SOLAR POWER CAR

ABSTRACT:
The main objective of our project is to design and fabricate a car
which will be operated by conventional fuel and solar energy. In our design ewe
are using solar panel,motor,battery and ic engine.
Nowadays demand for the fuel is increased drastically. Conventional fuels are
non renewable. If the consumption of fuel is high it will be gone very soon in
our global. so we are providing an additional setup in existing vehicles which
will help to reduce the fuel consumption by the vehicle.
The vehicle has a battery for storing the energy provided by both systems such
as engine drive rotary motion and solar energy.

INTRODUCTION:
The fossil fuel such as petrol and diesel are very expensive way to be
extracted and used. The use of fossil fuel based vehicles is one of the major
reasons that has accelerated the extraction of these non-renewable resources in
an unsustainable way. Further, transportation of these fuel to rural areas itself
has become a problem. The major problem is green house effect caused due to
this burning of fossil fuel where large amount of CO2 will be emitted which
causes lots of problem. Solar vehicles depend on PV cells to convert sunlight
into electricity to drive the PMDC motors. Unlike solar thermal energy which
converts solar energy to heat, PV cells directly convert sunlight into electricity.
According to recent surveys the fossil fuels are depleting at a fast rate where in
and around 50 years the whole fossil fuel in the world must be completely
depleted. Therefore it is the need of the time to make a new exploration of
natural resources of energy and power among the natural resources available

sunlight is the most promising one. Sunlight is considered to be a source of

energy which is implemented in various day to day applications.
In the last years, increasing attention is being spent towards the applications of
solar energy to electric and also to hybrid cars. But, while cars only fed by sun
do not represent a practical alternative to cars for normal use,
The reasons for studying and developing a Solar Vehicle can be summarized as
follows:
fossil fuels, largely used for car propulsion, are doomed to depletion; their
price tends to increase, and is subject to large and unpredictable fluctuations;
the CO2 generated by the combustion processes occurring in conventional
thermal engines contributes to the greenhouse effects, with dangerous and
maybe dramatic effects on global warming and climatic changes;
the worldwide demand for personal mobility is rapidly growing, especially in
China and India; as a consequence, energy consumption and CO2 emissions
related to cars and transportation are increasing;
solar energy is renewable, free and largely diffused

The brief study of hybrid solar car is efficient in our daily life because now
days pollution and fuel rate is very big problem many people having fuel cars.
Use of solar energy is being used for car, besides the control of vehicular
pollution in the city, less consumption of fuel, Hybrid solar car are effective
reducing global warming and environment problem in big frame. In the present
work, the objective of this work is to estimate the potential of both energy as PV
energy and mechanical engine power, both powers will be utilized in running
car with weight reduction can be achieved primarily by the introduction of

better material, design optimization and better manufacturing processes. The

hybrid solar car is one of the potential items for weight reduction in hybrid solar
car as it accounts for 5% - 10% of the weight. Various advantages for hybrid
solar car by using solar technology
1. Reduction in conventional car demand in urban city
2. Minimum the pollution problem in urban city
3. Give clean energy which will reduce the carbon dioxide emission every
month
4. Reduction in fuel demand A hybrid car is a vehicle which can be used three
power sources are a solar energy with electric motor, electrical operated and a
small combustion engine to run a car.
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
In our design we are using a photovoltaic panel, battery, dc motor
and an IC engine.
Initially the vehicle is run by IC engine with the help of fuel. A chain drive is
connected from the rotor to the DC motor. Due to this rotary motion is
transmitted from the Engine to the DC motor. Due to the rotary motion the
motor produce electricity and this energy stored in Battery.
Simultaneously Photovoltaic panels convert the light energy from the sun to the
electricity and this electricity also stored in the battery. We can use this
electricity to run the vehicle while the fuel is dried.
When we engage the motor the rotary motion from the motor transmitted to the
vehicle axial drive and the vehicle starts to rotate.

MAJOR COMPONENTS USED:

Photo voltaic Panel

DC Motor 1.75 hp, 4600 RPM
IC Engine
Chain drive
Accelerator
Battery 48 volt, DC

COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION:
SOLAR PNEL:
Solar panel refers either to a photovoltaic module, a solar
hot water panel, or to a set of solar photovoltaic (PV) modules electrically
connected and mounted on a supporting structure. A PV module is a packaged,
connected assembly of solar cells. Solar panels can be used as a component of a
larger photovoltaic system to generate and supply electricity in commercial and
residential applications. Each module is rated by its DC output power under
standard test conditions (STC), and typically ranges from 100 to 320 watts.
The efficiency of a module determines the area of a module given the same
rated output an 8% efficient 230 watt module will have twice the area of a
16% efficient 230 watt module. There are a few solar panels available that are
exceeding 19% efficiency. A single solar module can produce only a limited
amount of power; most installations contain multiple modules. A photovoltaic
system typically includes a panel or an array of solar modules, an inverter, and
sometimes a battery and/or solar tracker and interconnection wiring.

Theory and construction

Polycrystalline PV cells connected in a solar module.

Solar modules use light energy (photons) from the sun to generate electricity
through the photovoltaic effect. The majority of modules use waferbased crystalline

silicon cells

or thin-film

cells based

on cadmium

telluride or silicon. The structural (load carrying) member of a module can

either be the top layer or the back layer. Cells must also be protected from
mechanical damage and moisture. Most solar modules are rigid, but semiflexible ones are available, based on thin-film cells. These early solar modules
were first used in space in 1958.
Electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage
and/or in parallel to provide a desired current capability. The conducting wires
that take the current off the modules may contain silver, copper or other nonmagnetic conductive transition metals. The cells must be connected electrically
to one another and to the rest of the system. Externally, popular terrestrial usage
photovoltaic modules use MC3 (older) or MC4 connectors to facilitate easy
weatherproof connections to the rest of the system.
Bypass diodes may be incorporated or used externally, in case of partial module
shading, to maximize the output of module sections still illuminated.
Some recent solar module designs include concentrators in which light is
focused by lenses or mirrors onto an array of smaller cells. This enables the use

of cells with a high cost per unit area (such as gallium arsenide) in a costeffective way.
Efficiencies
Depending on construction, photovoltaic modules can produce electricity from a
range of frequencies of light, but usually cannot cover the entire solar range
(specifically, ultraviolet, infrared and low or diffused light). Hence much of the
incident sunlight energy is wasted by solar modules, and they can give far
higher efficiencies if illuminated with monochromatic light. Therefore, another
design concept is to split the light into different wavelength ranges and direct
the beams onto different cells tuned to those ranges. This has been projected to
be capable of raising efficiency by 50%. Scientists from Spectrolab, a subsidiary
of Boeing, have reported development of multijunction solar cells with an
efficiency of more than 40%, a new world record for solar photovoltaic cells.
The Spectrolab scientists also predict that concentrator solar cells could achieve
efficiencies of more than 45% or even 50% in the future, with theoretical
efficiencies being about 58% in cells with more than three junctions.
Currently the best achieved sunlight conversion rate (solar module efficiency) is
around 21.5% in new commercial products typically lower than the efficiencies
of their cells in isolation. The most efficient mass-produced solar modules have
power density values of up to 175 W/m2 (16.22 W/ft2). Research by Imperial
College, London has shown that the efficiency of a solar panel can be improved
by

studding

the

with aluminum nanocylinders

light-receiving
similar

to

semiconductor

surface

the ridges on Lego

blocks.

The scattered light then travels along a longer path in the semiconductor which
means that more photons can be absorbed and converted into current. Although
these nanocylinders have been used previously (aluminum was preceded
by gold and silver), the light scattering occurred in the near infrared region and
visible light was absorbed strongly. Aluminum was found to have absorbed the

ultraviolet part of the spectrum, while the visible and near infrared parts of the
spectrum were found to be scattered by the aluminum surface. This, the research
argued, could bring down the cost significantly and improve the efficiency as
aluminum is more abundant and less costly than gold and silver. The research
also noted that the increase in current makes thinner film solar panels
technically feasible without "compromising power conversion efficiencies, thus
reducing material consumption".Efficiencies of solar panel can be calculated by
MPP(Maximum power point) value of solar panels

Solar inverters convert the DC power to AC power by performing MPPT

process: solar inverter samples the output Power(I-V curve) from the solar
cell and applies the proper resistance (load) to solar cells to obtain maximum
power.

MPP(Maximum power point) of the solar panel consists of MPP

voltage(V mpp) and MPP current(I mpp): it is a capacity of the solar panel
and the higher value can make higher MPP.

Micro-inverted solar panels are wired in parallel which produces more output
than normal panels which are wired in series with the output of the series
determined by the lowest performing panel (this is known as the "Christmas
light effect"). Micro-inverters work independently so each panel contributes its
maximum possible output given the available sunlight.
Crystalline silicon modules
Most

solar

modules

are

currently

of polycrystalline and monocrystalline

produced

from solar

silicon.

In

cells made

2013,crystalline

silicon accounted for more than 90 percent of worldwide PV production.[5]

Thin-film modules

Third generation solar cells are advanced thin-film cells. They produce a
relatively high-efficiency conversion for the low cost compared to other solar
technologies.
Rigid thin-film modules
In rigid thin film modules, the cell and the module are manufactured in the
same production line.
The cell is created on a glass substrate or superstrate, and the electrical
connections are created in situ, a so-called "monolithic integration". The
substrate or superstrate is laminated with an encapsulant to a front or back sheet,
usually another sheet of glass.
The main cell technologies in this category are CdTe, or a-Si, or a-Si+uc-Si
tandem, or CIGS (or variant). Amorphous siliconhas a sunlight conversion rate
of 6-12%.
Flexible thin-film modules
Flexible thin film cells and modules are created on the same production line by
depositing the photoactive layer and other necessary layers on a flexible
substrate.
If

the

substrate

is

an insulator (e.g. polyester or polyimide film)

then monolithic integration can be used.

If it is a conductor then another technique for electrical connection must be
used.
The cells are assembled into modules by laminating them to a transparent
colourless fluoropolymer on the front side (typically ETFE or FEP) and a
polymer suitable for bonding to the final substrate on the other side. The only
commercially available (in MW quantities) flexible module uses amorphous
silicon triple junction (from Unisolar).

So-called inverted

metamorphic (IMM) multijunction

solar

cells made

on compound-semiconductor technology are just becoming commercialized in

July 2008. The University of Michigan's solar car that won the North American
Solar Challengein July 2008 used IMM thin-film flexible solar cells.
The requirements for residential and commercial are different in that the
residential needs are simple and can be packaged so that as solar cell technology
progresses, the other base line equipment such as the battery, inverter and
voltage sensing transfer switch still need to be compacted and unitized for
residential use. Commercial use, depending on the size of the service will be
limited in the photovoltaic cell arena, and more complex parabolic reflectors
and solar concentrators are becoming the dominant technology.
Flexible thin-film panels are optimal for portable applications as they are much
more resistant to breakage than regular crystalline cells, but can be broken by
bending them into a sharp angle. They are also much lighter per square foot than
standard rigid solar panels.
The global flexible and thin-film photovoltaic (PV) market, despite caution in
the overall PV industry, is expected to experience a CAGR of over 35% to
2019, surpassing 32 GW according to a major new study by IntertechPira.
Smart solar modules

Several companies have begun embedding electronics into PV modules. This

enables performing maximum power point tracking (MPPT) for each module
individually, and the measurement of performance data for monitoring and fault
detection at module level. Some of these solutions make use of power
optimizers, a DC-to-DC converter technology developed to maximize the power
harvest from solar photovoltaic systems. As of about 2010, such electronics can
also compensate for shading effects, wherein a shadow falling across a section

of a module causes the electrical output of one or more strings of cells in the
module to fall to zero, but not having the output of the entire module fall to
zero.
Module performance and aging
Module performance is generally rated under standard test conditions
(STC): irradiance of

1,000 W/m,

solar spectrum ofAM 1.5

and

module

temperature at 25 C.
Electrical characteristics include nominal power (PMAX, measured in W), open
circuit voltage (VOC), short circuit current (ISC, measured in amperes), maximum
power voltage (VMPP), maximum power current (IMPP), peak power, Wp, and
module efficiency (%).
Nominal voltage refers to the voltage of the battery that the module is best
suited to charge; this is a leftover term from the days when solar modules were
only used to charge batteries. The actual voltage output of the module changes
as lighting, temperature and load conditions change, so there is never one
specific voltage at which the module operates. Nominal voltage allows users, at
a glance, to make sure the module is compatible with a given system.
Open circuit voltage or VOC is the maximum voltage that the module can
produce when not connected to an electrical circuit or system. VOC can be
measured with a meter directly on an illuminated module's terminals or on its
disconnected cable.
The peak power rating, Wp, is the maximum output under standard test
conditions (not the maximum possible output). Typical modules, which could
measure approximately 1x2 meters or 2x4 feet, will be rated from as low as 75
watts to as high as 350 watts, depending on their efficiency. At the time of
testing, the test modules are binned according to their test results, and a typical
manufacturer might rate their modules in 5 watt increments, and either rate

them at +/- 3%, +/-5%, +3/-0% or +5/-0%.Solar modules must withstand

rain, hail, heavy snow load, and cycles of heat and cold for many years.
Many crystalline silicon module manufacturers offer a warranty that guarantees
electrical production for 10 years at 90% of rated power output and 25 years at
80%.
Mounting systems
Ground mounted
Ground mounted photovoltaic system are usually large, utility-scale solar power
plants. Their solar modules are held in place by racks or frames that are attached
to ground based mounting supports. Ground based mounting supports include:

Pole mounts, which are driven directly into the ground or embedded in
concrete.

Foundation mounts, such as concrete slabs or poured footings

Ballasted footing mounts, such as concrete or steel bases that use weight
to secure the solar module system in position and do not require ground
penetration. This type of mounting system is well suited for sites where
excavation is not possible such as capped landfills and simplifies
decommissioning or relocation of solar module systems.

Roof mounting
Roof-mounted solar power systems consist of solar modules held in place by
racks or frames attached to roof-based mounting supports. Roof-based mounting
supports include:

Pole mounts, which are attached directly to the roof structure and may
use additional rails for attaching the module racking or frames.

Ballasted footing mounts, such as concrete or steel bases that use weight
to secure the panel system in position and do not require through
penetration. This mounting method allows for decommissioning or
relocation of solar panel systems with no adverse effect on the roof structure.

All wiring connecting adjacent solar modules to the energy harvesting

equipment must be installed according to local electrical codes and should
be run in a conduit appropriate for the climate conditions

Trackers

Solar modules mounted on solar trackers

Solar trackers increase the amount of energy produced per module at a cost of
mechanical complexity and need for maintenance. They sense the direction of
the Sun and tilt or rotate the modules as needed for maximum exposure to the
light.
Fixed racks
Fixed racks hold modules stationary as the sun moves across the sky. The fixed
rack sets the angle at which the module is held. Tilt angles equivalent to an
installation's latitude are common. Most of these fixed racks are set on poles
above ground.
Standards
Standards generally used in photovoltaic modules:

IEC 61215

(crystalline

silicon performance),

61646

(thin

film performance) and 61730 (all modules, safety)

ISO 9488 Solar energyVocabulary.

UL 1703 From Underwriters Laboratories

UL 1741 From Underwriters Laboratories

UL 2703 From Underwriters Laboratories

CE mark

Electrical Safety Tester (EST) Series (EST-460, EST-22V, EST-22H, EST110).

Devices with photovoltaic modules

Electric devices that includes solar modules:

Solar plane

Solar-pumped laser

Solar vehicle

Space stations and various spacecraft employ, or have employed photovoltaic

modules to generate power.

International Space Station

Mir space station

Skylab space laboratory

Soyuz spacecraft

BATTERY:
An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical
cells that convert stored chemical energy into electrical energy. Each cell
contains

positive

terminal,

or cathode,

and

negative

terminal,

or anode. Electrolytes allow ions to move between the electrodes and terminals,
which allows current to flow out of the battery to perform work.

Primary (single-use or "disposable") batteries are used once and

discarded; the electrode materials are irreversibly changed during discharge.
Common examples are the alkaline battery used for flashlights and a multitude
of portable devices. Secondary (rechargeable batteries) can be discharged and
recharged multiple times; the original composition of the electrodes can be
restored by reverse current.

Batteries have much lower specific energy (energy per unit mass) than
common fuels such as gasoline. This is somewhat mitigated by the fact that
batteries deliver their energy as electricity (which can be converted efficiently to

mechanical work), whereas using fuels in engines entails a low efficiency of

conversion to work.

Batteries convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy. A battery

consists of some number of voltaic cells. Each cell consists of two halfcells connected in series by a conductive electrolyte containing anions and
cations. One half-cell includes electrolyte and the negative electrode, the
electrode to which anions (negatively charged ions) migrate; the other half-cell
includes electrolyte and the positive electrode to which cations (positively
charged ions) migrate. Redox reactions power the battery. Cations are reduced
(electrons are added) at the cathode during charging, while anions are oxidized
(electrons are removed) at the anode during discharge. The electrodes do not
touch each other, but are electrically connected by the electrolyte. Some cells
use different electrolytes for each half-cell. A separator allows ions to flow
between half-cells, but prevents mixing of the electrolytes.

Each half-cell has an electromotive force (or emf), determined by its

ability to drive electric current from the interior to the exterior of the cell. The
net emf of the cell is the difference between the emfs of its half-cells.Thus, if
the electrodes have emfs

and , then the net emf is

; in other words,

the net emf is the difference between the reduction potentials of the halfreactions.

The electrical driving force or

across the terminals of a cell is

known as the terminal voltage (difference) and is measured in volts. The

terminal voltage of a cell that is neither charging nor discharging is called
the open-circuit voltage and equals the emf of the cell. Because of internal
resistance, the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is smaller in
magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is
charging exceeds the open-circuit voltage. An ideal cell has negligible internal
resistance, so it would maintain a constant terminal voltage of

until exhausted,

then dropping to zero. If such a cell maintained 1.5 volts and stored a charge of
one coulomb then on complete discharge it would perform 1.5 joules of
work. In actual cells, the internal resistance increases under discharge and the
open circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. If the voltage and resistance
are plotted against time, the resulting graphs typically are a curve; the shape of
the curve varies according to the chemistry and internal arrangement employed.

The voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of
the chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and zinc
carbon cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.5
volts;

likewise NiCd

and NiMH cells

have

different

chemistries,

but

approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts. The high electrochemical potential
changes in the reactions of lithium compounds give lithium cells emfs of 3 volts
or more.

Principle of operation
Batteries convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy. A battery
consists of some number of voltaic cells. Each cell consists of two halfcells connected in series by a conductive electrolyte containing anions and
cations. One half-cell includes electrolyte and the negative electrode, the
electrode to which anions (negatively charged ions) migrate; the other half-cell
includes electrolyte and the positive electrode to which cations (positively
charged ions) migrate. Redox reactions power the battery. Cations are reduced
(electrons are added) at the cathode during charging, while anions are oxidized
(electrons are removed) at the anode during discharge. The electrodes do not
touch each other, but are electrically connected by the electrolyte. Some cells
use different electrolytes for each half-cell. A separator allows ions to flow
between half-cells, but prevents mixing of the electrolytes.
Each half-cell has an electromotive force (or emf), determined by its ability to
drive electric current from the interior to the exterior of the cell. The net emf of
the cell is the difference between the emfs of its half-cells. Thus, if the
electrodes have emfs

and

, then the net emf is

; in other words, the

net emf is the difference between the reduction potentials of the half-reactions.
The electrical driving force or

across the terminals of a cell is known as

the terminal voltage (difference) and is measured in volts. The terminal voltage
of a cell that is neither charging nor discharging is called the open-circuit
voltage and equals the emf of the cell. Because of internal resistance, the
terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is smaller in magnitude than the
open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is charging exceeds
the open-circuit voltage. An ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it
would maintain a constant terminal voltage of

until exhausted, then dropping

to zero. If such a cell maintained 1.5 volts and stored a charge of

one coulomb then on complete discharge it would perform 1.5 joules of

work. In actual cells, the internal resistance increases under discharge and the
open circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. If the voltage and resistance
are plotted against time, the resulting graphs typically are a curve; the shape of
the curve varies according to the chemistry and internal arrangement employed.
The voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of
the chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and zinc
carbon cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.5
volts;

likewise NiCd and NiMH cells

have

different

chemistries,

but

approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts. The high electrochemical potential
changes in the reactions of lithium compounds give lithium cells emfs of 3 volts
or more.
Categories and types of batteries
Batteries are classified into primary and secondary forms.

Primary batteries irreversibly transform chemical energy to electrical

energy. When the supply of reactants is exhausted, energy cannot be readily
restored to the battery. Secondary batteries can be recharged; that is, they can
have their chemical reactions reversed by supplying electrical energy to the
cell, approximately restoring their original composition

Some types of primary batteries used, for example, for telegraph circuits, were
restored to operation by replacing the electrodes. Secondary batteries are not
indefinitely rechargeable due to dissipation of the active materials, loss of
electrolyte and internal corrosion.

Primary batteries
Primary batteries, or primary cells, can produce current immediately on
assembly. These are most commonly used in portable devices that have low
current drain, are used only intermittently, or are used well away from an
alternative power source, such as in alarm and communication circuits where
other electric power is only intermittently available. Disposable primary cells
cannot be reliably recharged, since the chemical reactions are not easily
reversible and active materials may not return to their original forms. Battery
manufacturers recommend against attempting recharging primary cells. In
general, these have higher energy densities than rechargeable batteries, but
disposable batteries do not fare well under high-drain applications
with loads under 75ohms (75 ).
Common

types

of

disposable

batteries

include zinccarbon

batteries and alkaline batteries.

Secondary batteries

Secondary batteries, also known as secondary cells, or rechargeable batteries,

must be charged before first use; they are usually assembled with active
materials in the discharged state. Rechargeable batteries are (re)charged by
applying electric current, which reverses the chemical reactions that occur
during discharge/use. Devices to supply the appropriate current are called
chargers.
The oldest form of rechargeable battery is the leadacid battery. This
technology contains liquid electrolyte in an unsealed container, requiring that
the battery be kept upright and the area be well ventilated to ensure safe

dispersal of the hydrogen gas it produces during overcharging. The leadacid

battery is relatively heavy for the amount of electrical energy it can supply. Its
low manufacturing cost and its high surge current levels make it common where
its capacity (over approximately 10 Ah) is more important than weight and
handling issues. A common application is the modern car battery, which can, in
general, deliver a peak current of 450 amperes.
The sealed valve regulated leadacid battery (VRLA battery) is popular in the
automotive industry as a replacement for the leadacid wet cell. The VRLA
battery uses an immobilized sulfuric acid electrolyte, reducing the chance of
leakage and extending shelf life. VRLA batteries immobilize the electrolyte.
The two types are:

Gel batteries (or "gel cell") use a semi-solid electrolyte.

Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) batteries absorb the electrolyte in a special

fiberglass matting.

Other portable rechargeable batteries include several sealed "dry cell" types,
that are useful in applications such as mobile phones and laptop computers.
Cells of this type (in order of increasing power density and cost) include nickel
cadmium(NiCd), nickelzinc (NiZn), nickel

metal

hydride (NiMH),

and lithium-ion (Li-ion) cells. Li-ion has by far the highest share of the dry cell
rechargeable market. NiMH has replaced NiCd in most applications due to its
higher capacity, but NiCd remains in use in power tools, two-way radios,
and medical equipment.
Recent developments include batteries with embedded electronics such
as USBCELL, which allows charging an AA battery through a USB connector,
nano ball batteries that allow for a discharge rate about 100x greater than
current batteries, and smart battery packs with state-of-charge monitors and

battery protection circuits that prevent damage on over-discharge. Low selfdischarge (LSD) allows secondary cells to be charged prior to shipping.
Battery cell types
Many types of electrochemical cells have been produced, with varying chemical
processes

and

designs,

including galvanic

cells, electrolytic

cells, fuel

cells, flow cells and voltaic piles.

Wet cell
A wet cell battery has a liquid electrolyte. Other names are flooded cell, since
the liquid covers all internal parts, or vented cell, since gases produced during
operation can escape to the air. Wet cells were a precursor to dry cells and are
commonly used as a learning tool for electrochemistry. They can be built with
common laboratory supplies, such as beakers, for demonstrations of how
electrochemical cells work. A particular type of wet cell known as
a concentration cell is important in understanding corrosion.
Wet

cells

may

be primary

cells (non-rechargeable)

or secondary

cells (rechargeable). Originally, all practical primary batteries such as

the Daniell cell were built as open-top glass jar wet cells. Other primary wet
cells are the cell, Grove, Bunsen cell, Chromic acid cell, Clark cell, and Weston
cell. The Leclanche cell chemistry was adapted to the first dry cells. Wet cells
are still used in automobile batteries and in industry for standby power
for switchgear, telecommunication or large uninterruptible power supplies, but
in many places batteries with gel cells have been used instead. These
applications commonly use leadacid or nickelcadmium cells.

Dry cell
A dry cell uses a paste electrolyte, with only enough moisture to allow current
to flow. Unlike a wet cell, a dry cell can operate in any orientation without
spilling, as it contains no free liquid, making it suitable for portable equipment.
By comparison, the first wet cells were typically fragile glass containers with
lead rods hanging from the open top and needed careful handling to avoid
spillage. Leadacid batteries did not achieve the safety and portability of the dry
cell until the development of the gel battery.
A common dry cell is the zinccarbon battery, sometimes called the
dry Leclanch cell, with a nominal voltage of 1.5 volts, the same as the alkaline
battery (since both use the same zincmanganese dioxide combination).
A standard dry cell comprises a zinc anode, usually in the form of a cylindrical
pot, with a carbon cathode in the form of a central rod. The electrolyte
is ammonium chloride in the form of a paste next to the zinc anode. The
remaining space between the electrolyte and carbon cathode is taken up by a
second paste consisting of ammonium chloride and manganese dioxide, the
latter acting as a de polariser. In some designs, the ammonium chloride is
replaced by zinc chloride.
Molten salt
Molten salt batteries are primary or secondary batteries that use a molten salt as
electrolyte. They operate at high temperatures and must be well insulated to
retain heat.
Reserve
A reserve battery can be stored unassembled (inactivated and supplying no
power) for a long period (perhaps years). When the battery is needed, then it is

assembled (e.g., by adding electrolyte); once assembled, the battery is charged

and ready to work. For example, a battery for an electronic artillery fuze might
be activated by the impact of firing a gun: The acceleration breaks a capsule of
electrolyte that activates the battery and powers the fuze's circuits. Reserve
batteries are usually designed for a short service life (seconds or minutes) after
long storage (years). A water-activated battery for oceanographic instruments or
military applications becomes activated on immersion in water.
Battery cell performance
A battery's characteristics may vary over load cycle, over charge cycle, and over
lifetime due to many factors including internal chemistry, current drain, and
temperature.
Capacity and discharge
A battery's capacity is the amount of electric charge it can deliver at the rated
voltage. The more electrode material contained in the cell the greater its
capacity. A small cell has less capacity than a larger cell with the same
chemistry, although they develop the same open-circuit voltage. Capacity is
measured in units such as amp-hour (Ah).
The rated capacity of a battery is usually expressed as the product of 20 hours
multiplied by the current that a new battery can consistently supply for 20 hours
at 68 F (20 C), while remaining above a specified terminal voltage per cell.
For example, a battery rated at 100 Ah can deliver 5 A over a 20-hour period
at room temperature.
The fraction of the stored charge that a battery can deliver depends on multiple
factors, including battery chemistry, the rate at which the charge is delivered
(current), the required terminal voltage, the storage period, ambient temperature

and other factors. The higher the discharge rate, the lower the capacity. The
relationship between current, discharge time and capacity for a lead acid battery
is approximated (over a typical range of current values) by Peukert's law:

where
is the capacity when discharged at a rate of 1 amp.
is the current drawn from battery (A).
is the amount of time (in hours) that a battery can sustain.
is a constant around 1.3.
Batteries that are stored for a long period or that are discharged at a small
fraction of the capacity lose capacity due to the presence of generally
irreversible side reactions that consume charge carriers without producing
current. This phenomenon is known as internal self-discharge. Further, when
batteries are recharged, additional side reactions can occur, reducing capacity
for subsequent discharges. After enough recharges, in essence all capacity is lost
and the battery stops producing power.
Internal energy losses and limitations on the rate that ions pass through the
electrolyte cause battery efficiency to vary. Above a minimum threshold,
discharging at a low rate delivers more of the battery's capacity than at a higher
rate.
Installing batteries with varying Ah ratings does not affect device operation
(although it may affect the operation interval) rated for a specific voltage unless
load limits are exceeded. High-drain loads such as digital cameras can reduce
total capacity, as happens with alkaline batteries. For example, a battery rated at

2000 mAh for a 10- or 20-hour discharge would not sustain a current of 1 A for
a full two hours as its stated capacity implies.
C rate
The C-rate is the multiple of the current over the current that a battery can
sustain for one hour. A rate of 1 C means that an entire 1.6Ah battery would be
discharged in one hour at a discharge current of 1.6 A. A 2C rate would mean a
discharge current of 3.2 A, over one half-hour.
Fast-charging, large and light batteries
As

of

2012 Lithium

iron

phosphate

(LiFePO

4) battery technology was the fastest-charging/discharging, fully discharging in

1020 seconds.
As of 2013, the world's largest battery was in Hebei Province, China. It stored
36 megawatt-hours of electricity at a cost of $500 million. Another large
battery, composed of NiCd cells, was in Fairbanks, Alaska. It covers 2,000
square metres (22,000 sq ft)bigger than a football pitchand weighs 1,300
tonnes, it was manufactured by ABB to provide backup power in the event of a
blackout. The battery can provide 40 megawatts of power for up to seven
minutes. Sodiumsulfur batteries have been used to store wind power. A 4.4
megawatt-hour battery system that can deliver 11 megawatts for 25 minutes
stabilizes the output of the Auwahi wind farm in Hawaii. Lithiumsulfur
batteries were used on the longest and highest solar-powered fligh. The
recharging speed of lithium-ion batteries can be increased by manufacturing
changes.

Battery lifetime
Available capacity of all batteries drops with decreasing temperature. In contrast
to most of today's batteries, the Zamboni pile, invented in 1812, offers a very
long service life without refurbishment or recharge, although it supplies current
only in the nanoamp range. The Oxford Electric Bell has been ringing almost
continuously since 1840 on its original pair of batteries, thought to be Zamboni
piles.
Self-discharge
Disposable batteries typically lose 8 to 20 percent of their original charge per
year when stored at room temperature (2030 C). This is known as the "selfdischarge" rate, and is due to non-current-producing "side" chemical reactions
that occur within the cell even when no load is applied. The rate of side
reactions is reduced for batteries are stored at lower temperatures, although
some can be damaged by freezing.
Old rechargeable batteries self-discharge more rapidly than disposable alkaline
batteries, especially nickel-based batteries; a freshly charged nickel cadmium
(NiCd) battery loses 10% of its charge in the first 24 hours, and thereafter
discharges at a rate of about 10% a month. However, newer low self-discharge
nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries and modern lithium designs display a
lower self-discharge rate (but still higher than for primary batteries).
Corrosion
Internal parts may corrode and fail, or the active materials may be slowly
converted to inactive forms.

Physical component changes

The active material on the battery plates changes chemical composition on each
charge and discharge cycle, active material may be lost due to physical changes
of volume; further limiting the number of times the battery can be recharged.
Most nickel-based batteries are partially discharged when purchased, and must
be charged before first use. Newer NiMH batteries are ready to be used when
purchased, and have only 15% discharge in a year. Some deterioration occurs on
each chargedischarge cycle. Degradation usually occurs because electrolyte
migrates away from the electrodes or because active material detaches from the
electrodes.
Low-capacity NiMH batteries (17002000 mAh) can be charged some 1,000
times, whereas high-capacity NiMH batteries (above 2500 mAh) last about 500
cycles. NiCd batteries tend to be rated for 1,000 cycles before their internal
resistance permanently increases beyond usable values.
Charge/discharge speed
Fast charging increases component changes, shortening battery lifespan.
Overcharging
If a charger cannot detect when the battery is fully charged then overcharging is
likely, damaging it.
Memory effect
NiCd cells, if used in a particular repetitive manner, may show a decrease in
capacity called "memory effect". The effect can be avoided with simple
practices. NiMH cells, although similar in chemistry, suffer less from memory
effect.

Environmental conditions
Automotive leadacid rechargeable batteries must endure stress due to
vibration, shock, and temperature range. Because of these stresses
and sulfation of their lead plates, few automotive batteries last beyond six years
of regular use. Automotive starting batteries have many thin plates to maximize
current. In general, the thicker the plates the longer the life. They are typically
discharged only slightly before recharge.
"Deep-cycle" leadacid batteries such as those used in electric golf carts have
much thicker plates to extend longevity. The main benefit of the leadacid
battery is its low cost; its main drawbacks are large size and weight for a given
capacity and voltage.
Leadacid batteries should never be discharged to below 20% of their capacity
because internal resistance will cause heat and damage when they are recharged.
Deep-cycle leadacid systems often use a low-charge warning light or a lowcharge power cut-off switch to prevent the type of damage that will shorten the
battery's life.
Storage
Battery life can be extended by storing the batteries at a low temperature, as in
a refrigerator or freezer, which slows the side reactions. Such storage can extend
the life of alkaline batteries by about 5%; rechargeable batteries can hold their
charge much longer, depending upon type. To reach their maximum voltage,
batteries must be returned to room temperature; discharging an alkaline battery
at 250 mA at 0 C is only half as efficient as at 20 C. Alkaline battery
manufacturers such as Duracell do not recommend refrigerating batteries.

Battery sizes
Primary batteries readily available to consumers range from tiny button
cells used for electric watches, to the No. 6 cell used for signal circuits or other
long duration applications. Secondary cells are made in very large sizes; very
large batteries can power a submarine or stabilize an electrical grid and help
level out peak loads.

DC motor
A DC motor is an electric motor that runs on direct current (DC) electricity.
Brushed
The brushed DC motor generates torque directly from DC power supplied to the
motor by using internal commutation, stationary permanent magnets, and
rotating electrical magnets.It works on the principle of Lorentz force , which
states that any current carrying conductor placed within an external magnetic
field experiences a torque or force known as Lorentz force. Advantages of a
brushed DC motor include low initial cost, high reliability, and simple control of
motor speed. Disadvantages are high maintenance and low life-span for high
intensity uses. Maintenance involves regularly replacing the brushes and springs
which carry the electric current, as well as cleaning or replacing the
commutator. These components are necessary for transferring electrical power

from outside the motor to the spinning wire windings of the rotor inside the
motor.
Synchronous
Synchronous DC motors, such as the brushless DC motor and the stepper motor,
require external commutation to generate torque. They lock up if driven directly
by DC power. However, BLDC motors are more similar to a synchronous ac
motor.
Brushless
Brushless DC motors use a rotating permanent magnet in the rotor, and
stationary electrical magnets on the motor housing. A motor controller converts
DC to AC. This design is simpler than that of brushed motors because it
eliminates the complication of transferring power from outside the motor to the
spinning rotor. Advantages of brushless motors include long life span, little or
no maintenance, and high efficiency. Disadvantages include high initial cost,
and more complicated motor speed controllers.
Uncommutated
Other types of DC motors require no commutation.
homopolar motor-A homopolar motor has a magnetic field along the axis
of rotation and an electric current that at some point is not parallel to the
magnetic field. The name homopolar refers to the absence of polarity
change.
Homopolar motors necessarily have a single-turn coil, which limits them to very
low voltages. This has restricted the practical application of this type of motor.

 ball bearing motor-A ball bearing motor is an unusual electric motor that
consists of two ball-bearing-type bearings, with the inner races mounted
on a common conductive shaft, and the outer races connected to a high
current, low voltage power supply. An alternative construction fits the
outer races inside a metal tube, while the inner races are mounted on a
shaft with a non-conductive section (e.g. two sleeves on an insulating
rod). This method has the advantage that the tube will act as a flywheel.
The direction of rotation is determined by the initial spin which is usually
required to get it going.
Principles of operation

In any electric motor, operation is based on simple electromagnetism. A

current-carrying conductor generates a magnetic field; when this is then
placed in an external magnetic field, it will experience a force
proportional to the current in the conductor, and to the strength of the
external magnetic field. As you are well aware of from playing with
magnets as a kid, opposite (North and South) polarities attract, while like
polarities (North and North, South and South) repel. The internal
configuration of a DC motor is designed to harness the magnetic
interaction between a current-carrying conductor and an external
magnetic field to generate rotational motion.
Let's start by looking at a simple 2-pole DC electric motor (here red
represents a magnet or winding with a "North" polarization, while green
represents a magnet or winding with a "South" polarization).


Every DC motor has six basic parts -- axle, rotor (a.k.a., armature), stator,
commutator, field magnet(s), and brushes. In most common DC motors
(and all that BEAMers will see), the external magnetic field is produced
by high-strength permanent magnets1. The stator is the stationary part of
the motor -- this includes the motor casing, as well as two or more
permanent magnet pole pieces. The rotor (together with the axle and
attached commutator) rotate with respect to the stator. The rotor consists
of windings (generally on a core), the windings being electrically
connected to the commutator. The above diagram shows a common motor
layout -- with the rotor inside the stator (field) magnets.

The geometry of the brushes, commutator contacts, and rotor windings are
such that when power is applied, the polarities of the energized winding and
the stator magnet(s) are misaligned, and the rotor will rotate until it is almost
aligned with the stator's field magnets. As the rotor reaches alignment, the
brushes move to the next commutator contacts, and energize the next winding.
Given our example two-pole motor, the rotation reverses the direction of
current through the rotor winding, leading to a "flip" of the rotor's magnetic
field, driving it to continue rotating.

In real life, though, DC motors will always have more than two poles (three is
a very common number). In particular, this avoids "dead spots" in the
commutator. You can imagine how with our example two-pole motor, if the
rotor is exactly at the middle of its rotation (perfectly aligned with the field
magnets), it will get "stuck" there. Meanwhile, with a two-pole motor, there is
a moment where the commutator shorts out the power supply (i.e., both
brushes touch both commutator contacts simultaneously). This would be bad
for the power supply, waste energy, and damage motor components as well. Yet
another disadvantage of such a simple motor is that it would exhibit a high
amount of torque "ripple" (the amount of torque it could produce is cyclic with
the position of the rotor).
So since most small DC motors are of a three-pole design, let's tinker
with the workings of one via an interactive animation (JavaScript
required):

 You'll notice a few things from this -- namely, one pole is fully energized
at a time (but two others are "partially" energized). As each brush
transitions from one commutator contact to the next, one coil's field will
rapidly collapse, as the next coil's field will rapidly charge up (this occurs
within a few microsecond). We'll see more about the effects of this later,
but in the meantime you can see that this is a direct result of the coil
windings' series wiring:

There's probably no better way to see how an average

DC motor is put together, than by just opening one
up. Unfortunately this is tedious work, as well as
requiring the destruction of a perfectly good motor.
Luckily for you, I've gone ahead and done this in your

stead. The guts of a disassembled Mabuchi FF-030PN motor (the same model that Solarbotics sells) are
available for you to see here (on 10 lines / cm graph
paper). This is a basic 3-pole DC motor, with 2
brushes and three commutator contacts.
The use of an iron core armature (as in the Mabuchi, above) is quite
common, and has a number of advantages 2. First off, the iron core
provides a strong, rigid support for the windings -- a particularly
important consideration for high-torque motors. The core also conducts
heat away from the rotor windings, allowing the motor to be driven
harder than might otherwise be the case. Iron core construction is also
relatively inexpensive compared with other construction types.
But iron core construction also has several disadvantages. The iron
armature has a relatively high inertia which limits motor acceleration.
This construction also results in high winding inductances which limit
brush and commutator life.
In small motors, an alternative design is often used which features a
'coreless' armature winding. This design depends upon the coil wire itself
for structural integrity. As a result, the armature is hollow, and the
permanent magnet can be mounted inside the rotor coil. Coreless DC
motors have much lower armature inductance than iron-core motors of
comparable size, extending brush and commutator life.

Diagram courtesy of MicroMo

 The coreless design also allows manufacturers to build smaller motors;

meanwhile, due to the lack of iron in their rotors, coreless motors are
somewhat prone to overheating. As a result, this design is generally used
just in small, low-power motors. BEAMers will most often see coreless
DC motors in the form of pager motors.

IC ENGINE:
An internal combustion engine (ICE) is an engine where
the combustion of a fueloccurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion
chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal
combustion engine the expansion of the high-temperature and highpressure gases produced by combustion apply direct force to some component
of the engine. The force is applied typically topistons, turbine blades, or
a nozzle.

This

force

transforming chemical

moves
energy into

the

component

useful mechanical

over

energy.

distance,
The

first

commercially successful internal combustion engine was created by tienne

Lenoiraround 1859. and the first modern internal combustion engine was
created in 1864 by Siegfried Marcus.

The term internal combustion engine usually refers to an engine in which

combustion is intermittent, such as the more familiar four-stroke and two-stroke
piston engines, along with variants, such as the six-stroke piston engine and the
Wankel rotary engine. A second class of internal combustion engines use
continuous combustion: gas turbines, jet engines and most rocket engines, each
of which are internal combustion engines on the same principle as previously
described. Firearms are also a form of internal combustion engine. Internal
combustion engines are quite different from external combustion engines, such
as steam or Stirling engines, in which the energy is delivered to a working fluid
not consisting of, mixed with, or contaminated by combustion products.
Working fluids can be air, hot water, pressurized water or even liquid sodium,
heated in a boiler. ICEs are usually powered by energy-dense fuels such as
gasoline or diesel, liquids derived from fossil fuels. While there are many
stationary applications, most ICEs are used in mobile applications and are the
dominant power supply for cars, aircraft, and boats.
Typically an ICE is fed with fossil fuels like natural gas or petroleum products
such as gasoline, diesel fuel or fuel oil. There's a growing usage of renewable
fuels like biodiesel for compression ignition engines and bio ethanol for spark
ignition engines. Hydrogen is sometimes used, and can be made from either
fossil fuels or renewable energy.
Reciprocating piston engines are by far the most common power source for
landvehicles including automobiles, motorcycles, locomotives and ships.
Wankel engines are found on some automobiles and motorcycles.
Where very high power-to-weight ratios are required, internal combustion
engines appear in the form of combustion turbines. Powered aircraft typically
use an ICE which may be a reciprocating engine. Airplanes can also use jet
engines and helicopters can also employ turbo shafts; both of these are types of

turbines. In addition to providing propulsion, airliners employ a separate ICE as

an auxiliary power unit.
ICEs also have a role in large scale electric power generation where they're
found in the form of combustion turbines in combined cycle power plants with
typical electrical output in the range of 100 MW to 1 GW. The high temperature
exhaust is used to boil and superheat water to run a steam turbine. Thus, more
energy is extracted from the fuel than could be extracted by the combustion
turbine alone. In combined cycle power plants efficiencies in the range of 50 %
to 60 % are typical. In a smaller scale Diesel generators are used for backup
power and for providing electrical power to areas not connected to an electric
grid.
Two-stroke engines are widely used in snowmobiles, lawnmowers, string
trimmers, chain

saws, jet

skis, mopeds, outboard

motors,

and

power

source

many motorcycles.
Two

stroke

gasoline small

engines are

common

for chainsaws, leaf blowers and lawnmowers.

Engine configurations
Internal combustion engines can be classified by their configuration.
Common layouts of engines are:
Reciprocating:

Two-stroke engine

Four-stroke engine (Otto cycle)

Six-stroke engine

Diesel engine

Atkinson cycle

Miller cycle

Axial

Rotary:

Wankel engine

Continuous combustion:

Gas turbine

Jet engine (including turbojet, turbofan, ramjet, rocket, etc.)

Reciprocating engines

Structure

The base of a reciprocating internal combustion engine is the engine

block which is typically made of cast iron or aluminium. The engine block
contains the cylinders. In engines with more than 1 cylinder they're usually
arranged either in 1 row (straight engine) or 2 rows (boxer engine or V engine);
3 rows are occasionally used (W engine) in contemporary engines, and

other engine configurations are possible and have been used. Single cylinder
engines are common for motorcycles and in small engines of machinery. Water
cooled engines contain passages in the engine block where cooling fluid
circulate (the water jacket). Some small engines are air cooled, and instead of
having a water jacket the cylinder block has fins protruding away from it to cool
by directly transferring heat to the air. The cylinder walls are usually finished
by honing to obtain a cross hatch which is better able to retain the oil. A too
rough surface would quickly harm the engine by excessive wear on the piston.
The pistons are short cylindrical parts which seal one end of the cylinder from
the high pressure of the compressed air and combustion products and slide
continuously within it while the engine is in operation. The top wall of the
piston is termed its crown and is typically flat or concave. Some two stroke
engines use pistons with a deflector head. Pistons are open at the bottom and
hollow except for an integral reinforcement structure (the piston web). When an
engine is working the gas pressure in the combustion chamber exerts a force on
the piston crown which is transferred through its web to a gudgeon pin. Each
piston has rings fitted around its circumference that mostly prevent the gases
from leaking into the crankcase or the oil into the combustion chamber. A
ventilation system drives the small amount of gas that escape past the pistons
during normal operation (the blow-by gases) out of the crankcase so that it does
not accumulate contaminating the oil and creating corrosion. In two stroke
gasoline engines the crankcase is part of the airfuel path and due to the
continuous flow of it they do not need a separate crankcase ventilation system.

The cylinder head is attached to the engine block by numerous bolts or studs. It
has several functions. The cylinder head seals the cylinders on the side opposite
to the pistons; it contains short ducts (the ports) for intake and exhaust and the
associated intake valves that open to let the cylinder be filled with fresh air and

exhaust valves that open to allow the combustion gases to escape. However, 2stroke crankcase scavenged engines connect the gas ports directly to the
cylinder wall without poppet valves; the piston controls their opening and
occlusion instead. The cylinder head also holds the spark plug in the case of
spark ignition engines and the injector for engines that use direct injection. All
CI engines use fuel injection, usually direct injection but some engines instead
use indirect injection. SI engines can use a carburetor or fuel injection as port
injection or direct injection. Most SI engines have a single spark plug per
cylinder but some have 2. A head gasket prevents the gas from leaking between
the cylinder head and the engine block. The opening and closing of the valves is
controlled by one or several camshafts and springsor in some engines
a desmodromic mechanism that uses no springs. The camshaft may press
directly the stem of the valve or may act upon a rocker arm, again, either
directly or through a pushrod.

The crankcase is sealed at the bottom with a sump that collects the falling oil
during normal operation to be cycled again. The cavity created between the
cylinder block and the sump houses a crankshaft that converts the reciprocating
motion of the pistons to rotational motion. The crankshaft is held in place
relative to the engine block by main bearings, which allow it to rotate.
Bulkheads in the crankcase form a half of every main bearing; the other half is a
detachable cap. In some cases a single main bearing deck is used rather than
several smaller caps. A connecting rodis connected to offset sections of the
crankshaft (the crankpins) in one end and to the piston in the other end through
the gudgeon pin and thus transfers the force and translates the reciprocating
motion of the pistons to the circular motion of the crankshaft. The end of the
connecting rod attached to the gudgeon pin is called its small end, and the other
end, where it is connected to the crankshaft, the big end. The big end has a

detachable half to allow assembly around the crankshaft. It is kept together to

the connecting rod by removable bolts.
The cylinder head has attached an intake manifold and an exhaust manifold to
the corresponding ports. The intake manifold connects to the air filter directly,
or to a carburetor when one is present, which is then connected to the air filter.
It distributes the air incoming from these devices to the individual cylinders.
The exhaust manifold is the first component in the exhaust system. It collects
the exhaust gases from the cylinders and drives it to the following component in
the path. The exhaust system of an ICE may also include a catalytic
converter and muffler. The final section in the path of the exhaust gases is
the tailpipe.
2-stroke engines
The defining characteristic of this kind of engine is that each piston completes a
cycle every crankshaft revolution. The 4 process of intake, compression, power
and exhaust take place in only 2 strokes so that it is not possible to dedicate a
stroke exclusively for each of them. Starting at TDC the cycle consist of:
1. Power: While the piston is descending the combustion gases perform
work

on

itas

in

4-stroke

engine.

The

same thermodynamical considerations about the expansion apply.

2. Scavenging: Around 75 of crankshaft rotation before BDC the exhaust
valve or port opens, and blowdown occurs. Shortly thereafter the intake
valve or transfer port opens. The incoming charge displaces the
remaining combustion gases to the exhaust system and a part of the
charge may enter the exhaust system as well. The piston reaches BDC
and reverses direction. After the piston has traveled a short distance
upwards into the cylinder the exhaust valve or port closes; shortly the
intake valve or transfer port closes as well.

3. Compression: With both intake and exhaust closed the piston continues
moving upwards compressing the charge and performing a work on it. As
in the case of a 4-stroke engine, ignition starts just before the piston
reaches TDC and the same consideration on the thermodynamics of the
compression on the charge.
While a 4-stroke engine uses the piston as a positive displacement pump to
accomplish scavenging taking 2 of the 4 strokes, a 2-stroke engine uses the last
part of the power stroke and the first part of the compression stroke for
combined intake and exhaust. The work required to displace the charge and
exhaust gases comes from either the crankcase or a separate blower. For
scavenging, expulsion of burned gas and entry of fresh mix, two main
approaches are described: 'Loop scavenging', and 'Uniflow scavenging', SAE
news published in the 2010s that 'Loop Scavenging' is better under any
circumstance than 'Uniflow Scavenging'
Crankcase scavenged
Some SI engines are crankcase scavenged and do not use poppet valves. Instead
the crankcase and the part of the cylinder below the piston is used as a pump.
The intake port is connected to the crankcase through a reed valve or a rotary
disk valve driven by the engine. For each cylinder a transfer port connects in
one end to the crankcase and in the other end to the cylinder wall. The exhaust
port is connected directly to the cylinder wall. The transfer and exhaust port are
opened and closed by the piston. The reed valve opens when the crankcase
pressure is slightly below intake pressure, to let it be filled with a new charge;
this happens when the piston is moving upwards. When the piston is moving
downwards the pressure in the crankcase increases and the reed valve closes
promptly, then the charge in the crankcase is compressed. When the piston is
moving upwards, it uncovers the exhaust port and the transfer port and the
higher pressure of the charge in the crankcase makes it enter the cylinder

through the transfer port, blowing the exhaust gases. Lubrication is

accomplished by adding 2-stroke oil to the fuel in small ratios. Petroil refers to
the mix of gasoline with the aforesaid oil. This kind of 2-stroke engines has a
lower efficiency than comparable 4-strokes engines and release a more
polluting exhaust gases for the following conditions:

They use a total-loss lubrication system: all the lubricating oil is

eventually burned along with the fuel.

There are conflicting requirements for scavenging: On one side, enough

fresh charge needs to be introduced in each cycle to displace almost all the
combustion gases but introducing too much of it means that a part of it gets
in the exhaust.

They must use the transfer port(s) as a carefully designed and placed
nozzle so that a gas current is created in a way that it sweeps the whole
cylinder before reaching the exhaust port so as to expel the combustion
gases, but minimize the amount of charge exhausted. 4-stroke engines have
the benefit of forcibly expelling almost all of the combustion gases because
during exhaust the combustion chamber is reduced to its minimum volume.
In crankcase scavenged 2-stroke engines, exhaust and intake are performed
mostly simultaneously and with the combustion chamber at its maximum
volume.

The main advantage of 2-stroke engines of this type is mechanical simplicity

and a higher power-to-weight ratio than their 4-stroke counterparts. Despite
having twice as many power strokes per cycle, less than twice the power of a
comparable 4-stroke engine is attainable in practice.
Blower scavenged

Using a separate blower avoids many of the shortcomings of crankcase

scavenging, at the expense of increased complexity which means a higher cost
and an increase in maintenance requirement. An engine of this type uses ports or
valves for intake and valves for exhaust, except opposed piston engines, which
may also use ports for exhaust. The blower is usually of the Roots-type but
other types have been used too. This design is commonplace in CI engines, and
has been occasionally used in SI engines.
CI engines that use a blower typically use uniflow scavenging. In this design the
cylinder wall contains several intake ports placed uniformly spaced along the
circumference just above the position that the piston crown reaches when at
BDC. An exhaust valve or several like that of 4-stroke engines is used. The final
part of the intake manifold is an air sleeve which feeds the intake ports. The
intake ports are placed at an horizontal angle to the cylinder wall (I.e: they are
in plane of the piston crown) to give a swirl to the incoming charge to improve
combustion. The largest reciprocating IC are low speed CI engines of this type;
they are used for marine propulsion (see marine diesel engine) or electric power
generation and achieve the highest thermal efficiencies among internal
combustion

engines

of

any

kind.

Some

Diesel-electric locomotive

engines operate on the 2-stroke cycle. The most powerful of them have a brake
power of around 4.5 MW or 6,000 HP. The EMD SD90MAC class of
locomotives

use

2-stroke

engine.

The

comparable

class GE

AC6000CW whose prime mover has almost the same brake power uses a 4stroke engine.
An example of this type of engine is the Wrtsil-Sulzer RTA96-C turbocharged
2-stroke Diesel, used in large container ships. It is the most efficient and
powerful internal combustion engine in the world with a thermal efficiency over
50 %. For comparison, the most efficient small four-stroke engines are around

43 % thermally-efficient (SAE 900648); size is an advantage for efficiency due

to the increase in the ratio of volume to surface area.
See the external links for a in-cylinder combustion video in a 2-stroke, optically
accessible motorcycle engine.
Ignition
Internal combustion engines require ignition of the mixture, either by spark
ignition (SI) or compression ignition (CI). Before the invention of reliable
electrical methods, hot tube and flame methods were used. Experimental
engines with laser ignitionhave been built.
Gasoline Ignition Process
Gasoline engine ignition systems

generally

rely on a combination

of alternator or generator and leadacid battery for electrical power. The battery
supplies electrical power for cranking, and supplies electrical power when the
engine is off. The battery also supplies electrical power during rare run
conditions where the alternator cannot maintain more than 13.8 volts (for a
common 12V automotive electrical system). As alternator voltage falls below
13.8 volts, the lead-acid storage battery increasingly picks up electrical load.
During virtually all running conditions, including normal idle conditions, the
alternator supplies primary electrical power.
Some systems disable alternator field (rotor) power during wide open throttle
conditions. Disabling the field reduces alternator pulley mechanical loading to
nearly zero, maximizing crankshaft power. In this case the battery supplies all
primary electrical power.
Gasoline engines take in a mixture of air and gasoline and compress it to not
more than 12.8 bar (1.28 MPa). When mixture is compressed, as the piston
approaches the cylinder head and maximum stroke, a spark plug ignites the
mixture.

The necessary high voltage, typically 10,000 volts to over 30,000 volts, is
supplied by an induction coil or transformer. The induction coil is a fly-back
system, using interruption of electrical primary system current through some
type of synchronized interrupter. The interrupter can be either contact points or
a power transistor. Some ignition systems are capacitive discharge types. CD
ignitions use step-up transformers. The step-up transformer uses energy stored
in a capacitance to generate electric spark. With either system, a mechanical or
electrical control system provides a carefully timed high-voltage to the proper
cylinder. This spark, via the spark plug, ignites the air-fuel mixture in the
engine's cylinders.
While gasoline internal combustion engines are much easier to start in cold
weather than diesel engines, they can still have cold weather starting problems
under extreme conditions. For years the solution was to park the car in heated
areas. In some parts of the world the oil was actually drained and heated over
night and returned to the engine for cold starts. In the early 1950s the gasoline
Gasifier unit was developed, where, on cold weather starts, raw gasoline was
diverted to the unit where part of the fuel was burned causing the other part to
become a hot vapor sent directly to the intake valve manifold. This unit was
quite popular until electric engine block heaters became standard on gasoline
engines sold in cold climates.
Diesel Ignition Process
Diesel engines and HCCI (Homogeneous charge compression ignition) engines,
rely solely on heat and pressure created by the engine in its compression process
for ignition. The compression level that occurs is usually twice or more than a
gasoline engine. Diesel engines take in air only, and shortly before peak
compression, spray a small quantity of diesel fuel into the cylinder via a fuel
injector that allows the fuel to instantly ignite. HCCI type engines take in both
air and fuel, but continue to rely on an unaided auto-combustion process, due to

higher pressures and heat. This is also why diesel and HCCI engines are more
susceptible to cold-starting issues, although they run just as well in cold weather
once started. Light duty diesel engines with indirect injection in automobiles
and light trucks employ glowplugs that pre-heat the combustion chamber just
before starting to reduce no-start conditions in cold weather. Most diesels also
have a battery and charging system; nevertheless, this system is secondary and
is added by manufacturers as a luxury for the ease of starting, turning fuel on
and off (which can also be done via a switch or mechanical apparatus), and for
running auxiliary electrical components and accessories. Most new engines rely
on electrical and electronic engine control units (ECU) that also adjust the
combustion process to increase efficiency and reduce emissions.
Lubrication
Surfaces in contact and relative motion to other surfaces require lubrication to
reduce wear, noise and increase efficiency by reducing the power wasting in
overcoming friction, or to make the mechanism work at all. An engine requires
lubrication in at least:

Between pistons and cylinders

Small bearings

Big end bearings

Main bearings

Valve gear (The following elements may not be present):

Tappets

Rocker arms

Pushrods

Timing chain or gears. Toothed belts do not require lubrication.

In 2-stroke crankcase scavenged engines, the interior of the crankcase, and

therefore the crankshaft, connecting rod and bottom of the pistons are sprayed
by the 2-stroke oil in the air-fuel-oil mixture which is then burned along with
the fuel. The valve train may be contained in a compartment flooded with
lubricant so that no oil pump is required.
In a splash lubrication system no oil pump is used. Instead the crankshaft dips
into the oil in the sump and due to its high speed, it splashes the crankshaft,
connecting rods and bottom of the pistons. The connecting rod big end caps
may have an attached scoop to enhance this effect. The valve train may also be
sealed in a flooded compartment, or open to the crankshaft in a way that it
receives splashed oil and allows it to drain back to the sump. Splash lubrication
is common for small 4-stroke engines.
In a forced (also called pressurized) lubrication system, lubrication is
accomplished in a closed loop which carries motor oil to the surfaces serviced
by the system and then returns the oil to a reservoir. The auxiliary equipment of
an engine is typically not serviced by this loop; for instance, an alternator may
use ball bearings sealed with its lubricant. The reservoir for the oil is usually the
sump, and when this is the case, it is called a wet sump system. When there is a
different oil reservoir the crankcase still catches it, but it is continuously drained
by a dedicated pump; this is called a dry sump system.
On its bottom, the sump contains an oil intake covered by a mesh filter which is
connected to an oil pump then to an oil filteroutside the crankcase, from there it
is diverted to the crankshaft main bearings and valve train. The crankcase
contains at least one oil gallery (a conduit inside a crankcase wall) to which oil
is introduced from the oil filter. The main bearings contain a groove through all

or half its circumference; the oil enters to these grooves from channels
connected to the oil gallery. The crankshaft has drillings which take oil from
these grooves and deliver it to the big end bearings. All big end bearings are
lubricated this way. A single main bearing may provide oil for 0, 1 or 2 big end
bearings. A similar system may be used to lubricate the piston, its gudgeon pin
and the small end of its connecting rod; in this system, the connecting rod big
end has a groove around the crankshaft and a drilling connected to the groove
which distributes oil from there to the bottom of the piston and from then to the
cylinder.
Other systems are also used to lubricate the cylinder and piston. Every
crankshaft big end may have a nozzle to throw an oil jet to the cylinder and
bottom of the piston. That nozzle is in movement relative to the cylinder it
lubricates, but always pointed towards it or the corresponding piston. Instead,
the nozzle can also be placed fixed in the crankshaft and pointing upwards.
Typically a forced lubrication systems have a lubricant flow higher than what is
required to lubricate satisfactorily, in order to assist with cooling. Specifically,
the lubricant system helps to move heat from the hot engine parts to the cooling
liquid (in water cooled engines) or fins (in air cooled engines) which then
transfer it to the environment. The lubricant must be designed to be chemically
stable and maintain suitable viscosities within the temperature range it
encounters in the engine.

Cylinder configuration
Common cylinder configurations include the straight or inline configuration, the
more compact V configuration, and the wider but smoother flat or boxer
configuration. Aircraft engines can also adopt a radial configuration, which

allows more effective cooling. More unusual configurations such as

the H, U, X, and W have also been used.
Multiple cylinder engines have their valve train and crankshaft configured so
that pistons are at different parts of their cycle. It is desirable to have the piston's
cycles uniformly spaced (this is called even firing) especially in forced
induction engines; this reduces torque pulsations and makes inline engines with
more than 3 cylinders statically balanced in its primary forces. However,
some engine configurations require odd firing to achieve better balance than
what is possible with even firing. For instance, a 4 stroke I2 engine has better
balance when the angle between the crankpins is 180 because the pistons move
in opposite directions and inertial forces partially cancel, but this gives an odd
firing pattern where one cylinder fires 180 of crankshaft rotation after the
other, then no cylinder fires for 540. With an even firing pattern the pistons
would move in unison and the associated forces would add.
Multiple crankshaft configurations do not necessarily need a cylinder head at all
because they can instead have a piston at each end of the cylinder called
an opposed piston design. Because fuel inlets and outlets are positioned at
opposed ends of the cylinder, one can achieve uniflow scavenging, which, as in
the four-stroke engine is efficient over a wide range of engine speeds. Thermal
efficiency is improved because of a lack of cylinder heads. This design was
used in the Junkers Jumo 205 diesel aircraft engine, using two crankshafts at
either end of a single bank of cylinders, and most remarkably in the Napier
Deltic diesel engines. These used three crankshafts to serve three banks
of double-ended cylinders arranged in an equilateral triangle with the
crankshafts at the corners. It was also used in single-bank locomotive engines,
and is still used in marine propulsion engines and marine auxiliary generators.
Diesel cycle

P-v Diagram for the Ideal Diesel cycle. The cycle follows the numbers 14 in
clockwise direction.
Most truck and automotive diesel engines use a cycle reminiscent of a fourstroke cycle, but with a compression heating ignition system, rather than
needing a separate ignition system. This variation is called the diesel cycle. In
the diesel cycle,diesel fuel is injected directly into the cylinder so that
combustion occurs at constant pressure, as the piston moves.
Otto cycle: Otto cycle is the typical cycle for most of the cars internal
combustion engines, that work using gasoline as a fuel. Otto cycle is exactly the
same one that was described for the four-stroke engine. It consists of the same
four major steps: Intake, compression, ignition and exhaust.
PV diagram for Otto cycle On the PV-diagram, 12: Intake: suction stroke 23:
Isentropic Compression stroke 34: Heat addition stroke 45: Exhaust stroke
(Isentropic expansion) 52: Heat rejection The distance between points 12 is
the stroke of the engine. By dividing V2/V1, we get: r, where r is called the
compression ratio of the engine.

Engine Displacement

59.9 CC

Engine Type

Air cooled, 2 stroke

Number Of Cylinders

Valves Per Cylinder

Max Power

3.5 PS @5500 rpm

Max Torque

4.5 Nm @5000 rpm

Bore x Stroke

42.6 x 42.0 mm

Fuel Type

Petrol

ADVANTAGES:
Design is simple

Construction is Easy
Reduce the Emission
It will reduce the Fuel Cost
Easy to control
No hazardous to the Environment
No Pollution to the environment.

DISADVANTAGES:
Initial Cost is high
Vehicle modification is a large process
Periodical Maintenance is required

CONCLUSION:
The Design and fabrication of solar car is done successfully and it is
worked as per our expectation. This vehicle will be suitable for all countries
where pollution rate is high. It reduces the emission because of alternate fuel
source.

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solar vehicle based on hybrid energy system International Journal of Energy
Engineering, 2012,2(1): 15-21

[2] S.Lalouni, D.Rekioua, T.Rekioua and E.Matagne, Fuzzy logic control of

standalone photovoltaic system with battery storage, Journal of power system,
volume 193, Issue 2, 5 September 2009, pp 899-907.
[3] R.Mangu, K.Prayaga, B.Nadimpally and S.Nicaise, Design, Development
and Optimization of highly efficient solar cars: gato Del sol I-IV, in proc.IEEE
Green Technology Conference, 2010, 1-6.
[4] Iqbal Husain, Electrical and Hybrid Vehicles Design Fundamentals by
CRC Press Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.
[5] T.J.E.Miller, Brushless Permanent Magnet and Reluctance motor drive,
Clarendon press oxford 1989.
[6] Oliver Trembly, Louis A.Dessaint and Abdel-Illah Dekkiche, A Generic
Battery model for the Dynamic Simulation of Hybrid Electric Vehicles, 2007,
pp.284-289.
[7] Dakshina M.Bellur and Marian K.Kazimierczuk, DC-DC Converters for
Electric Vehicle Applications, 2007 IEEE, PP 286-293.