Class XII/PHYSICS

ELECTROSTATICS

Frictional electricity is the electricity developed on objects, when they are rubbed with each other. The
electricity so developed cannot move from one part of the object to other part. Hence, frictional electricity is
also called static electricity.

Electrostatics is the branch of electronics which deals with the charges and forces resulting from electrons and
protons at rest, or static.

Charge is a scalar quantity. There are two kinds of charges- positive charge and negative charge

Charge originates at the fundamental particle level.

For the atomic particles forming stable matter have
Proton = +1 unit of charge
Electron = -1 unit of charge
Neutron = 0 charge

A positive charge of an object means that the object has lost electrons.
A negative charge of an object means that the object has gained electrons.

Properties of electric charge

• Charge can neither be created nor be destroyed. The total charge of an isolated system remains
constant. This is law of conservation of charge.
• Quantization of charge: All existing charges are integral multiples of the fundamental charge, e (1.6 x
-19
10 C). The charge on an body is ± ne .
• The electric charge is additive: The total charge on an object is the algebraic sum of all the charges
located at different points of the object.
• Like charges repel and unlike charges attract.

For the study of electrostatics we divide materials into two classes:

Conductors which allow charge to move freely through them
(metals and carbon in which the outermost atomic electrons are “free” to move through the crystalline atomic
lattice of the material)
Insulators in which charge does not move but stays where it is placed
(glass, quartz, mica, rubber, plastics in which the atomic electrons are tightly bound to their nuclei and are not
free to move)

COULOMB’S LAW
The magnitude of the force of attraction or repulsion between two electric charges at rest was studied by
Charles Coulomb. He formulated a law, known as "COULOMB'S LAW".

Statement
According to Coulomb's law:
“The electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion between two point charges is directly proportional to the
product of charges and inversely proportional to the square of distance between them.”

MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION OF COULOMB'S LAW

Consider two point charges q1 and q2 placed at a distance of r from each other. Let the electrostatic force
between them is F.

According to the law:

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SRHSS/2010/ Electrostatics Page 1 of 10 Prepared by: Sandhya.K
 Class XII/PHYSICS

Combining above statements:

OR

---------------------(1)
Where k is the constant of proportionality which depends on the medium and the units used for charges.

Value of K is equal to 1 if the medium is air or vacuum, where εo is permittivity of free space .Its
4Π ε
0
-12 2 2
volume is 8.854 x 10 c /Nm .
1 1
= = 8.98755 × 109 Nm 2C − 2 = 9 × 109 Nm 2C − 2
4πε 0 4 × 3.14 × 8.854 × 10 −12
9 2 -2
Thus in S.I. system numerical value of K is 9 x 10 Nm c .
Putting the value of K = 1/4πε
πε0 in equation (i)

− − − − − ( 2)
The force acts along the line joining the charges.

FORCE IN THE PRESENCE OF DIELECTRIC MEDIUM

If the space between the charges is filled with a non conducting medium or an insulator called "dielectric", it is
found that the dielectric reduces the electrostatic force as compared to free space by a factor called
DIELECTRIC CONSTANT. It is denoted by εr. This factor is also known as RELATIVE PERMITTIVITY. It has
different values for different dielectric materials.

In the presence of a dielectric between two charges the Coulomb's law is expressed as:
1 q1q2
F = ⋅ − − − − − − − −(3) , where ε is called absolute permittivity of the
med 4πε
r2
medium.
Dividing equation (2) by equation (3),
qq 1
⋅ 1 2
F 4πε 2 ε
vac = 0 r = − − − − − − − − − −(4)
F 1 qq ε
med ⋅ 1 2 0
4πε r 2
ε
is denoted ε , called relative permittivity of the medium with respect to the medium. It is also denoted by
ε r
0
K, called dielectric constant of the medium. Therefore, equation (4) gives,
ε F
ε = = vac − − − −(5)
r ε F
0 med
Thus, relative permittivity or dielectric constant of a medium may be defined as the ratio of force between two
charges placed at a certain distance apart in air to the force between the same two charges placed the same
distance apart in that medium.

VECTOR FORM OF COULOMB'S LAW

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SRHSS/2010/ Electrostatics Page 2 of 10 Prepared by: Sandhya.K
 Class XII/PHYSICS

Consider two point charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance r. If q1 q2 > 0 i.e. if both q1 and q2 are +ve
or both q1 and q2 are negative then the charges repel each other otherwise they attract each other.

So the forces exerted by charges on each other are equal in magnitude opposite in direction

PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION

The principle of superposition gives a method to find force on a charge, when a group of charges are interacting.

It states that- “when a number of charges are interacting, the total force on a given charge is the
vector sum of the individual forces exerted on the given charge by all the other charges.”

Consider n point charges q1, q2, q3, ……qn are distributed in space. The charges are interacting with each other.
r r r
Let us find the force on q1due to all other charges. If the charges q2, q3, ……qn exert forces F , F , …. F
12 13 1n
on the charge q1 (fig), then according to principle of superposition, the total force on charge q1 is given by
r r r r
F1 = F12 + F13 + ....... + F1n − − − − − − − − − − − (6)
If the distance between the charges q1 and q2 is denoted as r ; and r̂ is unit vector from charge q2 to q1,
12 12
r 1 q1q2
then F12 = ⋅ rˆ
2 21
4πε 0 r12
Similarly, the force on charge q1 due to other charges is given by
r 1 q1 q 2
F13 = ⋅ 2
rˆ31
4πε 0 r13
……………………………………………
……………………………………………..
r 1 q1 q 2
F1n = ⋅ 2
rˆn1
4πε 0 r1n
r r r
Hence, substituting for F , F , …. F in equation (6), the total force on the charge q1 due to all other
12 13 1n
charges is given by-

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SRHSS/2010/ Electrostatics Page 3 of 10 Prepared by: Sandhya.K
 Class XII/PHYSICS

r r r r 1  q1q2 qq qq 
F1 = F12 + F13 + .......+ F1n =  2 rˆ21 + 1 23 rˆ31 + ........+ 1 2n rˆn1  − − − − − − − − − (7)
4πε0  r12 r13 r1n 

The same procedure can be adopted for finding the force on any other charge due to remaining charges of the
group of n charges.

Question and Answers

1. What does q1+q2=0 signify in electrostatics?

A. The charges q1 and q2 are equal and opposite.

2. Electrostatic force between two charges is called central force. Why?

A. The force between two charges always acts along the line joining the two charges. For this reason it is
called central force.

3. In Coulomb’s law, on what factors the value of electrostatic force constant depends?
A. On the system of units adopted and the nature of medium, in which two charges are placed.

4. If the distance between two equal point charges is doubled and their individual charges are also
doubled, what would happen to the force between them?
A. Originally, the force between the two charges,
1 q×q
F= ⋅
4πε 0 r2
When the individual charges and the distance between the charges are doubled, the force is given by-
1 2 q × 2q 1 4q × q 1 q×q
F= ⋅ =F = ⋅ =F = ⋅ =F
4πε 0 (2r )2 4πε 0 4r 2 4πε 0 r 2
That is force will remain the same.

5. A comb run through one’s dry attracts small bits of paper. Why? What happens, if the hair is wet or if it
is a rainy day?
A. When a comb is run through dry hair, it gets charged. As such, it starts attracting small bits of paper. If
the hair is wet or it is rainy day, then in absence of friction, the comb will not get charged, when run
through hair. In absence of charge on the comb, the bits of paper will not be attracted.

6. Is Coulomb’s law in electrostatics applicable in all situations?

A. No, Coulomb’s law in electrostatics does not hold in all the situations. It is applicable only in the
following situations-
a) The electric charges must be stationary.
b) The electric charges must be points in size.

r
ELECTROSTATIC FIELD ( E )

Space or region surrounding an electric charge or a charged body within which another charge
experiences some electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion when placed at a point is called
Electric Field.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SRHSS/2010/ Electrostatics Page 4 of 10 Prepared by: Sandhya.K
 Class XII/PHYSICS

ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY

Electric intensity is the strength of electric field at a point.

Electric field intensity at a point is defined as the force experienced per unit positive charge at a
point placed in the electric field.
Or

It may also be also defined as the electrostatic force per unit charge which the field exerts at a
point.
Mathematically,

Electric field strength is a vector quantity directed away from a positive charge and towards the negative
−1 −1
charge. SI unit of electric field is newton/coulomb (NC ) or volt metre (Vm ).
−3 −1
The dimensional formula for E is MLT A .

The electric field due to a source point charge q at a distance r from it is given by-

ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A POINT CHARGE / ELECTRIC INTENSITY DUE TO A POINT CHARGE

Consider a point charge q called SOURCE CHARGE placed at a point ‘O’ in space. To find its intensity at a point
‘p’ at a distance ‘r’ from the point charge we place a test charge 'q'.

The electric field intensity will be:

F
E= ----(1)
q′
According to coulomb's law the electrostatic force between them is given by:
1 qq ′
F= -----------(2)
4πε 0 r 2
Substituting equation (2) in eqn(1)
F 1
We get: E= or E= ×F
q′ q′
Putting the value of 'F' we get:

1 1 qq′ 1 q
E= × = × 2
q′ 4πε 0 r 2 4πε 0 r

This shows that the electric intensity due to a point charge is directly proportional to the magnitude of charge q
and inversely proportional to the square of distance.
In vector form,

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SRHSS/2010/ Electrostatics Page 5 of 10 Prepared by: Sandhya.K
 Class XII/PHYSICS
r 1 q 1 q r
E= ⋅ rˆ = ⋅ r
4πε r 2 4πε r 3
0 0

ELECTROSTATIC LINES OF FORCE: PROPERTIES

A line of force is an imaginary path straight or curved such that the tangent to it at any point gives the direction
of electrostatic field at that point.
Or

A field line is an imaginary line along which a unit positive charge would move when set free. The lines of force
are drawn such that the number of lines per unit area of cross-section, (area held normally to the field lines) is
r
proportional to magnitude of E.

PROPERTIES OF FIELD LINES

a) Field lines always come out of positive charge and enter the negative charge.

b) Field lines never cross each other.

c) Field lines never form closed loops.
d) Field lines are always directed from higher potential to lower potential.
e) Field lines never exist inside a conductor.
f) Field lines always enter or leave a conducting surface at right angles.
g) Tangent to field line at a point gives the direction of field at that point.
h) Electric lines of force contract longitudinally.

Field Lines in Some Cases (b) Negative point charge

(a) Positive point charge

Field lines have spherical

Field lines have spherical symmetry
symmetry

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SRHSS/2010/ Electrostatics Page 6 of 10 Prepared by: Sandhya.K
 Class XII/PHYSICS
(c) Two similar charges of equal magnitude (d) Two similar charges of unequal
magnitudes

(e) Two dissimilar charges of equal magnitudes

ELECTRIC DIPOLE
A system of two equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance is called an electric dipole.

The molecules of water, ammonia, etc behave as electric dipoles.

ELECTRIC DIPOLE MOMENT

It is defined as the product of either of charge and the distance between the two charges.
r r
p = q ( 2a )

r
The dipole moment p is a vector quantity. It is directed from negative charge to positive charge.
Unit of dipole moment (p) = coulomb × metre = C.m
0 1 1 1
Dimensions of p = M L T A

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SRHSS/2010/ Electrostatics Page 7 of 10 Prepared by: Sandhya.K
 Class XII/PHYSICS

ELECTRIC FIELD AT AN AXIAL POINT OF ELECTRIC DIPOLE

Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges +q and –q, separated by a distance 2a and placed in free
space. Let P be a point on the line joining the two charges (axial line) at a distance r from the centre O of the
dipole.
r r
The electric field E at point P due to the dipole will be the resultant of the electric field E A (due to charge –q at
r
point A) andEB (due to charge –q at point B) i.e.
r r r
E = E A + EB
r 1 q 1 q
Now, E A = ⋅ = ⋅ (along PA)
4πε 0 AP 2
4πε 0 (r + a )2
r 1 q 1 q
And EB = ⋅ = ⋅ (along PX)
4πε 0 BP 2
4πε 0 (r − a )2
r r r r
Obviously, EB is greater than E A . Since E A and EB act along the same line but in opposite direction, the

magnitude of the electric field at point P is given by,

r r r
E= E = EB − E A (along PX)

1 q 1 q
E= ⋅ − ⋅
4πε 0 (r − a ) 4πε 0 (r + a )2
2

Or
E=
1
⋅q
(r + a ) − (r − a )
2 2
=
1
⋅
q (4ra )
4πε 0 (r 2
−a )
2 2 4πε 0 (r 2
− a2 )
2

Now, q(2a)=p, the magnitude of the electric dipole moment of the dipole.

1 2 pr
∴E = ⋅ (along PX)
4πε 0 (r 2
− a2 )2

In vector notation,
r r
1 2 pr
∴E = ⋅
4πε 0 (r 2
− a2 )2

2 2
When dipole length is very small, r>>>a, then a can be neglected as compared to r . Therefore for an electric
dipole of very small length,
1 2 pr 1 2p
E= ⋅ = ⋅ (along PX)
4πε 0 r4 4πε 0 r 3

ELECTRIC FIELD AT AN EQUATORIAL POINT

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SRHSS/2010/ Electrostatics Page 8 of 10 Prepared by: Sandhya.K
 Class XII/PHYSICS
Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges +q and –q, separated by a distance 2a and placed in free space. Let P
be a point on the equatorial line of the dipole at a distance r from the centre of the dipole. (as shown in figure).
r r
Let EA and EB be the electric fields at the point P due to charge –q at A and charge +q at point B. Then,
resultant electric field at point P is given by
r r r
E = E A + EB
r 1 q 1 q
Now, E A = ⋅ 2
= ⋅ 2 (along PA)
4πε 0 AP 4πε 0 r + a 2
r 1 q 1 q
And EB = ⋅ 2
= ⋅ 2 (along BP)
4πε 0 BP 4πε 0 r + a 2
r r
E A and EB have same magnitude. To calculate the resultant
electric field due to the dipole at point P, we can use the
r r r
triangle law of vector addition. In ∆PAB, PA, BP and BA
r r r
represent E A , EB and E respectively. Therefore by the law
of addition of vectors,
r r r
E EA EB
= =
BA PA BP
r r BA 1 q 2a
Or, E = EA × = ⋅ 2 × 1
PA 4πε 0 r + a 2
(r 2
+ a2 )
2

1 q ( 2a )
Or, E= ⋅ 3
4πε 0 (r 2
+ a2 ) 2

Now, q(2a)=p, the magnitude of the electric dipole moment of the dipole.

1 p
∴E = ⋅ 3 (along PX’)
4πε 0 (r 2
+ a2 ) 2
r
r 1 p
In vector notation, E= ⋅ 3
4πε 0 (r 2
+ a2 ) 2

2 2
When dipole is of very small length, that is, a<<<r, a can be neglected as compared to r . Therefore for an
electric dipole of very small length,
1 p
∴E = ⋅
4πε 0 r3

ELECTRIC DIPOLE IN UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD

Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges –q and +q and of length 2a placed in an uniform electric field
r
E , making an angle θ with the
r direction of the field as shown in figure above.
Force on the charge –q = -q E
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SRHSS/2010/ Electrostatics Page 9 of 10 Prepared by: Sandhya.K
 Class XII/PHYSICS
r
And force on charge +q = +q E
Thus the electric dipole is under the action of two equal and unlike parallel forces, and gives rise to a torque on
the dipole. The magnitude of the torque is given by,
τ = either force x perpendicular distance between them
= qE x AN = qE x (2a sinθ) = q (2a) E sinθ
Or τ = pE sinθ , where q (2a) =p, is the electric dipole moment of the dipole.
The torque tends to align the dipole along the field direction.
r
Since the electric dipole moment vector p is a vector from the charge –q to +q, the equation may be expressed
as,
r r r
τ = p× E

• When the dipole is placed in a uniform electric field, it experiences only a torque. Net force on the dipole
is zero.
• Torque on the dipole becomes zero, when it aligns itself parallel to the electric field.
i.e., when θ=0,
τ = p E sin0= 0

• Torque on the dipole is maximum, when the dipole is placed at right angles to the direction of the
electric field.
i.e., when θ=90°,
τ = p E sin90°= pE

Questions and Answers

1) Electric field intensity within a conductor is always zero. Why?

A. The electric lines of force cannot pass through a conductor. As a result, there can be no electric field inside
a conductor. Hence, the electric field intensity inside a conductor is zero.

2) Are the filed lines a reality?

A. The electric field lines are purely geometrical constructions, which are used to represent the electric field
graphically. The electric field lines are imaginary but the electric field they represent is real.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SRHSS/2010/ Electrostatics Page 10 of 10 Prepared by: Sandhya.K