WATER SOFTENING

December 17,

2013

Softening is the removal of hardness from water.

This is not a

required part of the water treatment process since hard water does not have
any health consequences. However, hard water is problematic for a variety
of reasons. Hard water makes soap precipitate out of water and form a
scum, such as the ring which forms around bathtubs. In addition to being
unsightly, the reaction of hard water with soap results in excessive use of
soaps and detergents. Hard water may also cause taste problems in drinking
water and may shorten the life of fabrics washed in hard water. Finally, hard
water harms many industrial processes, so industries often require much
softer water than is usually required by the general public.
Excessively hard water will nearly always have to be softened in order
to protect the water treatment plant equipment and piping systems. At a
hardness of greater than 300 mg/L as calcium carbonate, scale will form on
pipes as calcium carbonate precipitates out of the water. The scaling can
damage

equipment

and

should

be

avoided.

TYPES OF TREATMENT
There are several types of treatment processes which can be used to soften
water. In each of the treatment processes, the goal is the same. Softened
water should have a hardness of about 80 to 90 mg/L as calcium carbonate.
If water is softened further (as in the ion exchange process), hard water must
be mixed with the softened water to achieve the desired hardness.
Excessively soft water can be nearly as problematic as excessively hard
water since it causes corrosion of pipes.

I.

Lime Softening/ Chemical Precipitation

Softening through chemical precipitation is similar to removal of turbidity

by coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation. There are many variations,
but the typical process involves adding lime to raise the pH of water until it is
high enough for reactions to occur which prompt hardness compounds to
settle out of the water. The equipment used also resembles turbidity
removal equipment - lime is added in the flash mixer, the water is
flocculated, and then the hardness compounds precipitate out in the
sedimentation basin.
As mentioned above, groundwater is more likely to need softening than
surface water is. Groundwater also may not need flocculation to remove
turbidity, so the softening process can sometimes replace the turbidity
removal process. If both turbidity removal and softening are required, then
the two processes can occur simultaneously, using the same equipment.
Chemical precipitation using lime will remove carbonate hardness. If soda
ash is added as well as lime, both carbonate and noncarbonate hardness
may be removed. In either case, chemical precipitation does not remove all
hardness from water. The hardness can be reduced as low as 30 to 40 mg/L
using chemical precipitation, although the typical goal is 80 to 90 mg/L. We
will discuss the chemical reactions which occur in lime-soda ash softening in
a later section.
Chemical precipitation is an effective softening process, but it does have
some disadvantages. The process requires a lot of operator control to get an
efficient result, which may make lime softening too operator-intensive for

small treatment plants. The high pH used in lime softening can set colors in
water and make them difficult to remove. Finally, lime softening produces
large quantities of sludge which can create disposal problems.

Equipment Used
Lime softening uses the equipment already found in most treatment plants
for turbidity removal. An overview of the lime treatment process is shown
below.

Chemicals Used in Lime Softening

Types of Lime
The lime used for softening comes in two forms - hydrated lime and
quicklime. Both types of lime soften water in the same way, but the
equipment required for the two types of lime is different.
Hydrated lime (Ca(OH)2) is also known as calcium hydroxide or slaked
lime. Hydrated lime can be added to water as it is without requiring any
special equipment, so it is a popular choice for small water treatment
plants.

In contrast, quicklime (CaO), also known as calcium oxide or unslaked lime,

must be slaked before it is used. Slaking is the process of converting
quicklime to hydrated lime by adding water, as shown below:
Calcium oxide + Water Hydrated lime
CaO + H2O Ca (OH)2

Slaking requires specialized equipment. The cost of equipment and the

operator time required to run the equipment usually make quicklime use
uneconomical in small plants. However, since the chemical cost of quicklime
is less than the cost of hydrated lime, quicklime is often used in large
plants.
The slaking process can also allow a large plant to reuse a large quantity of
the lime sludge produced in the softening process. First, the sludge is
heated, and the calcium carbonate in the sludge produces calcium oxide:

Calcium carbonate Calcium oxide + Carbon dioxide

CaCO3 CaO + CO2

Then the calcium oxide can be slaked and reused in the plant. Reusing lime
sludge cuts down on both chemical purchase and sludge disposal costs.
Monitoring
If softening problems are discovered, the cause usually lies in either chemical
feeder malfunctions or source water quality changes. A variety of water
characteristics can influence lime-soda ash softening:

Water hardness will determine the quantity of chemicals which must

be added to soften the water.

pH influences the chemical reactions in the softening process. A

higher pH makes the process more efficient.

Alkalinity determines whether the hardness in the water is carbonate

or noncarbonate hardness.

Temperature influences the rate of the reaction and the amount of

hardness which the water will hold.

These four water characteristics should be monitored carefully when

softening water using lime. In addition, coagulants used to remove turbidity
can influence the alkalinity or pH of the water, thus affecting the softening
process. After softening, the Langelier Index of the water should be tested
to ensure that the water is not corrosive. We will study the Langelier index
and corrosive water in more depth in the next lesson.
Softening is especially well-suited to treating groundwater since groundwater
characteristics tend to remain relatively constant. Changing water
conditions require a great deal of manipulating the softening process to keep

it efficient. In addition, the high turbidity found in surface water sometimes

requires presedimentation prior to softening.

II.

Ion Exchange

Ion exchange softening, also known as zeolite softening, passes water

through a filter containing resin granules. In the filter, known as a softener,
calcium and magnesium in the water are exchanged for sodium from the
resin granules. The resulting water has a hardness of 0 mg/L and must be
mixed with hard water to prevent softness problems in the distributed
water.

Ion exchange softening does not require the flash mixer, flocculation basin,
and sedimentation basin required for lime-soda ash softening. In addition,
the process does not require as much operator time. Ion exchange softening
is effective at removing both carbonate and noncarbonate hardness and is
often used for waters high in noncarbonate hardness and with a total
hardness less than 350 mg/L.
However, ion exchange softening has its disadvantages as well. The calcium
and magnesium in the hard water are replaced by sodium ions, which may
cause problems for people with health problems who are not supposed to eat
any salt. Softeners have to be backwashed in a manner similar to a filter,
and the recharge water, known as brine, can cause disposal problems.
Softener Design
Ion exchange softening exchanges calcium and magnesium ions in water for
sodium ions as the hard water passes through a softener. The softener is
similar in design to a pressure filter, with resins in place of the filter media.

Ion exchange softener

During treatment, water enters the softener and is directed by a baffle. The
water passes through a bed of resin underlain by a bed of gravel, then is
collected by an underdrain and piped out of the softener.
Softener Operation
Despite the superficial resemblance between softeners and filters, the two
operate in very different manners. In a softener, the bed is made up
of resins, which are insoluble solids with attached cations or anions capable
of reversible exchange with mobile ions of the opposite sign in the solutions
in which they are brought in contact.
In the case of the ion exchange resins used in softening, sodium ions are
attached to the insoluble solids of the resins. When water passes through
the softener, the sodium ions are exchanged for calcium and magnesium
ions in the water. The calcium and magnesium ions are retained on the resin

grains. The water leaving the softener has sodium ions in the place of
calcium and magnesium ions in its compounds, as shown below.

Since sodium ions do not cause hardness, the treated water is no longer
hard.
In a properly operating softener, the treated water will have a hardness of 0
mg/L. To prevent corrosion due to excessively soft water, some of the source
water is bypassed and does not pass through the softener. This untreated
water is blended back into with the water downstream of the softener using a
valve and meter to ensure that the proper quantity of water bypasses the
softener.
There are many types of resins which can be used in ion exchange units.
One type of resin commonly used in water softening is zeolite resin, which
is why ion exchange softening is often known as zeolite softening. When
other types of resins are used, ion exchange units can be used to remove
minerals in brackish water or to remove alkalinity from water.

Location in the Plant

Ion exchange softening requires influent water free of turbidity since

particulate matter can clog the resin bed. As a result, it is often one of the
last steps in the treatment process, following flash mixing, flocculation,
sedimentation, and filtration. As with lime-soda ash softening, ion exchange
softening can be problematic when dealing with surface water with changing
water characteristics.
Ion exchange softening is used widely in small water treatment plants and in
individual homes. The process has many advantages for these installations,
including its compactness, simplicity, and low cost. Operation of the unit can
be nearly automatic and the chemicals used are relatively safe and easy to
handle.
Monitoring
Like any other treatment process, ion exchange softening requires a certain
degree of water quality monitoring. The following water quality
characteristics should be tested:

Hardness of influent water influences the time between cleanings.

The more calcium and magnesium compounds are present in the
water, the more quickly the sodium bound to the resin becomes used
up and the more often the softener must be regenerated.

Iron and manganese in the influent water will be caught in the filter
bed and can plug it up. Iron and manganese should always be
removed before water is softened.

Sodium in the influent water will react with the softener's resin as it
would during regeneration, resulting in magnesium and calcium
leaking through into the treated water.

Chlorine residual of the influent water should be monitored since an

excessive chlorine residual can damage the resin.

Langelier Index should be monitored in the effluent to ensure that

corrosive water is not being released to the distribution system.

ADVANTAGES OF SOFTENING
Softening will deal with the problems caused by hard water - excessive soap
use and scaling being the most troublesome. In addition, depending on the
type of softening process used, softening may also aid in other water
treatment processes. Softening often removes iron and manganese, reduces
tastes and odors, reduces total solids content, and removes radioactivity.
The high pH associated with lime softening can aid in disinfection. Finally,
when water is stabilized using recarbonation at the end of the lime softening
process, corrosion in the distribution system is avoided.
DISADVANTAGES OF SOFTENING
Softening processes all carry a certain monetary expense. In addition,
softening can cause several other problems.
The high pH associated with lime softening tends to favor the formation of
hypochlorite as the dominant free chlorine residual, and hypochlorite is a
less powerful disinfectant than other free chlorine residuals. The high pH
may also increase trihalomethane levels in the water. If the water is not
properly stabilized after treatment, then corrosive water may be produced
which will corrode the distribution system.
Ion exchange softening, as noted above, can also cause problems due to the

high levels of sodium in the treated water. Both lime softening and ion
exchange softening create waste disposal problems.