always takes place along a consistent set of directions within these planes these are called
slip directions. The combination of slip plane and slip direction together makes up a slip
system.

Twinning :
Twinning is a process in which the atoms in a part of the crystal subjected to
stress rearrange themselves so that the orientation of the part changes in such a
way that the distorted part becomes a mirror image of the other part. The plane
across which the two part are mirror images is called twinning plane or
composition plane.Like slip, twinning also occurs along the certain
crystallographic planes and directions. These planes and directions are called as
twin planes and twin directions.The important role of twinning in plastic

deformation is that it causes changes in plane orientation so that further slip can

oc

1.Work hardening, also known as strain hardening or cold working, is the strengthening
of a metal by plastic deformation. This strengthening occurs because of dislocation
movements and dislocation generation within the crystal structure of the material
2.Solid solution strengthening is a type of alloying that can be used to improve the
strength of a pure metal. The technique works by adding atoms of one element (the alloying
element) to the crystalline lattice of another element (the base metal). The alloying element
diffuses into the matrix, forming a solid solution. H, Li, Na, N, C, and O. Carbon in iron
(steel) is one example of interstitial solid solution.
3. In plastic deformations, which arise due to the motion of dislocations in crystalline
microstructure, size effects cannotbe ne-glected at a small scales of observation. Within
each grain ofa polycrystal, the grain boundaries act as natural obstacles to dislocation
motion. Due to the stresses dislocations exert onto each other, dislocations will pileup
against the grain boundaries
4.
strengthening from grain boundaries
strain aging
solid-solution strengthening
strengthening from fine particles
fiber strengthening
martensite strengthening
strain hardening`
annealing
5. Maraging steels (a portmanteau of "martensitic" and "aging") are steels (iron alloys) that
are known for possessing superior strength and toughness without losing malleability,
although they cannot hold a good cutting edge. Aging refers to the extended heat-treatment
process. These steels are a special class of low-carbon ultra-high-strength steels that derive
their strength not from carbon, but from precipitation of intermetallic compounds. The
principal alloying element is 15 to 25 wt.% nickel.[1] Secondary alloying elements, which
include cobalt, molybdenum, and titanium, are added to produce intermetallic precipitates,
6. Shear strength is a material's ability to resist forces that can cause the internal structure of
the material to slide against itself. Adhesives tend to have high shear strength.
In engineering, shear strength is the strength of a material or component against the type of
yield or structural failure where the material or component fails in shear. The shear strength
is the load that an object is able to withstand in a direction parallel to the face of the material,
as opposed to perpendicular to the surface.
7. In metals and ceramics, requirements for it being superplastic include a fine grain size
(less than approximately 20 micrometres) and a fine dispersion of thermally stable particles,
which act to pin the grain boundaries and maintain the fine grain structure at the high
temperatures and existence of two phases required for superplastic deformation. Those
materials that meet these parameters must still have a strain rate sensitivity (a measurement
of the way the stress on a material reacts to changes in strain rate) of >0.3 to be considered
superplastic.

8. A yield strength or yield point is the material property defined as the stress at which a
material begins to deform plastically. Prior to the yield point the material will deform
elastically and will return to its original shape when the applied stress is removed.
9. A grain boundary is the interface between two grains, or crystallites, in a polycrystalline
material. Grain boundaries are 2D defects in the crystal structure, and tend to decrease the
electrical and thermal conductivity of the material.
11. Substitutional solid solution strengthening occurs when the solute atom is large
enough that it can replace solvent atoms in their lattice positions. According to the HumeRothery rules, solvent and solute atoms must differ in atomic size by less than 15% in order
to form this type of solution. Because both elements exist in the same crystalline lattice, both
elements in their pure form must be of the same crystal structure. Examples of substitutional
solid solutions include the Cu-Ni and the Ag-Au FCC binary systems, and the Mo-W BCC
binary system.
Interstitial solid solutions form when the solute atom is equal to or slightly smaller and can
fill the interstices of the solvent atoms. The atoms crowd into the interstitial sites, causing the
bonds of the solvent atoms to compress and thus deform. Elements commonly used to form
interstitial solid solutions include H, Li, Na, N, C, and O. Carbon in iron (steel) is one
example of interstitial solid solution
12. Relationship between yield point
and grain size d for a polycrystalline
material:
, where a certain shear stress required to ensure gliding
dislocations in a monocrystal, and K is a constant individual for each material also known as
the Hall-Petch parameter
14.Ductile fracture .
Brittle Fracture
Fatigue fracture
Creep fracture
15. Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) is the maximum stress that a material can withstand
while being stretched or pulled. The ultimate tensile strength of a material is calculated by
dividing the cross-section area of the material tested by the stress placed on the material
17. In materials science, superplasticity is a state in which solid crystalline material is
deformed well beyond its usual breaking point, usually over about 200% during tensile
deformation. Such a state is usually achieved at high homologous temperature.
18. Precipitation hardening, or age hardening,4 is produced by solution treating
and quenching an alloy in which a second phase is in solid solution at the elevated
temperature but precipitates upon quenching and aging at a lower temperature.