Model Answer

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2012
Contents
CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES
GLOSSARY OF SYMBOLS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ABSTRACT
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.2. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
1.3. OUTLINE OF THE DISSERTATION
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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. INTRODUCTION
2.2. ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN BUILDINGS
Global warming
Energy efficiency in buildings
Energy demand in buildings in the Middle East
Politics and energy consumption in buildings
2.3. SOLAR COOLING SYSTEMS
Absorptions
Adsorptions
Desiccants
2.4. SUMMARY
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CHAPTER 3: SOLAR ABSORPTION SYSTEM

3.1. HISTORY
AIR CONDITIONING AND REFRIGERANT
Absorption cooling machines
Solar cooling using the absorption system
3.2. APPLICATIONS
3.3. TYPES
Single-effect
Double-effect
Triple-effect
3.4. EFFICIENCIES
3.5. BENEFITS
3.6. LIMITATIONS
3.7. SUMMARY
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CHAPTER 4: CASE STUDY ANALYSIS

4.1. LOCATION
Climate Data
Solar Energy
4.2. CASE STUDY
4.3. ECONOMICAL ANALYSIS
Economic Analysis Methods
4.4. SYSTEMS OVERVIEW
4.5. SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION
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CHAPTER 5: SYSTEM ANALYSIS

5.1. SYSTEM SIZING AND DESIGN
Basic Parameters
System Description
System Integration
5.2. ECONOMIC EVALUATION AND SYSTEM COMPARISON
Economic Evaluation
Assumptions and Mythology
Non economic analysis
5.3. SUMMARY OF THE RESULTS
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CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION
CONCLUSION
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
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REFERENCES
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APENDEX A
APENDEX B
APENDEX C
APENDEX D
APENDEX E
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List of Figures
Figure 1: Carbon dioxide CO2 emissions from energy, 2004 .8
Figure 2: Buildings Share of U.S. Primary Energy Consumption (2006) ..9
Figure 3: Primary energy intensity by world region (2006) ..11
Figure 4: World CO2 emissions per capita ...12
Figure 5: Simple diagram of the absorption refrigeration system..17
Figure 6: Simple diagram of the adsorption refrigeration system..19
Figure 7: Simple diagram of the desiccant system..21
Figure 8: Map of Oman...33
Figure 9: Monthly electrical demand in Muscat.34
Figure 10: Average monthly global radiation in Muscat. 36
Figure 11: The solar collectors evacuated tube..40
Figure 12: Building cooling load and solar cooling availability...44
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List of Tables
Table 1: Assessment of solar absorption air conditioning. ...18
Table 2: Assessment of solar adsorption air conditioning...20
Table 3: Assessment of solar desiccant air conditioning22
Table 4: The monthly minimum and maximum temperature..35
Table 5: Average solar radiation (kWh/m2/day) at the selected site..36
Table 6: Average duration of sunshine hours at the selected site per day.........37
Table 7: The building layout......37
Table 8: The cooling load for the building....37
Table 9: The cost comparison and results..47
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Glossary of Symbols
COP
Coefficient of Performance
A/C
Air Conditioning
AHU
Air Handling Unit
CO2
Carbon Dioxide
H2 O
Water
LiBr
Lithium Bromide
NH3
Ammonia
DB
Dry bulb Temperature
WB
Wet bulb Temperature
IPCC
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
CFC
Chlorofluorocarbon
HCFC
Hydro Chlorofluorocarbon
PPM
Parts per Million
KW
1,000 Watts
MW
million Watts
KWh
KW per hour
KWc
KW of cooling
KWelec
KW of electricity power
m2
Square meter
PBP
Payback period
NPV
Net present value
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Abstract
Air conditioning is one of major consumers of electricity in many regions of the

world. The percentage of use is higher in hot climate because of the high
demand for cooling that is required for the thermal comfort of occupants in
building. This results in a dramatic increase in demand for electricity on hot
summer days, which causes an undesirable increase in the use of fossil fuel
and furthermore threatens the stability of electricity grids. Recently areas of
Europe have seen a number of electric power shortages in summer during
periods of peak use of air conditioning.
Due to the need for cooling applications such as air conditioning in summer,
which usually correlates with the availability of high levels of solar radiation,
solar energy seems an obvious energy source for cooling purposes; this could
be used to replace a large portion of the electrical energy required for
convection air conditioning. Solar cooling might also be a way to reduce peak
demand for electrical power because the majority of air conditioning systems
use vapour compression systems driven by grid-electricity. In addition many
solar cooling systems are constructed in ways that eliminate the need for CFC
refrigerants that cause ozone depletion and the green house effect. Therefore,
solar cooling will undoubtedly play an increasing role in zero energy and green
building design in the future.
Solar cooling is not yet widely available, so it is important to understand the
specific barriers to its rise to prominence, and as a result determine the best
strategies to help overcome these barriers. This paper investigated the potential
for the solar cooling of buildings in hot climate regions. It also presents a case
study, focusing on a building in the Sultanate of Oman to compare energy
uses for cooling load by contrasting conventional air conditioning system
and solar cooling techniques.
Keywords: solar cooling, solar energy, absorption chillers, solar collectors, evacuated
tubes, LiBr-H2O, free A/C.
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Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1. General Introduction

Air conditioning systems and their demands on fossil fuel represent the greatest source
of climate change gases of any single technology. The main reason for the growing use
of air conditioning is an increased demand for comfort; the present generations
standard of living is higher than ever before, especially in private buildings.
Additionally, the trend towards commercial buildings with large glazed facades has
increased the internal heat load, creating further demand on air conditioning systems.
The noticeable consequence of this growing use of air conditioning is increased
electricity consumption. During recent summers, the demand for electricity has greatly
increased because of the extensive use of air conditioning systems, which increase peak
electricity load, causing major problems in national electricity supply grids.
Furthermore; conventional air conditioning is responsible for a large percentage of the
greenhouse and ozone depletion effect as refrigerants and harmful gases are being
released into the atmosphere by these systems. For these reasons, the need to find
advanced new concepts to apply to building air conditioning systems is more crucial
than ever.
In Middle Eastern countries such as Oman, the high ambient temperatures have a direct
impact on nations power demand. Almost all the buildings are cooled by electricity
powered, conventional, air conditioning systems which consume a lot of electrical
power. This dominant practice relies on electricity for running cooling machines, while
the exploitation of solar energy is mainly intended for domestic hot water systems and
its application is very limited in terms of cooling purposes.
The use of solar energy to run the cooling system for space conditioning of the majority
of buildings is an attractive concept; especially in hot arid countries like Oman where
high demands for cooling are experienced principally in the summer months, which
typically correlates with higher levels of solar radiation from the sun. Solar cooling
systems have the advantage of using absolutely harmless fluids, such as water and salt
solution, which are considered more environmentally safe than the alternatives
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currently available. These systems can be used either as stand alone, or connected with
conventional air conditioning systems indoors to improve the indoor comfort level.
Thus, the main goal for using these systems can be summarised as to reduce energy
consumption as well as carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions.
There are several types of technology available on the market today for energy efficient
cooling. Of these, solar thermal absorption cooling is the most common, and this is
increasingly used for air conditioning applications worldwide. Compared to the other
solar cooling systems such as adsorption and desiccant systems, absorption solar air
conditioning is the system most suited to the conditions of Oman. A wide range studies
into different aspects of absorption systems, such as performance simulations, and
experimental test results have been reported. Among the various types of continuous
adsorptions, solar cooling and lithium bromide-water (LiBr-HO2) are frequently
employed together in these systems. It is reported that LiBr-HO2 has a higher
coefficient of performance (COP) than other working fluids, so it is considered to be
better suited to most solar absorption systems.
1.2. Aims and objectives

This dissertation analyses the economical performance of solar powered absorption
systems. The goals are to calculate the solar contribution to the total energy demand of
the thermal air conditioning system and to specify the associated costs. The influence of
building type and the different cooling load distributions on dimensioning rules is the
main question considered. To evaluate the influence of solar thermal system sizing on
performance, cooling load files for a medium-sized residential commercial building
with about 5397 m2 surface area was produced to fit a commercially available
absorption chiller with 313 kW nominal cooling power available on the market.
The building cooling load calculation was obtained by using HevaComp. The building
was divided in two parts, including offices and flats, so that a given chiller power is
sufficient to maintain room temperature levels at a given set point of 24oC for at least
90% of the hours of occupation. The objective of this study is to simulate a complete
system comprised of solar collator, storage tank and LiBr-HO2 absorption chiller. This
system aims to cover the application of the total cooling load demands of a commercial
and residential building located in Muscat, the capital of Oman throughout the year.
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For the financial analysis, a market survey of thermal chillers of up to 320 kW cooling
power and of solar thermal collector systems was carried out. The annuity was
calculated for different system combinations and cooling energy costs were obtained.
1.3. Outline of the dissertation

This dissertation is divided into six chapters, which include: 1) Introduction, 2)
Literature Review, 3) Solar Absorption System, 4) Case study Analysis, 5) System
Analysis, and 6) Conclusions.
Chapter 1 gives a brief introduction to this study by providing a general introduction,
aims and objectives, and an outline of the dissertation.
Chapter 2 discusses literature reviews related to the objectives of this study that provide
a basis to conduct it. The main topics in the literature review include: a brief
introduction, energy consumption in buildings, solar cooling systems and finally an
outlined summary of the findings.
Chapter 3 analyses the most common solar cooling in more details by presenting
information about its history, application, types, efficiency, Benefits, limitations and
summery.
Chapter 4 describes the case study for the building that has been chosen for this study.
To begin with, it demonstrates the selection of representative climate locations in
Oman, and establishes the case building used in this study. Using the case building in
the selected climate location, and the analysis tools and methods selected for this study,
it also outlines the integrated analysis procedure for the design of the solar cooling
system.
Chapter 5 presents the analysis and results based on locations selected in Oman. The
selection of a commercial and residential building located in Muscat, Sultanate of
Oman is made. The first part of the analysis determines the suitability of solar cooling
using LiBr absorption chiller that operates using hot water from solar collectors. The
second part aims to determine the primary energy savings comparing those when using
the LiBr absorption chiller to those when using an electric powered conventional
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chiller. Thus, this chapter demonstrates the integrated analysis procedure for
determining the cost effectiveness of the solar cooling design.
Finally, Chapter 6 summarises the dissertation, discussing the key findings of this study
including the limitations, and presents a conclusion. Finally, based on the limitations
identified in this study, recommendations for future research are proposed.
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Chapter 2: Literature Review
2.1.Introduction
A review was undertaken of the existing literature, including several books, articles,
and doctoral dissertations on the subject of energy efficiency in buildings and solar
cooling. The aim was to gain a fuller understanding of the different approaches for
improving energy efficiency in buildings and their characteristics. These approaches
were studied with specific consideration to their relevance in a warm climate. The main
focus was on the climate conditions common to the Middle East with a view to
investigating applicable solutions which might improve energy efficiency in buildings
using solar cooling. Related websites, governmental and organisation reports and
statistics were also explored in order to obtain information about the current situation
regarding solar cooling within this studys geographical boundary.
2.2. Energy consumption in buildings

Whilst some buildings are labelled as energy gluttons, others are praised for their low
annual energy consumption, and in the USA people use more energy per capita than
most other countries. However, buildings are not the only users of energy;
transportation, industry, and agriculture are others. Energy consumption has increased
rapidly since the industrial revolution (Benjamin Stein, 1992).
The intensive use of fossil fuels for power generation, transportation and refrigerant
applications has serious consequences on the ecosystem of our planet: the effects of
global warming are already affecting our daily lives, and will do so more strongly in
future. Climate experts expect a rise in average global surface temperature of between
1.8 and 4.0oC by the end of this century (IPCC, 2007). As a result, it is expected that
natural disasters will occur more often, with more drastic consequences. In September
2005 the flooding of New Orleans, USA, caused by hurricane Katrina shocked the
world and illustrates the strength of these effects (Sue, 2009). As well as causing local
ecological damage, global warming is also having surprisingly strong economic
consequences globally: around the same time as hurricane Katrina, oil prices reached
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more than $65 per barrel; the same level as during the oil crisis of the late seventies
(Doucet, 2008).
Climate change brings many challenges, including the need for people to adapt. As
populations burn more fossil fuels to provide energy, this will increase the emission of
greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Other than energy transportation and industrial
applications, buildings are responsible for most of the UKs carbon dioxide (CO2)
emissions, and initial findings show that these will rise in the future. With careful
design, however, it is possible that buildings could contribute to a substantial reduction
in energy demands, and the trend could be reversed (IPCC, 2007).
According to the Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Changes (IPCC), the buildings sector has the greatest potential for the mitigation of
climate change. The report also suggests that most of the technology required to
achieve these potential savings already exists, thus avoiding the need for new
technologies and inventions (IPCC, 2007).
Global warming
Global warming due to increasing temperatures is an important environmental concern
in the world today: during the 20th century, global surface temperature increased by
0.74oC. The main reason for this temperature rise has been increasing concentrations of
greenhouse gases and ozone depletion, which result from human activities such as the
burning of fossil fuel and the release of CFC refrigerant gases. These findings are
recognised by most of the national science academies of the major industrialised
countries (Doucet, 2008).
The term global warming became more widely used in 1988 when James Hansen, a
leading expert on climate change, used the term in his testimony to Congress. He said:
global warming has reached a level such that we can ascribe with a high degree of
confidence a cause and effect relationship between the greenhouse effect and the
observed warming. He added, ''It is time to stop waffling so much and say that the
evidence is pretty strong that the greenhouse effect is here.'' His testimony was widely
reported and thereafter the term global warming became commonly used by the press
and in public discourse (Shabecoff, 1988).
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The main greenhouse gases being emitted to the atmosphere are; carbon dioxide,
methane, chlorofluorocarbons CFCs and nitrous oxide. Since 1750 the concentrations
of carbon dioxide and methane have increased by 36% and 148% respectively. Current
levels are much higher than at any time during the last 800,000 years, the period for
which reliable data has been extracted from the ice cap (EPA, 2011). Carbon dioxide is
of particular concern because its production is linked to maintaining and improving
standards of living and it is directly related to fossil fuel derived energy.
Rising sea levels are an effect of global warming, and are caused by melting glaciers
and ice caps. According to the IPCC, mountain glaciers and overall snow cover have
reduced in both the North and South Arctic. In addition, rainfall has decreased in some
regions of the world such as the Mediterranean region and South Asia. Over the past 50
years, frost and cold temperatures have become less common, while warmer
temperatures and heat waves have become more frequent (IPCC, 2007).
According to a recent scientific study, the general public are more likely to attribute
global warming to human activity than to natural causes. The energy balance of the
climate system has been altered by changes in atmospheric concentration of greenhouse
gases, solar radiation and land cover. Global greenhouse gas emissions rose by 70%
from 1970 to 2004; during the same period, the annual emissions of the most
significant greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide, increased by approximately 80% (IPCC,
2007). Moreover, the IPCCs Special Report on Emissions Scenarios predicted a rise in
global carbon dioxide emissions of 25% to 90% from 2000 to 2030. Further warming
and changes in global climate would result from the continuous increase in global
greenhouse gas emissions above the present rates.
On 30 October 2006 Sir Nicholas Stern published his Review on the Economics of
Climate Change, warning that a rise of 2C could leave 15-40% of the world's species
facing extinction. The review reiterates that before the industrial revolution the level of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere was approximately 280 parts per million (ppm) of
CO2; the current level is approximately 383ppm CO2, and must not exceed 450-550
ppm CO2. Stern states that what we do now can have only a limited effect on the
climate over the next 40 or 50 years, but action taken over the next 10-20 years could
have a profound effect on the climate in the second half of this century (Sue, 2009).
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Energy consumption in various sectors is the main source of CO2 emissions. The World
Business Council for Sustainable Development reported that in most countries
buildings account for approximately 40% of energy consumption and related carbon
dioxide emissions (WBCSD, 2007). In 2004, approximately 10.6Gt of greenhouse gas
emissions originated from the building sector (IPCC, 2007). Figure 1 shows the
estimated CO2 emissions from energy use in buildings from two different perspectives:
the left bar represents CO2 emissions from all energy uses in buildings; the right bar
represents emissions from the direct combustion of fossil fuels only. Because electricity
could be produced from fuels with a lower carbon content than those currently used, it
can be argued that CO2 emissions from electricity use in buildings could be reduced.
Figure 1: Carbon dioxide CO2 emissions from energy, 2004

Sources: (IPCC, 2007)
Energy efficiency in buildings

In general, the energy efficiency of a building can only be assessed in relative terms;
either based on the previous performance of the same building or in comparison to
other buildings. Thus the energy use of a building might be expressed in terms of
annual energy use per square meter of floor area, and compared with benchmark levels
for similar buildings. The result so obtained would depend on many physical factors
including insulation, boiler efficiency, temperature, control systems, and the luminous
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efficacy of the lighting installations, but it would also depend on the way the occupants
interacted with the building, particularly if it were naturally ventilated with opening
windows (Williams, 1983).
Energy consumption in buildings accounts for a significant percentage of the worlds
total energy consumption. For example, in 2006, 39% of U.S. primary energy was
consumed by the buildings sector. The industrial sector was responsible for 33%, and
the transportation sector for 28% of the total. Of the 39% consumed by the buildings
sector, homes accounted for 21% and commercial buildings for 18%. Figure 2 shows
the estimated Buildings Share of U.S. Primary Energy Consumption (2006). As for
energy sources, 76% came from fossil fuels, 15% from nuclear generation, and 8%
from renewable (DOE, 2006). Since buildings have such a large share of total energy
consumption, any increase in their energy efficiency would lead to significant energy
savings and reductions in greenhouse gas emissions. Efficiency involves reduced
energy consumption whilst still maintaining acceptable levels of comfort, quality, and
other occupancy requirements.
Figure 2: Buildings Share of U.S. Primary Energy Consumption (2006)

Source: U.S. Department of Energy (DOE).
A significant report on the industry by The Building Services Research and Information
Association (BSRIA 2002) concludes that the world market for electrical compressor
air conditioning is growing and changing dramatically, especially in East Asia and
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Southern Europe. Global sales of air conditioning units of all types are increasing, with
the USA, China and Japan being the main three markets (BSRIA, 2002). To illustrate
the rate of change, sales of air conditioning units in China rose by 41% between 2000
and 2004. In the USA, air conditioning accounts for 14% of total electricity
consumption, resulting in a large portion of annual CO2 emissions throughout the
world. On the other hand, in Europe, commercial air conditioning has a 4% share of the
total annual electricity consumption, while residential air-conditioning accounts only
for 0.4%. Although the latter figure is still comparatively low, Europe has seen a
dramatic increase in sales of residential air conditioning between 1990 and 2004 (EIA,
2005).
The main reason for the growing use of air conditioning is an increased demand for
comfort; the present generations standard of living is higher than ever before,
especially in private buildings. In the USA for example, the number of households with
central air conditioning has risen from 23% in 1978 to 55% in 2001 (EIA, 2005).
Furthermore, the trend towards commercial buildings with large glazed facades has
increased the internal heat load which air conditioning is required to remove. The
noticeable consequence of this growing use of air conditioning is increased electricity
consumption. During recent summers, Europe has seen a number of electricity
shortages caused by peak use of air conditioners. Moreover, another consequence of
excessive air conditioning is higher temperatures in city areas, commonly referred to as
heat islands, such as in London where temperatures are approximately 8oC higher than
for the surrounding countryside. These inner city temperature peaks are the result of
heat conveyed from the interiors to the exteriors of buildings (Sue, 2009). Both
increased energy consumption and heat islands are the basis of strong arguments in
favour of using alternative air conditioning or cooling methods.
During the last fifteen years, several concepts and approaches have emerged concerning
energy efficiency in buildings, such as green building, passive house and zero energy
design. One of the main focus areas is climate types. According to the UK Department
for the Environment, climate refers to the average weather experienced over a long
period, including temperature, wind and rainfall patterns (IPCC, 2007a). The different
climates experienced throughout the world result in different levels of cooling and
heating energy demands on buildings. Adopting energy efficient design strategies is
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relatively complicated in warm climates and poses a significant challenge, especially in

developing regions such as the Middle East.
Energy demand in buildings in the Middle East
The Middle East is one of the developing regions with high levels of energy
consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. As shown in Figure 3, in 2006 the Middle
East had the second largest primary energy intensity after CIS/The Soviet Union,
stemming from low energy efficiency, energy intensive industries and low energy
prices (WEC, 2008).
Figure 3: Primary energy intensity by world region (2006)

Source: WEC, 2008
Most of the energy consumed in the region is produced by fossil fuels, therefore
causing considerable amounts of greenhouse gas emissions. As can be seen in Figure 4,
the Middle East is amongst the regions with a large share of CO2 emissions per capita;
higher than the world average in 2006. During the period 1971-2004, the second largest
regional increase in CO2 emissions from buildings was observed in the Middle East and
North Africa (IPCC, 2007).
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Figure 4: World CO2 emissions per capita

Source: WEC, 2008 (modified)
The Middle East has a valuable history of vernacular architecture which concerns itself
with environmental, social and economic aspects. However, many valuable
architectural elements have been neglected in new building designs as a result of the
modernisation which took place during the last two decades. Changes in economic and
social conditions in the region together with population growth have contributed to a
dramatic increase in energy consumption and related environmental problems.
In order to understand how energy efficient buildings can be developed in the region, it
is necessary to examine the strategies and technical solutions which would be feasible
within the constraints of local conditions. Therefore, in-depth knowledge of these
conditions and past experience is required. Although several energy efficient building
projects in the region have been highlighted by the media, detailed information about
such projects is not available. For instance, during the initial literature review
undertaken for this dissertation, very limited information was found about green
building and sustainable projects in Oman, Bahrain, Kuwait and Iran.
This study is focused on the potential developments in solar cooling of buildings in the
Middle East, especially the Sultanate of Oman. The initial literature review revealed
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that countries in the Middle East have high levels of energy consumption and related
emissions, particularly in their building sectors. Oman is one of the largest countries in
the region with a population of about 2.6 million, and residential and commercial
buildings account for approximately 40% of its total energy consumption. Among the
energy consumption sectors, the largest portion of CO2 emissions came from the
buildings sector (Oman Report, 2008). The selected focus of this dissertation is hot,
arid climatic regions with the common feature of high energy consumption as a result
of cooling systems in buildings; these conditions require complex solutions to deal with
the difficulties of such energy consumption.
Politics and energy consumption in buildings
Air conditioning systems represent the greatest source of climate change gases of any
single technology. In the USA, which has only 4% of the worlds population and yet
produces around 25% of the global CO2 per year, over 40% of electricity generated is
used to power conventional air conditioning systems. It can be argued that climate
change is not a consideration in most architectural offices around the world which, over
the past thirty years, have systematically shut off the indoor climate from the outdoor,
thereby making it necessary for air conditioning to make buildings comfortable (Sue,
2009).
Without doubt, new environmental regulations mean that refrigeration technology will
be required to change. The first regulation concerning the depletion of the ozone layer
was passed with a view to ending the emission of CFCs and hydro chlorofluorocarbons
(HCFCs). More recently, absorptive processes have been proposed as a consistent
alternative to compression air conditioning systems. Ecological problems concerning
the emission of CFCs from refrigerating units have stimulated several theoretical and
experimental studies on absorption cooling systems. The environmental impact of
refrigerant R-34 in the atmosphere has shown that CFC emissions are responsible for
around one third of the global greenhouse effect. These trends point towards the urgent
need for new space cooling systems which use non-polluting refrigerants. Along with
the proposed technologies, solar cooling could be an effective alternative to
conventional air conditioning (MPSDOL, 2005).
Due to the increasing concentration of greenhouse gases as well as climate changes, the
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need for renewable energy sources is greater than ever. This has now attracted attention
and some countries have set themselves targets to increase renewable energy supplies
in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Since building emissions in the Middle
East had increased by 6.4% in 2010 and now represent 9% of overall building
emissions, some governments in the region, such as Dubais, have introduced energy
efficiency requirements for new property developments and financial support for solar
energy use. These measures came into force in January 2008 and are aimed at driving
the market towards green design (Gulf News, 2007).
In general, the cooling load is high when solar radiation is high. Using existing
technologies, solar energy can be converted into both electricity and heat, either of
which can be used to power air conditioning systems. As long as they are provided with
a good electricity grid worldwide with cheaper price, most people are likely to choose a
conventional air conditioning system to provide comfortable conditions for their
buildings.
2.3. Solar cooling systems

Ever since humans have taken shelter in search of a more stable environment, they have
looked for ways to improve indoor conditions. However the indoor environment is
influenced by prevailing outdoor conditions, daily and seasonal changes in climate and
varying occupant requirements due to the type of building and its function. Depending
on the location and season, emphasis is given to either the cooling or heating of indoor
spaces in an attempt to counterbalance outdoor conditions and achieve indoor comfort:
this is achieved by controlling the indoor temperature, humidity, light availability and
air quality (Asimakopoulos, 1996).
In general, cooling is the transfer of energy from the indoor space in order to achieve a
more favourable temperature and humidity level than those of the natural surroundings.
However, in modern times the term has taken on a more literal meaning and can be
applied to year round environmental situations: therefore, air conditioning refers to the
control of temperature, moisture content, cleanliness, air quality, and air circulation as
required by occupants, a process, or a product in the space. This definition was first
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proposed by Willis Carrier, an early pioneer in air conditioning (Faye C. McQuiston,

2000).
There is a growing trend in many countries for peak electricity demand to occur during
the day in summer. This demand derives principally from the use of air conditioning
systems in buildings, both commercial and residential. As a result, summer peak
demands on the electricity grid networks exceed winter peaks.
There will always be a place for technologies that can provide cooling without
increasing electricity consumption. Solar cooling technology uses energy from the sun
to provide cooling. Since increased solar radiation during the summer leads to higher
temperatures and therefore increased cooling requirements, so the system is especially
effective and responds to the increased solar radiation by providing a greater cooling
effect. This is in contrast to the better known technology, solar domestic hot water and
space heating, where the demand for hot water increases during the winter months due
to the reduced incoming solar radiation. This report considers the current state of solar
cooling technology and whether it is appropriate for integration into the cooling
systems of hot countries such as Oman.
There are several approaches that can be taken to achieve solar cooling. The most
appropriate but least economic, is to use photovoltaic (PV) collectors to provide electric
power to run conventional air conditional machines. In general, PV collectors are
costly; the average price in 2007 was 6300/kWp when installed (CIBSE, 2009). In
addition, PV systems become less efficient as temperatures rise above their test
condition temperature of 25oC, which may render them unsuitable for countries like
Oman where the ambient temperature is always above 25oC (Sue, 2009).
According to BSRIA classification, there are three types of solar cooling; absorption,
adsorption and desiccant. All three types rely on the use of a solar collector to provide a
heat source and drive the cooling process.
Absorptions
In a conventional air conditioning machine an electric motor is used to drive a
compressor which consumes high quantities of electric power. In an absorption air
conditioning system, a heat source drives the cooling process. Heat sources can
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comprise hot water, steam, hot air or the hot products of combustion from the burning
of fuel. Absorption cooling can be considered an alternative to conventional air
conditioning if excess heat is available, such as heat from the sun.
In a conventional air conditioning machine the refrigerant evaporates at a low pressure
and produces a cooling effect. A compressor is used to compress the vapour to a higher
pressure where it condenses and releases heat. In an absorption air conditioning
machine the compressor is replaced by a chemical absorber, generator and a pump. The
pump is the only moving part of the system and consumes much less electricity;
approximately 9% less than a comparable compressor (BSRIA, 2008).
The energy required to drive the cooling process is provided by the external supply of
heat. Absorption cycles use two fluids; the refrigerant and the absorbent. The most
common fluids are water for the refrigerant, and lithium bromide (Li-Br) or ammonia
water for the absorbent. These fluids are separated and recombined in the absorption
cycle. The low pressure refrigerant vapour is absorbed into the absorbent and released
heat. The liquid refrigerant absorbent solution is pumped to a generator with a high
operating pressure. Heat is then added by the high pressure generator which causes the
refrigerant to desorb from the absorbent and vaporise. The vapours flow to a condenser,
where they are condensed into a high pressure liquid and the heat is ejected. The liquid
is then throttled through an expansion valve to the lower pressure in the evaporator
where it evaporates by absorbing heat, thus producing a cooling effect. The remaining
liquid absorbent in the generator passes through a valve where its pressure is reduced
and the absorbent is then mixed with the low pressure refrigerant vapours returning
from the evaporator. The cycle is then repeated (BSRIA, 2008). A diagram of the
absorption refrigeration system is shown in Figure 5.
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2012
Figure 5 : Simple diagram of the absorption refrigeration system

Source: BSRIA, 2008
Absorption air conditioning can be categorised by the type of heat source, the number
of effects and the chemicals used in the absorption process. Typical heat sources
include steam, hot water or hot gases. In a single effect absorption air conditioning
system, the heat released during the chemical process of absorbing refrigerant vapour
into the liquid stream is rejected as waste heat. In double effect absorption air
conditioning, some of this energy is used to generate high pressure refrigerant vapour.
Using this heat from the absorption process reduces the demand for heat and increases
the efficiency of the air conditioning system. Double effect absorption air conditioning
uses two generators paired with a single condenser, absorber and evaporator. Although
they operate with greater efficiency, they require a higher temperature heat input
compared with a single effect chiller. The minimum heat source temperature for a
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double effect absorption air conditioning is 140oC, which is difficult to achieve using
the solar collectors currently available. In addition, double effect air conditioning
systems are more expensive than single effect air conditioning.
The operating efficiency of air conditioning can be expressed in terms of the coefficient
of performance (COP), which is the cooling effect of the systems energy input. A
conventional vapour compression air conditioning system can have a COP of four or
above, which compares with around 07 for single effect absorption air conditioning,
and around 12 for double effect absorption air conditioning (BSRIA, 2008). Table 1
summarises the advantages and disadvantages of solar absorption air conditioning.
Table 1: Assessment of solar absorption air conditioning.

Advantages
Low-temperature heat supply for single
effect.
Only one moving part, pump requires
little electric power
Disadvantages
Low COPs.
It cannot be applied for a very low
evaporating temperature (when water LiBr
is used).
No auxiliary energy for operation of the

small system.
High heat release.
Solar thermal collector is used, which is

cheaper than Photovoltaic cells.
A continuous and large system requires a

pump which is not solar thermal energy
dependent.
Low energy cost to run for pump only. A

small system might not require pump.
Quite complicated system and requires

advanced knowledge for maintenance.
Requires little maintenance.
For a large system such as an air

conditioning unit, it requires a large area of
solar collector, which means a very high
installation cost and area.
Adsorptions
Adsorption refrigeration systems are similar to absorption refrigeration systems, and
are driven by an external heat source. However, they have one of the greatest benefits
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in that they require an input temperature of between 60oC and 95oC. This means that
relatively inexpensive solar collectors can be used to provide the heat source and drive
the refrigerant process.
An adsorption system consists of a pressure vessel divided into four chambers. These
four chambers are the evaporator (also called the lower chamber), the generator and
receiver (second and third chambers), and the condenser (top chamber). The generator
and receiver are connected by valves
which automatically open depending
on the pressure differences within the
system. Adsorption
systems
use
water as the cooling medium and

silica gel as the adsorbent. At low
pressures, water vaporises at low
temperatures. Silica gel can
link
large amounts of water without loss,

reversibly and without increasing in
volume, releasing the water again
when heat is applied.
Figure 6: Simple diagram of the adsorption refrigeration system
Source: BSRIA, 2008
The operation of an adsorption system is described below and shown in Figure 6:
Water is evaporated into the evaporator and causes the cooling circuit to cool
down.
The water previously evaporated is then adsorbed in the receiver.
The adsorbed water is de-adsorbed with the aid of a heat supply and progresses
into the generator.
The de-adsorbed water is condensed in the condenser chamber.
The collector and generator are alternately heated and cooled with the refrigeration
system. During the heating of one side the receiver is partially cooled by the cold water
that flows through the condenser to draw off the heat created during the adsorption
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process. After the cycle time has finished, the refrigeration system switches over by
means of pneumatically actuated valves.
Adsorption refrigeration systems have greater efficiency than absorption refrigeration
systems at low temperatures. However, the advantage is that they have no moving parts
such as pumps or electrically driven valves. Due to their intermittent operation, they
require more design effort to integrate into a cooling system. Moreover, compared to
absorption chillers they are larger, heavier, and more expensive per kilowatt of cooling
capacity. The COP of commercially available adsorption chillers is between 0.55 to
1.65. Table 2 summarises the advantages and disadvantages of the adsorption
refrigeration system.
Table 2: Assessment of solar adsorption air conditioning.

Advantages
Low operating temperature can be
achieved.
No moving parts.
Disadvantages
High heat release.
COP is not so low.
Low energy density.
Solar thermal collector is used, which is

cheaper than Photovoltaic cells.
Poor thermal conductivity of the solid

adsorbent, which causes long-term
problems.
Requires little maintenance.
Low operating pressure requirement,

which makes it difficult to achieve airtightness.
Very sensitive to low temperature.
The high weight of adsorbent, not

suitable for building in high capacity.
Desiccants
A desiccant cooling system is based on an open cycle dehumidification process. Heat
and water are required to operate this type of system. In general, water is commonly
used as a refrigerant since it is cheap and environmentally friendly. A desiccant
material can be either liquid or solid. In general, most desiccant systems use a solid
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desiccant material, such as silica gel, located in a desiccant wheel. The gel transfers
heat and water vapour between the extracted air and the supply air in to an air handling
unit (AHU). Sorption air conditioning can be used on its own or combined with a
conventional air conditioning system. When combined they lead to higher efficiency by
increasing the evaporator temperature of the compression cycle. The operation of a
desiccant system is described below and a simple diagram is shown in Figure 7:
Figure 7: Simple diagram of the desiccant system

Source: BSRIA, 2008
The principle for the operation of a desiccant system is as follows:
Air is passed over the desiccant wheel where it is dried.
The thermal wheel transfers heat to the extracted air, or cooling energy is
recovered from the extracted air.
The air is humidified and cooled in the humidifier.
The air is heated and the humidity increased by the buildings internal loads.
The extracted air is humidified in the exhaust air humidifier to increase the
cooling potential of the air.
The cooling energy is transferred to the supply air using the thermal wheel.
The air is heated by an external source, such as a solar energy source.
The heated air enters the desiccant wheel where it removes the moisture
adsorbed during the first stage.
A summary of the advantages and disadvantages of the desiccant refrigeration system is

shown in Table 3.
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Table 3: Assessment of solar desiccant air conditioning.

Advantages
Environmentally friendly because water
is used as the working fluid.
Disadvantages
Cannot achieve a low temperature in
humid regions.
Can be integrated into a ventilation and

heating system.
Required maintenance because of

moving parts in the rotor wheel of the
solid desiccant system.
A thermal collector can be used, which is

cheaper than PV cells.
Can be contaminated easily.
Low heat release.
Difficult to design for a small

application. Requires dehumidifier.
2.4.Summary
The literature review provided an understanding of global warming and energy
consumption in buildings. The findings of the literature review are summarised below.
The recent increase in floods and heat waves indicate a rapidly changing climate. This
climate change is arguably the greatest challenge facing our world today and has been
caused by an increase in CO2 and greenhouse gas emissions. Latest figures predict
global temperature increases of between 1.8oC and 4.0oC by the end of the century
(IPPC, 2007). Buildings contribute to this effect and produce around 50% of all CO2
emissions. It is now essential that CO2 emissions are reduced in order to avoid dramatic
disruption to the global climate. The aim must therefore be to design buildings more
effectively, increase the efficiency of machines, and to rely as much as possible on
environmentally friendly, clean energy, such as solar (Sue 2007).
During recent years, energy costs and demands have increased rapidly across the world.
A high proportion of energy consumed is used for cooling purposes in buildings,
especially in Middle Eastern countries which have hot, arid conditions. Therefore,
reducing energy used for cooling whilst still maintaining conditions of comfort in
buildings will be a key factor in achieving energy conservation and environmental
protection.
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There are several types of technology available on the market today for energy efficient
cooling. Of these, solar thermal absorption cooling is the most common, and is
increasingly used for air conditioning applications throughout the world. Compared to
the other solar cooling systems that were discussed in this study, absorption solar air
conditioning is the system most suited to the conditions of Middle Eastern countries
such as Oman. Furthermore, absorption solar air conditioning meets the high demands
for cooling experienced in summer months because this period typically correlates with
high solar radiation from the sun.
In addition, solar absorption cooling solutions could be more favourable than the
conventional air conditioning compression machines. Air conditioning systems which
use compression machines waste energy and have more impact on ozone depletion and
the greenhouse effect. Recently, many countries have experienced power shortages in
summer caused by the seasonal peak use of air conditioners. Moreover, another
consequence of excessive air conditioning is locally higher temperatures in city areas,
commonly referred to as heat islands. Both consequences provide strong arguments
for alternative air conditioning techniques.
The next chapter will discuss the absorption air conditioning systems in more detail.
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Chapter 3: Solar Absorption System
Solar absorption systems differ from the more common conventional air conditioning
systems in that the cooling effect is driven by heat energy, rather than mechanical
energy. Absorption air conditioning systems are the most thermally driven cooling and
solar cooling systems on the market today. Flat plate collectors, vacuum tubes, and
concentrating collectors are used for the heat supply of solar cooling systems.
3.1. History
Air conditioning, in its broadest sense has been used for many centuries. Up to the end
of last century it was considered that solar cooling could only be economical when
using photovoltaic driven compressor cooling machines. However, the use of efficient
solar collectors and other improved components and system designs have resulted in
solar thermal cooling emerging as a real technical alternative. It is now on the verge of
being financially competitive with conventional electricity-driven machine systems.
Air conditioning and refrigerant

Air conditioning was used many years ago. For example, the ancient Romans had
remarkably effective radiant heating systems in some of their buildings; achieved by
warming air then circulating it through cavities below floors or between walls. In the
hot dry climate of the Middle East, people used wet mats and hung them in front of
doorways and courtyards to achieve a simple form of evaporative air cooling. In the
fifteenth century Europe, Leonardo da Vinci designed a large evaporative cooler. This
air conditioning system, known as the great wheel, was designed for the boudoir of
Beatrice dEste, wife of da Vincis patron, the Duke of Milan. The great wheel was
approximately one storey high and stood outside the palace wall. This giant air
conditioning machine was turned by water power or sometimes by slaves; valves
opened and closed automatically, drawing air into the drum, where it was cooled and
forced out through the hollow shaft and piped into the room (Pita, 1998).
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The development of modern heating and air conditioning systems began around 100
years ago. Central heating systems were developed in the nineteenth century and
summer air conditioning using a mechanical refrigeration system has only grown into a
major industry during the last 70 years. Nevertheless, by 2008 air conditioning
application systems in the USA had reached a total installed value of approximately
$55 billion per year, representing approximately $15 billion in equipment sales (WOD,
2008).
In general, a typical person in modern society may spend around 90% of his time each
day indoors. It is therefore not surprising that businesses seeking to provide a healthy
and comfortable indoor environment now comprise a major sector in the economy.
Absorption cooling machines
Absorption systems have been used in air conditioning applications by several
companies in the USA since the 1950s. The most common absorption system was the
ammonia-water absorption machine, which was found to be effective for large capacity
industrial applications that needed low temperatures for process cooling. In the late
1950s the first working double-effect LiBr-H2O absorption machine was built, which
improved the coefficient of performance (COP) from 0.7 for single-effect to 1.4 for
double-effect.
In the 1960s the natural gas industry very effectively promoted the absorption system
alternative to conventional air conditioning. Absorption cooling and gas absorption
chillers were successfully marketed on the basis of having lower operating costs, being
environmentally friendly and giving better system performance. When the Montreal
Protocol first came into existence in 1987, many issues surrounding conventional air
conditioning systems, including the use of CFCs refrigerants and the high cost of
electricity, became increasingly complicated. Furthermore, gas costs have remained
relatively stable while the technology itself has improved.
Since 1995 a number of features have aided the absorption cooling market. Among the
most significant have been the opening of large natural gas equipment manufacturing
plants in the USA, and major developments in equipment financing and performance
contracting. Another feature that has helped the absorption cooling market has been the
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research conducted by Trane Company, one of the biggest air conditioning suppliers,
into developing a triple-effect absorption machine utilising a dual loop cycle. The goal
of these large research programs is to produce a triple-effect chiller that improves
cooling efficiency by 30 to 50 percent, as compared to the single- and double-effect
absorption machines currently on the market.
Solar cooling using the absorption system
Absorption solar cooling systems first came into use following the oil crisis of the
1970s. In the USA, Arkla Industries Inc, developed the first commercial solar cooling
machine with single-effect LiBr-H2O and two different nominal cooling capacities. The
driving heat temperature was in the range of 90C, and the cooling water temperature
was 29C for 7C chilled water temperature. The machine was installed in more than
100 demonstration projects across the USA. However, due to the high investment costs
for solar cooling there was no market success. Another company called Carrier Corp
made further developments and produced a solar cooling machine that used a low
driving temperature by using a falling film generator with a large surface area. The
driving heat temperature was 82C and the cooling water temperature was 28C for
7C cold water temperature. However, production of these solar cooling machines was
halted and the technologys license given to the Japanese company Yazaki. Until the
beginning of the 1990s, the lack of demand for this machine meant that commercial
sales declined, and eventually production ceased (Eicker, 2009).
After these numerous market failures, however, the past decade has brought increased
interest in low power absorption chillers. A variety of manufacturers, including many
from Europe, now offer single-effect thermal absorption machines with a cooling
power of below 10kW. One of these manufacturers is the Swedish company Climate
Well, which alone has installed several hundred units in Spain and the UAE over the
past two years; this compares to the total number of solar cooling systems installed in
2007 which was estimated to have been two hundred units. Thus far there have been no
specific rules or legislation for the dimensioning of solar cooling systems, and planners
often do not have adequate tools to determine the energy yield and efficiency (Eicker,
2009).
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3.2. Applications
The most important variable for solar absorption system applications is the high peak
electric demand charge. Since cooling in buildings is generally the main cause of
sudden increases in the electric load profile, it would be beneficial to find alternatives
that can reduce this. Absorption cooling units powered by solar energy are able to
reduce or flatten the peaks in a buildings electric load.
Regarding economical and environmental issues, the main benefit of solar absorption
systems is that thermal solar energy is available during the day when the price of
electricity is very high. In many countries, especially in Europe, the costs of labour and
the maintenance of air conditioning equipments are very high compared to those of
solar absorption cooling. Therefore the cost difference between electricity and solar
cooling is sufficient to justify the use of absorption chillers. In summary, solar
absorption air conditioning is most suitable for situations with the following
characteristics:
High electricity usage
Office buildings used during daytime hours
High maintenance cost of equipment
3.3.Types
Absorption air conditioning is commonly classified by the numbers of stages that the
machine uses (for example, single-, double- or triple-effect), and as direct or indirect
fired. With indirect fired systems, the source of heat can be gas or another fuel that is
burned in the units. For indirect fired systems the source of heat is mainly free heat
from another origin, such as solar energy. Double- and triple-effect absorption air
conditioning systems are more efficient, but they are usually less suitable for solar
energy assisted absorption chillers since higher working temperatures are needed.
Parabolic channel collectors have recently been applied in double-effect absorption air
conditioning systems in some companies.
Typical absorption air conditioning machines have capacities of several hundred kW,
and they are generally run using free heat, such as district heat, waste heat or heat from
cogeneration. The required heat source temperature is usually above 80C for single27
2012
effect machines and the COP is in the range of 0.6 to 0.8. Double-effect machines that
have two generator stages require driving temperatures of above 140C, and the COP
may increase to 1.2.
Single-effect
In a single-effect absorption air conditioning machine the heat released during the
chemical process of absorbing refrigerant vapour into the liquid stream is rejected as
waste heat. This can be referred to as the transfer of fluids through the four major
components of the refrigeration machine, including the evaporator, absorber, generator
and condenser.
Single-effect LiBr-H2O absorption air conditioning machines use hot water as their heat
source. This water is able to evaporate and extract heat from the evaporator because the
system is under a fractional vacuum. The thermal efficiency of single-effect absorption
systems is considered to be low. For this reason, absorption air conditioning technology
has inhibited the cost competitiveness of single-effect systems. In general, most new
single-effect absorption air conditioning machines are installed in situations where free
heat is available. Single-effect absorption air conditioning machines can be used to
produce chilled water for air conditioning and water cooling, and are available with
capacities ranging from 7.5 to 1,500 tons.
Double-effect
The need for higher efficiency in absorption air conditioning machines led to the
development of double-effect LiBr-H2O systems. The double-effect absorption air
conditioning machines differ from the single-effect in that there are two condensers and
two generators to allow for more refrigerant to boil the absorbent solution. In a doubleeffect absorption air conditioning machine some of this energy is used to generate highpressure refrigerant vapour: by using this heat of absorption, the demand for heat is
reduced and the chiller systems efficiency is increased.
The higher temperature generator uses the externally supplied steam to boil the
refrigerant from the weak absorbent. The refrigerant vapour from the high temperature
generator is condensed and the heat produced is used to provide heat for the low
temperature generator. These systems can use gas-fired combustors or high pressure
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steam as their heat source; it is therefore difficult to achieve the desired hot water
temperature from solar collectors. Double-effect absorption air conditioning machines
are used for air conditioning and process cooling in areas where the cost of electricity is
high relative to natural gas. Although the double-effect machines are more efficient
than single-effect machines, they have a higher capital cost: there are special material
considerations because of increased corrosion rates, larger heat exchanger surface
areas, and more sophisticated control systems.
Double-effect absorption air conditioning machines use two generators paired with a
single condenser, absorber and evaporator. Although they operate with greater
efficiency, they require a higher temperature heat input compared with single-effect
absorption air conditioning machines. The minimum heat source temperature for a
double-effect machine is 140oC: therefore, they are not suitable for solar cooling
applications. Furthermore, double-effect absorption air conditioning machines are more
expensive than single-effect chillers.
Triple-effect
The triple-effect absorption air conditioning machines are an improvement on the
double-effect design and are still in development; the next step in the evolution of
absorption technology. The refrigerant vapour from the high and medium temperature
generators is condensed and the heat is used to provide heat to the lower temperature
generator. The refrigerant from all three condensers flows to an evaporator where it
absorbs more heat.
Two different designs of triple-effect absorption air conditioning machine exist, and
both are capable of considerably superior performance compared with equivalent
double-effect cycles. The first uses two condensers and two absorbers to achieve the
triple-effect. The second, the double condenser coupled triple-effect, uses three
condensers as well as a third condenser sub cooler.
Triple-effect systems present the possibility of thermal efficiencies equal to those of
electrical conventional air conditioning systems. The cost, however, will be higher, so
system cost effectiveness will need to be evaluated on a project case basis. The higher
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efficiency levels could potentially open up the market for absorption air conditioning
machines in the future.
3.4.Efficiencies
Efficiencies of absorption air conditioning machines can be expressed in terms of
coefficient of performance (COP), which is defined as the refrigeration effect and is
calculated by dividing the net heat input by the units of kWh. Single-effect absorption
air conditioning machines have a COP of approximately 0.6 to 0.8. Since the COP is
less than one, these types of machines are normally used in situations where free heat is
available, such as solar energy or waste steam.
Double-effect absorption air conditioning machines have a COP of between 1.0 and
1.2. While not yet commercially available, prototype triple-effect absorption air
conditioning machines have a COP of 1.4 to 1.6. The COP metric is also relevant for
electric chillers. However, since the COP is based on site energy, it is not appropriate
for comparing the efficiency of solar and electric air conditioning machines. A more
appropriate measure is resource COP, which accounts for the source to site efficiency
of the fuel, accounting for electricity generation and transmission losses. However, to
simplify our analysis and calculations it is assumed that the COP of the solar absorption
air conditioning machines and the conventional air conditioning machines are the same.
3.5.Benefits
The most important energy benefit of solar cooling systems is a reduction in operating
costs by avoiding peak electricity charges. The use of absorption air conditioning
machines eliminates the high incremental cost of electric cooling.
Absorption air conditioning machines have several non-energy benefits over
conventional electric air conditioning machines, including:
Elimination of the use of CFC refrigerants
Vibration-free and quiet during operation
Longer life-time
High reliability
Low maintenance
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The contribution that absorption air conditioning machines technology can make to the
goal of improved emissions is substantial. Solar energy powered air-conditioning
equipment offers substantial benefits for the environment with regard to CFCs and
HCFCs, because they are not used in the absorption cycle. Presently, most legislative
activities are focused on promoting energy efficient technology that is safe and reduces
harmful emissions.
3.6.Limitations
Cost is the most important issue regarding the extensive adoption of absorption air
conditioning machines. The low thermal efficiency of single-effect absorption systems
has made them non-competitive except in situations where free heat such as solar
energy is available. Even double-effect systems are not cost-effective in many
applications. Although absorption air conditioning machines can be fairly economical
in the right situation, their precise economics must be calculated based on the type of
project and location.
Absorption air conditioning machines also require greater pump energy than electric
conventional air conditioning machines. In general, the size of pumps is a function of
the flow rate per unit cooling capacity. Cooling technologies with lower COPs typically
require a significantly higher water flow rate than those technologies with higher COPs,
therefore requiring larger pumps. To simplify the analysis, it has been assumed that the
both COPs are the same.
3.7.Summary
The history of absorption air conditioning machines development suggests that
developing such a product for small and mid-size commercial and residential buildings
applications is technically and financially possible. The key issues lie in whether
capable and prominent manufacturers will consider the market potential to be adequate
to justify development costs and whether product costs can be kept low enough to
successfully penetrate the air conditioning market.
Much of the development work for absorption air conditioning machines has taken
place in the USA, Japan and China, and many of these developers have designed
absorption air conditioning machines for a 35oC ambient temperature. However, it is
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important to note that, without testing their performance at higher temperatures, it is

unclear how absorption machines would perform in other ambient conditions.
In todays market, absorption technology is well developed in the USA and in Asia due
to the high demand in these areas for cooling systems and the competitiveness of this
technology. However, Omans favourable climate and availability of solar energy make
the location preferable for the chosen case study building because of the high number
of operation hours at 30oC or over.
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Chapter 4: Case study Analysis
4.1.Location
The chosen location for this dissertations case study is located in Muscat, the capital of
the Sultanate of Oman. Oman is a Middle Eastern country located on the south east
coast of the Arabian Peninsula. It lies 2337'N and 5836'E and has a population of 2.6
million scattered over a wide area. The
Sultanate of Oman's 1,700 km coastline
extends from the Hormuz near Iran in the
north to the Arabian Sea in the south. To the
west are the United Arab Emirates, the
kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the Republic of
Yemen.
Oman
encompasses
an
area
approximately of 300,000 km2.

Figure 8: Map of Oman
Omans economy is heavily dependent on oil and gas revenues, which accounted for
approximately 84% of the countrys exports in 2005. All of Omans domestic energy is
supplied by natural gas and oil, reflecting the countrys relatively plentiful reserves of
oil and natural gas. According to the Final Report on Renewable Energy Resources in
Oman, proven oil reserves in Oman were approximately 5.5 billion barrels as of
January 2007. Although oil and natural gas are widely available and are considered
very cheap compared to developed countries, the future of oil as an energy source is
unsure, due to the finite nature of the supply.
According to the Final Report on Renewable Energy Resources in Oman, electricity
demand has a distinct seasonal shape; demand in summer months is significantly higher
than in winter. Air conditioning loads in summer rise in response to higher
temperatures, resulting in the strong positive correlation of monthly peak demand and
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maximum monthly ambient temperature. In 2006, peak demand was 2,614 MW, and
increased to 2,773 MW in 2007. Daily electrical loads during the month of July, when
demand is highest, are almost double those of February, when demand is at its lowest.
Figure 9: Monthly electrical demand in Muscat

Source: Oman Department of Meteorology.
The report also anticipates that peak demand will increase from 2,773 MW in 2007 to
4,634 MW in 2013. The annual growth rate is approximately 9%, and peak demand is
envisaged to continue increasing due to the demand for comfort within buildings and
the accelerated population growth in Oman.
Climate Data
Omans climate is predominantly arid and hot throughout the year. In coastal areas, the
weather is hot and humid during the summer months, while it is dry further inland.
According to the CIBSE guide by HevaComp, winter temperatures in Muscat can be as
low as 17C, while summer temperatures can be as high as 46C. Table 4, shown
below, indicates the monthly minimum and maximum temperatures obtained from
Omans Department of Meteorology in Muscat.
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Table 4: The monthly minimum and maximum temperature

Solar Energy
Omans solar energy resources are vast and could theoretically meet all the countrys
energy demands with enough surpluses to supply export also. The report shows that
there is high solar energy density in all regions of Oman, with the highest density being
in Muscat and the desert areas, and the lowest density in the southern coastal areas.
Levels of solar energy density in Oman are among the highest in the world.
The highest levels of solar radiation in Oman occur during the summer period when
electricity demand is highest. However, the seasonal increase in demand is much higher
than the corresponding increase in solar radiation. If investment were to be made in a
system based on 100% solar energy in the summer, it would result in a surplus of
power in winter months. The surplus could potentially be exported.
Solar insolation varies from 4.5 to 6.1 kWh/m2 per day, corresponding to1,640 to 2,200
kWh per year. The difference between the highest and the lowest mean daily insolation
within a month is shown in Figure 10. The difference is significant when insolation is
low. For the chosen location of the case study, the global insolation levels vary from 2
to 5 kWh per day in January, while the variation in July to September is between 5 and
7kWh per day. The average annual amount is around 6.7 kWh/m2 per day.
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Figure 10: Average monthly global radiation in Muscat

The average monthly global radiation at the selected site, based on a period of 6 years
(1987-1992), is summarised in Table 5.
Table 5: Average solar radiation (kWh/m2/day) at the selected site.
Sunshine hours play an important role in evaluating any solar energy system. The
longer the duration of sunlight availability per day, the more efficient the solar energy
system will be. The available sunlight varies from location to location, and Oman is
rich in solar insolation and duration throughout the year. The average number of
sunshine hours per day at the selected site based during a period of 6 years (19871992), is given in Table 6.
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Table 6: Average duration of sunshine hours at the selected site per day.
The data shows that the month of January has the minimum sunshine availability with
8.43 hours per day. The month of June experiences the longest duration of sunshine
availability with approximately 12 hours per day.
4.2. Case Study

The chosen location of the case study is a building in Muscat, Oman; this building is
divided into commercial and residential use. Its layout is as follows:
Table 7: The building layout.
Uses
Floor
Area (m2)
Operation Hours / Yr
Store
Basement
760
5000
Commercial (Office)
Ground, First and Second
2299
5000
Residential (Flat)
Third, Fourth and Penthouse
2338
7000
The cooling load of the whole building was calculated using HevaComp software, and
this found that peak cooling demand was experienced during the month of July, at
585kW. However, since the building is divided into two parts with different operating
hours, we can refer to the two zones: one comprising the office section, and the other
comprising residential flats. The peak cooling load occurs during the day when there is
high solar irradiation for both sections of the building, and this is summarised in Table
8.
Table 8: The cooling load for the building.
Uses
Cooling Load (KW)
Commercial (Office)
313
Residential (Flat)
269
The details of the cooling loads calculation are posted in Appendix D.
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4.3. Economical Analysis

There are many methods available to calculate economic performance measures. These
methods allow the planning and design team to analyse the economic consequences of
particular design decisions and evaluate alternative approaches fairly. The main
problem when carrying out an economic analysis is not the techniques employed, but
the practical use of tools, the need to make assumptions, the availability of correct data
and the procedure selected to conduct the analysis itself. The purpose of this study is to
determine the primary energy saving by comparing the solar cooling system with
conventional air conditioning.
Economic Analysis Methods
Several economic criteria have been proposed for evaluating and optimising air
conditioning systems. In order to address the objective of this study, the following
criteria have been chosen for analysis:
Payback period (PBP)
Net present value (NPV)
The payback period is the simplest method of examining one or more investment
projects. It measures the time required to recover investment costs, therefore it can be
determined by simply dividing the capital cost of the installed systems by the savings
made per year.
However, this method has some limitations:
It ignores any benefits that occur after the payback period, which in this case,
are strongly recommended for consideration as the solar cooling system could
still be working reliably for up to 25 years.
It ignores the changing value of money over time.
Net Present Value is a traditional analytical method used to describe time adjusted
economic benefits or savings between competing alternatives. It is the difference
between the sum of discounted cash flow which is expected from the investment, and
the amount that is initially invested. The simplest outline of the calculation method is as
follows:
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2012
Firstly, the expected free cash flow that results from the investment is
calculated.
Secondly, deduct/discount the cost of capital: this gives the present value of the
air conditioning system.
Finally, deduct the initial investments: the end result is the NPV.
To be considered effective, a solar cooling system must be able, under sustained

conditions, to match the cooling output of a conventional air conditioning system while
using less electricity. For simplicity, the saving can be estimated only if a basis for
comparison is defined; the appropriate basis is the conventional air conditioning vapour
compression chiller.
4.4. Systems Overview

Among solar cooling technologies, absorption cooling appears to have good market
potential and is most suitable for application where there is a high number of operation
hours at 30oC and over during the year. Most work in solar cooling has been based on
continuous absorption cycles adapted for operation from solar collectors. One method
that has proved to be financially viable when there is a cheap source of heat energy in
the temperature range of 100200oC, is absorption cooling.
Liquid absorption systems use solar energy from thermal collectors as their driving
force. Absorption refrigerators use two working substances, a refrigerant and an
absorbent for that refrigerant. A lot of research has focused on the established lithium
bromide water (LiBrH2O). At present the sorption refrigeration systems market is
dominated by LiBrH2O systems, which are normally used for air conditioning
applications.
The simplest LiBrH2O absorption cooling systems are solar operated absorption
refrigeration units, operating with flat-plate solar collectors that can be assembled on a
common frame, have short piping length and can be installed in restricted spaces. This
type of unit is characterised by low cost materials and LiBr, and is therefore considered
to be a step forward towards commercial use, especially for desert areas which are far
from the electricity grids.
39
2012
The most important component of a solar cooling system is the solar collector. Solar
collectors act as heat exchangers that absorb solar radiation energy, convert it into heat
and transfer this heat to a heat transfer fluid such as water. This heat energy can either
be used directly for absorption air conditioning machines, or can be stored in thermal
storage tanks for use at night when there is no sun.
In order to achieve maximum efficiency when converting solar radiation into cooling
power, high solar collectors such as evacuated tubes can be used. Evacuated tube
collectors are generally more efficient than flat plate collectors, but they are more
expensive as they are more sophisticated devices. Their increased efficiency results
from mounting the absorber in an evacuated and pressure-proof glass tube which
reduces
conductive
and
convective losses. They work

efficiently at low radiation levels
and
with
high
absorber
temperatures, and can provide

higher output temperatures than
flat plate collectors. Evacuated
tube collectors can be used in
applications where the demand
temperature is 50120C, as
well as in colder climates.
Figure 11: The solar collectors evacuated tube

Source: CIBSE 2008
4.5. Summary and Discussion

Oman is a country with high solar energy, and could theoretically meet its own energy
demands with surplus for export. The Omani solar report shows that there is high solar
energy density in all regions of Oman. The highest density areas are Muscat and the
40
2012
countrys desert areas; lowest density is in the southern coastal areas. Levels of solar
energy density in Oman are among the highest in the world.
Cooling load demand in summer typically correlates with high solar irradiation. Solar
energy can be converted using chemical, electrical and thermal processes. Solar energy
is converted into electricity through photovoltaic conversion; sun to electricity. Solar
thermal conversion in the form of hot water, steam or other heat transfer fluids can be
used to run cooling machines to provide air cooling for buildings.
The major component of a solar cooling system is a solar collector: these are heat
exchangers that absorb solar radiation energy, convert it into heat and transfer this heat
to a heat transfer fluid. This collected thermal energy either can be used directly for air
conditioning or can be stored in thermal energy storage tanks for use at night.
According to the CIBSI guide, solar cooling is still not yet widely available and there
are a number of barriers to its growth and penetration into the air conditioning market:
There is a lack of awareness of solar cooling.
The required skills are not generally available among professionals.
The availability of small capacity units and of package solutions for residential
and small commercial applications may be limited.
Only low thermal efficiencies can currently be achieved and systems often
require a wet cooling tower.
There is a lack of standardised hydraulic schemes and simple design tools.
The systems have higher initial investment costs compared with conventional
cooling systems and are generally not yet cost effective.
Solar cooling is often ignored in todays financial incentive schemes for

harnessing solar energy.
Solar cooling installations generally consist of the components used in a conventional

water heating system; i.e. solar collectors, storage tank, control unit, pipes and pumps
plus a thermally driven cooling machine. The solar collectors need to be of a high
efficiency type, such as evacuated tube collectors. These collectors are costly and are
still under development.
41
2012
Chapter 5: System Analysis
This chapter presents cost estimations and the economic analysis of the two air
conditioning systems. The assumption is made that the demand relates to a commercial
and residential building located in Muscat, in the Sultanate of Oman with an air
conditioning load of 582kW. The first part of this analysis focuses on determining the
suitability of solar cooling using a LiBr absorption chiller that would be operated using
hot water from solar collectors. The solar evacuated collector tube is used to generate
hot water to use as a primary heat source, 100% heat from hot water. Based on the
results of the first component, a costing has been calculated for the solar LiBr
absorption chiller and compared with that of electric power conventional chillers on a
Life Cycle basis. The second element is to determine the primary energy saving by
comparing the LiBr absorption chiller with the electric power conventional chiller.
5.1. System Sizing and Design

The case study building for this analysis is fully described in Chapter 4. Since the
building is divided into two uses: commercial and residential, the cooling load for the
commercial part is averaged at 313kW and for the residential, 269kW. The first issue is
to check if there is enough room available for the solar collector to be positioned on the
roof of the building.
The area available on the roof for the chosen case study for the installation of ETC is
approximately 700m2. The evacuated tube specified can produce temperatures between
75C and 120C which is sufficient to run a LiBr absorption chiller.
Basic Parameters
Design DB temperature: 46.1oC
Design WB temperature: 32.2oC
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2012
System Description
Area available on roof for solar evacuated tube collectors (ETC) is approximately
700m2. Hot water temperature required by absorption chiller is 98C.
Hot water and heat available from this system can be calculated as following:
Consider 30 numbers of tubes in 1 system; we require 3 systems connected in series to
produce the required temperature.
Flow Rate Calculation:
Area required for one system = 6m2
Area required for three systems (one section) = 18 m2
With 800 m2 available roof area = 700 / 18 = 38.8 Number of sections can be installed
Flow rate for one system (30 tubes) = 0.5 m3 / hr
Flow rate per section = 1.5 m3 / hr
Flow rate per 44 sections = 1.5 x 38.8 = 58.2 m3 / hr
Heat Calculation:
Annual average direct radiation = 6.7 kWh/m2/day
Evacuated tube Aperture area for one system= 4m2
System efficiency (ETC) = 85%
Average total heat available =6.7 x 4 x 3 x 38.8 x 0.85 = 2,651 kWh/day
The calculated solar radiations available at peak can produce hot water sufficient for
512 kW of air conditioning. This means that it is not possible to run the LiBr absorption
chiller to cool the whole building. However, we can install a chiller of 320 kW
capacity to run this solar hot water for commercial portion of the building only.
The selected chiller requires 40 m3/hr at 100% capacity operation. This means that the
available flow rate of hot water of 58.2 m3/hr and 2,651 kWh/day from solar collectors
is sufficient for chiller operation and the remainder of the solar energy collected can be
stored and used at night.
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System Integration
If the building cooling load and solar radiations received by the ETC in the area are
analysed together, it is seen that the peak of solar radiation availability and the
calculated peak cooling load of the building from HevaComp do not match. Solar
radiation is available from 0600 hrs until 1800 hrs, with different varying direct normal
radiations. The peak solar radiation occurs somewhere around 1200 hrs.
600
Solar Radiation (kW)
500
Building Cooling load (Office) (kW)
A/C Load (kW)
400
300
200
100
0
0
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
-100
Time (hr)
Figure 12: Building cooling load and solar cooling availability
The available solar radiations can produce 512 kW of cooling load at peak solar
radiations when running for approximately 12 hours during the day. However, the three
floors for the commercial section cooling load of the building are calculated to be 313
kW by HevaComp. The offices will use air conditioning during the day only, which
correlates with the availability of solar irradiation. The surplus cooling available can be
stored in thermal energy storage tanks for use at night, if needed during the hours of
darkness.
44
2012
5.2. Economic evaluation and system comparison

This section will evaluate the solar cooling in terms of its economic viability. The
second part will compare the two systems for the purpose of estimating the saving
provided by the optimum system.
Economic Evaluation
In general most solar energy systems are characterised by high investment and low
operating costs. Despite the fact that the adoption of solar energy technologies is
recognised as a rational response to the energy and environmental problems that are of
most public concern, evaluations are often unfavorable. There is still a need for
government financial support to ensure their effective penetration into the air
conditioning market. Critical factors that will ensure the spread of solar energy systems
relate to improving the efficiency and economic possibilities they offer. Such economic
possibility depends on many factors, including legislation, guidelines and the policy
that is followed. In Oman, there is no government financial support for solar energy
systems to date.
The basic economic problem is one of comparing an initial known investment with
estimated operating savings. The cost of any energy delivery process includes all the
items of hardware and labor that are involved in installing the equipment, plus the
operating expenses. The objective of this study is to determine the primary energy
saving by comparing the solar cooling system with the conventional air conditioning
system. A number of economic criteria have been proposed for evaluating and
optimising the chosen air conditioning systems. For the needs of this study, the simple
payback period (PBP) and net present value (NPV) have been chosen for the analysis.
Assumptions and Mythology
The objective of the study was to determine and compare the primary energy savings
for the solar cooling and conventional air conditioning systems. The systems chosen for
economic evaluation are:
Absorption type using LiBrH2O as working fluids
Electric power compressor chiller

45
2012
Since there are insufficient solar collector areas on the roof, we have considered half of
the building to be run with absorption chillers and the other half to be run with an
electric power compressor chiller. The basic assumptions that were made during the
economic evaluation of the two different systems are:
Total cooling load capacity: 582 kWc obtained for HevaComp

o Commercial cooling load: 313 kWc
o Residential cooling load: 269 kWc
The values were calculated using HevaComp refer to Appendix C
Capital cost of Chiller

o Absorption Li-Br (313kW): 98,000
o Electric Power Compressor (269kW): 40,000
o Electric Power Compressor (582kW): 70,000
The prices obtained from BEC company refer to Appendix D
Electric power consumption of equipments

o Absorption Li-Br: 10 kWelct / h (mainly from pumps and controllers)
o Electric Power Compressor (269kW): 136 kWelct / h
o Electric Power Compressor (582kW): 257 kWelct / h
Capital cost of solar collectors (700m2 x 120/ m2) : 84,000
Operational hours:
o Absorption chiller: 5000 hr
o Electric Power Compressor: 7000 hr
Electricity prices in Oman: 0.03 /kW helec (refer to Appendix E)
Currency Exchange rate: 1.00 = 0.60/- Rial Oman
Maintenance costs:
o Solar Cooling: 0.1% of investment costs
o Conventional A/C: 4% of investment costs
Lifetime of the chiller

o Absorption Li-Br: 20 years
o Electric Power Compressor: 15 years
Energy inflation: 1%
Market discount rate: 3%
46
2012
Three scenarios considered for this analysis are as follows:
Scenario 1: the building to be run 100% with an electric power compressor

chiller (582 kW).
Scenario 2: the building to be run with both solar cooling and an electric power
compressor chiller (313kW and 269kW respectively) with no government
support.
Scenario 3: the building to be run with both solar cooling and electric power
compressor chiller (313kW and 269kW respectively) with 50% government
support.
Table 9, next page, presents a cost comparison and results of the various scenarios that
were applied for the relevant investment.
47
2012
Table 9: The cost comparison and results.

Scenario 1
Scenario 2
Scenario 3
Compressor Chiller
70,000
40,000
40,000
Absorption Chiller
98,000
98,000
Solar Collectors
84,000
84,000
Storage Tank
9,000
9,000
70,000
231,000
40,000
Investment Cost ():
Total investment Cost without

Funding Subsidies
Funding
50%
Total investment Cost with

Funding Subsidies
Total Investment Cost
95,500
70,000
231,000
135,500
Electricity
53,970
30,060
30,060
Maintenance
2,800
1,791
1,791
Total Annual Cost
56,770
31,851
31,851
Total Annual Saving
24,919
24,919
Payback Period PBP (year)
Net Present Value NPV ()
-105,612
10,025
Annual Operation Cost ():
It can be observed that the investment cost of solar cooling is relatively high compared
with conventional air conditioning. However, this is compensated for with the highest
total annual saving and lower payback period.
The third scenario is the one which optimises the financial benefits. The investment
cost without government support was 231,000 with a payback period of 9 years.
48
2012
However, in the case that there is a funding of 50%, the investment cost decreases to
135,500 with a payback period of 5 years.
In the second scenario, where no government funding is included, the capital cost of
solar cooling is almost triple that of conventional air conditioning. In the absence of
funding subsidies, the project could not give the investing organisation a profit;
therefore, the NPV of this scenario is negative.
For the third scenario where the comparison is made with others cooling systems, the
solar cooling system appears to be more competitive. The simple PBP is smaller than
the life period of both systems. In addition, the NPV of this scenario is positive for the
installations in this project.
Non economic analysis
It has been assumed that Co2 emissions from 1 kWh of electricity = 0.60 kg.
Savings in electricity can be calculated as below:
Scenario 1 (100% power by compressor chiller): 257 KWelct
Scenario 2 and 3:
o Absorption Li-Br (313kW): 10 KWelct
o Electric Power Compressor (269kW): 136 KWelct
Saving in electricity = 111KW x 7000hr = 777,000 KW/year

Saving in CO2 = 777,000 KW/year x 0.60kg /kW= 466,200 kg of CO2/year
The CO2 saved per hour from electricity generation by a solar cooling system as
opposed to buying it from the grid equals 154kg. The net benefit is therefore 154-87 =
67kg of CO2 saved per hour. This indicates that by using solar cooling in this case
study it is possible to save in the region of 466 tones of CO2 per year.
5.3. Summary of the Results

In this chapter the design and economics of solar thermal absorption chiller systems
were analysed. The solar radiations available on the roof were analysed together with
49
2012
the building cooling load. Due to the fact that there is always enough roof area to install
solar collectors, solar cooling systems are capable of supplying cooling to the building.
The number of solar collector systems necessary to cover the surface area of the roof of
the building of 700m2 is 116 systems. The solar cooling system that is used is a closed
system and includes an absorption chiller of the 320kW with working fluid of LibrHO2. In this case, the absorption chiller cannot provide the required energy for all the
buildings cooling needs, so an electrical compression chiller of 269kW is used in
addition.
Economic analysis of solar cooling indicates that these systems are not competitive
compared with conversional air conditioning systems at present technology and present
energy prices. There is a strong need for the government investment and support to
reflect the full environmental costs. However, it is also worth noting that the cost of
solar cooling technologies is decreasing as they enter mass production.
However, the application of solar cooling systems has several advantages compared to
the conventional air conditioning systems. One of the benefits is that the total annual
saving from the operation of the system is quite considerable. The major benefit is that
this technology is environmentally friendly and contributes to significant decreases in
CO2 emissions, which cause the greenhouse effect. In this situation solar cooling has a
variety of advantages in terms of its lower maintenance requirements and lower effect
on future resources without the environmental hazards observed in the conventional air
conditioning systems.
Another element of the initial cost for solar cooling is the potential saving from
interaction with other building elements. For example, installing solar cooling systems
in buildings may reduce the buildings electrical load enough to allow for the
downsizing of the electric service equipment such as transformers, switchgears and
cables. These savings are significant; however they are not included in this analysis
because of the variability between installations.
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2012
Chapter 6: Conclusion
Conclusion
The demand for air conditioning in Middle Eastern countries that experience hot and
arid conditions is increasing, due to the dramatic increase in the demand for comfort
combined with the higher mean temperatures that have been recorded in recent years.
This results in an extensive use of conventionally driven air conditioning machines
which are responsible for creating increasing peak demand for electrical power in
summer months, which have reached the limit of capacity in several cases, especially in
Muscat the capital of Oman. Simultaneously, there is a huge amount of solar radiation
readily available, especially in the summer. Therefore it is logical to utilise solar energy
for the purposes of cooling and maintaining indoor environmental conditions within a
comfortable range.
There are several types of technology available on the market today designed to allow
energy efficient cooling. Of these, solar thermal absorption cooling is the most
common, and is increasingly used for air conditioning applications. Compared to other
solar cooling systems that were revealed in this report, the absorption solar air
conditioning is the system most suited to the conditions of Middle Eastern countries
such as Oman. Furthermore, absorption solar air conditioning meets the high demands
for cooling experienced in the summer months because this period typically correlates
with high solar radiation from the sun.
Solar cooling air conditioning systems can provide 100% of a buildings cooling load if
there is a sufficient solar collection area available. The excess cooling available in the
day time can be stored and used at night when there is no solar energy. The payback of
from a solar cooling system depends mainly on the solar radiation available, electricity
rates and the efficiency of the system. The payback time expected for these systems
will be significantly shorter in the future because of expected high fuel and electricity
costs. In addition, solar cooling will become a cheaper solution with more research and
the mass production of solar cooling equipment.
51
2012
The cost evaluation of the two air conditioning systems makes it clear that the solar
cooling systems will not compete with conventional air conditioning systems at present
on price. The technology of solar cooling is not economically feasible without
government support, mainly because of the high initial investment costs. However, an
increase in the efficiency of equipment and a detailed cost evaluation of the solar
cooling systems in terms of environment, ecology and social costs may bring the costs
of the two systems closer. In this situation solar cooling has a variety of advantages in
terms of its lower maintenance requirements reduced on future resources without
environmental hazards, as observed in conventional air conditioning systems.
Recommendations for Future Research

The limitations of this study were recognised earlier in this dissertation. Low energy
prices and unavailability of solar energy at nighttime are two key challenges. These can
be overcome by financial government support and energy storage. There is a potential
primary energy saving for properly designed solar cooling of about 50%. In order to
improve the value of the analysis procedure for the design of solar cooling, as discussed
earlier, the recommendations for further research can be summarised as follows:
Cost-benefit analysis of solar cooling in other countries; the results will provide
developers and users with a clear view of opportunities and risks to invest in
such buildings that are very important in the development phase.
Assessment of the integration of energy efficient technical solutions with solar

cooling into the curriculums at universities; the results will be used to find the
knowledge gaps in order to supply sufficient knowledge for the building sector.
Efficiency evaluation of training courses in the construction industry; to find the

opportunities for improvement in such programs.
Feasibility study and physical tests when developing solar collectors; as this has
been infrequently done in warm climates such as Oman.
Feasibility study on the penetration of energy efficient products such as solar

collectors in local markets; the imported products facilitate the use of various
energy efficient design strategies and techniques at the same time.
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References
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Benjamin Stein, J. S. (1992). Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings.
Canada: Johm Wiley & Sons, Inc.
BSRIA (2002). World market for Air-conditioning. Comparative study. BSRIA,
Bracknell, UK.
BSRIA (2008). The Illustrated Guide to Renewable Technologies. BSRIA, Printed by
ImageData Ltd.
CIBSE (2006) Environmental Design, CIBSE Guide A, 7th edition, London
CIBSE (2009). Capturing solar energy, CIBSE Knowledge Series: KS15, London, UK.
Doucet, G., 2008. Energy Efficiency Policies around the World: Review and
Evaluation Officers of the World Energy Council. Communication.
Environmental Protection Agency. (2011). Climate Change - Science. Retrieved June
18, 2012, from http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/science/recentac.html
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Donnelley & sons Company, New Jersy.
Eicker, U., Pietruschka, D. (2009), Optimization and Economics of Solar Cooling
Systems,Advances in Building Energy Research 3.
Faye C. McQuiston, J. D. (2000). Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning Analysis
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Gulf News. (2007). Dubai Executive Council Outline Green Building Rules, Gulf
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Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (2007). Climate change 2007,
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Synthesis report, Summary for policymakers. retrieved on June 18, 2012 from:
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Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (MPSDOL). (2005).
Technology and Economic Assessment Panel. Teap Report, Supplement to the
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Report, F., 2008. Study on Renewable Energy Resources, Oman. Renewable Energy,
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Roaf, S., Crichton, D. & Nicol, F., 2009. Adapting Buildings and Cities for Climate
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Roaf, S., Fuentes, M. & Thomas, S., 2007. Ecohouse: a Design Guide M. Fuentes & S.
Thomas, eds., Architectural Press.
Santamouris, A. K. (2002). Thermal Anlysis and Design of Passive Solar Buildings.
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Pietruschka, D., 2010. Model Based Control Optimization of Renewable Energy BasedSolar Driven Absorption and Open Desiccant Evaporative Cooling, Applied
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2012
Appendix A
Calculations:
Table 3. Monthly Averaged Direct Normal Radiation (kWh/m2/day)
Jan
Feb
March
April
May
June
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
No
v
De
Annua
l Ave.
3.89
4.65
5.28
6.06
6.78
6.48
5.93
6.05
5.93
5.23
4.34
4.6
5.4
Table 4. Monthly Averaged Daylight Hours(hours)

Jan
Feb
March
April
May
June
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
De
Annual
Ave.
8.4
8.6
9.3
10.4
11.7
12.2
12
11.3
10.9
10.4
9.8
10.3
Flow Rate Calculation:

Area required for one system = 6 m2
Area required for three systems (one section) = 18 m2
With 700 m2 available roof area = 700 / 18 = 38.8 Number of sections can be installed
Flow rate for one system (30 tubes)= 0.5 m3 / hr
Flow rate per section = 1.5 m3 / hr
Flow rate per 38.8 sections = 1.5 x 38.8 = 58.2 m3/hr
Heat Calculation:
Annual average direct radiation = 6.7 kWh/m2/day
Evacuated tube Aperture area for one system = 4 m2
System efficiency = 85%
Average total heat available = 6.7 x 4 x 3 x 38.8 x 0.85 = 2,651 kWh/day
55
2012
Building
Cooling
load
(Office)
(kW)
Temp.
(C)
Solar
Radiation
(kW/m2)
Solar
Radiatio
n (kW)
33.0
0.000
0.000
114.6
31.7
0.000
0.000
106.1
30.6
0.000
0.000
99.4
29.9
0.000
0.000
95.2
29.6
0.000
0.000
93.4
29.8
0.000
0.000
94.5
30.8
0.115
51.804
103.3
32.6
0.195
87.668
116.6
34.9
0.577
259.019
210.4
10
37.5
0.861
386.536
228.9
11
40.1
1.030
462.249
248.1
266.2
12
42.5
1.137
510.068
13
44.4
1.030
462.249
281.3
14
45.7
0.861
386.536
299.0
15
46.1
0.577
259.019
309.8
16
45.9
0.195
87.668
313.4
17
45.3
0.115
51.804
310.4
18
44.4
0.000
0.000
299.1
19
43.1
0.000
0.000
199.6
20
41.6
0.000
0.000
172.3
21
39.9
0.000
0.000
159.0
22
38.1
0.000
0.000
147.2
23
36.3
0.000
0.000
135.5
24
34.6
0.000
0.000
124.5
600
500
56
Solar Radiation
(kW)
400
A/C Load (kW)
Time
(hr)
300
200
100
0
-100 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Time (hr)
Scenario 2
Year
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
2012
Net Cash flow

-231,000
24,919
24,919
24,919
24,919
24,919
24,919
24,919
Total cash
flow
-56,567
DF @5%
Present Day value

1
-231000
0.952831
23744
0.907029
22602
0.863838
21526
0.822702
20501
0.783526
19525
0.401878
10014
0.3
7476
NPV
-105612
pbp
Scenario 3
Year
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
9.27 years
Net Cash flow

-135,500
24,919
24,919
24,919
24,919
24,919
24,919
24,919
Total cash
flow
38,933
DF @5%
Present Day value

1
-135500
0.952831
23744
0.907029
22602
0.863838
21526
0.822702
20501
0.783526
19525
0.76
18938
0.75
18689
NPV
10,025
pbp
5.44 years
57
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Appendix B
Building 3-diamentions and Maps:
Front side view
Front and Right side view
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Appendix C
HevaComp Calculations:
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Appendix D
Detail of Chillers:
Email from Bahwan Engineering Co LLC (BEC):
From: sriram.mechpro@becoman.com
To: hashmi-69@hotmail.com
Subject: Chiller details
Date: Tue, 2 Aug 2011 05:20:10 +0000
Dear Sir,
Ramadan Kareem !!!
Details of chillers required by your friend are as under :
1. 580KW air-cooled screw chiller Carrier model 30XA0702 Price of
RO42,000/- for supply only. Cooling tower is NOT required.
2. 310KW LiBr Absorption chiller Broad.
3. 270KW air-cooled screw chiller Carrier model 30XA0302 Price of
RO24,000/- for supply only. Cooling tower is NOT required.
Catalogue of air-cooled and broad chillers attached.

Thanks and best regards
VS Sriram
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Appendix E
Electric Power Price:
82

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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

CHAPTER 3: SOLAR ABSORPTION SYSTEM

CHAPTER 4: CASE STUDY ANALYSIS

CHAPTER 5: SYSTEM ANALYSIS

Air Handling Unit

Dry bulb Temperature

Wet bulb Temperature

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

Parts per Million

Net present value

Air conditioning is one of major consumers of electricity in many regions of the

1.1. General Introduction

1.2. Aims and objectives

1.3. Outline of the dissertation

Chapter 2: Literature Review

2.2. Energy consumption in buildings

Figure 1: Carbon dioxide CO2 emissions from energy, 2004

Energy efficiency in buildings

Figure 2: Buildings Share of U.S. Primary Energy Consumption (2006)

relatively complicated in warm climates and poses a significant challenge, especially in

Figure 3: Primary energy intensity by world region (2006)

Figure 4: World CO2 emissions per capita

2.3. Solar cooling systems

proposed by Willis Carrier, an early pioneer in air conditioning (Faye C. McQuiston,

Figure 5 : Simple diagram of the absorption refrigeration system

Table 1: Assessment of solar absorption air conditioning.

No auxiliary energy for operation of the

High heat release.

Solar thermal collector is used, which is

A continuous and large system requires a

Low energy cost to run for pump only. A

Quite complicated system and requires

Requires little maintenance.

For a large system such as an air

water as the cooling medium and

large amounts of water without loss,

The operation of an adsorption system is described below and shown in Figure 6:

The water previously evaporated is then adsorbed in the receiver.

The de-adsorbed water is condensed in the condenser chamber.

Table 2: Assessment of solar adsorption air conditioning.

COP is not so low.

Low energy density.

Solar thermal collector is used, which is

Poor thermal conductivity of the solid

Requires little maintenance.

Low operating pressure requirement,

Very sensitive to low temperature.

The high weight of adsorbent, not

Figure 7: Simple diagram of the desiccant system

The principle for the operation of a desiccant system is as follows:

Air is passed over the desiccant wheel where it is dried.

The air is humidified and cooled in the humidifier.

The air is heated by an external source, such as a solar energy source.

A summary of the advantages and disadvantages of the desiccant refrigeration system is

Table 3: Assessment of solar desiccant air conditioning.

Can be integrated into a ventilation and

Required maintenance because of

A thermal collector can be used, which is

Can be contaminated easily.

Low heat release.

Difficult to design for a small

Chapter 3: Solar Absorption System

Air conditioning and refrigerant