Procedures of Removing Defective Solid Rivet

Rivet plays a vital role in the aircraft structure. Any defects on the
rivets can affect the structural integrity of the aircraft thus leading to
catastrophe damage. The following procedure explains a basic method of
rivet removal.
Always make sure the tools to be used is approved and in good
condition. The procedure for removing defective solid rivet is laid down in
the aircraft maintenance manual (AMM).
Start of by preparing the surface adjacent to the defective rivet. This
is to avoid any surface from damage caused by the defective rivet
removal procedure.
Use appropriate tools and personnel protective equipment. Make
sure the personnel carrying out the task is well trained.
Carefully mark the centre of the manufactures solid rivet head with
a centre punch. This is to mark the centre and start for drilling.
Drill the manufactured rivet head with a drill of the same diameter
as the rivet shank. The rivet is drilled to the depth of the manufactured
head.
Carefully knock off the drilled rivet head with cape chisel and prise
out the rivet head with a pin punch to fully remove the defective rivet
head. Make sure not to damage or scratch the adjacent surface of the
rivet.
With support behind the aircraft sheet metal, punch out the
remaining defective rivet shank with a parallel pin punch of the same
diameter as the rivet shank.
Care needs to be taken, during rivet removal, to ensure that the
least possible damage is done to the original hole and its surrounding
structure. When removing rivets from bonded assemblies it is essential
not to apply shear loads, which are liable to part the bond.
Make sure to observe the utmost care should be taken when drilling
and punching, to ensure that the original hole is not enlarged.
All maintenance personnel should bear responsibility to properly
detect any damage on the aircraft skin. An early detection on the
structure especially on the rivets can help prevent catastrophe disaster in
the future.

General PrecautionsWorking in and Around Aircraft

Aviation industry is a highly hazardous environment. Any mistake can
cause catastrophic damage to both personnel and equipment. There are
several general precautions that all personnel must observe when working
in and around aircraft.
Wear appropriate clothing. Wear suitable footwear to avoid
scratching surfaces or scuffing anti-corrosive treatments. Do not wear
footwear with steel tips that could cause sparks. Ensure that overalls are
clean, intact and properly fastened and that the pockets are sealed to
prevent loose objects dropping into the aircraft structure. Do not carry
unnecessary loose objects in pockets. Do not wear jewellery. Do not carry
any means of uncontrolled ignition such as non-safety matches or lighters
in or around aircraft. Ensure you are in the possession of approved ear
defenders and are wearing these on the line when auxiliary power units or
main engines are running in the vicinity.
Aircraft must be connected to an effective earth points before
fuelling, de-fuelling, fuel transfer or work on oxygen systems. Reliance on
the conducting nose or tail wheels is not normally considered sufficient in
these instances. Other systems work may require that the aircraft is
connected to an effective earth and this will normally be indicated in the
Aircraft Maintenance Manual.
Approved fire extinguishers should be located where they are easily
recognized and easily accessible. Check that you know how to operate
them.
Aircraft should be correctly chocked. Appropriate clean covers, blanks and
locks are fitted where necessary.
When operating aircraft systems on the ground, you need to be
aware of the effect this will have on the aircraft and any other systems
that may be activated as a result of your actions.
When operating flight controls, ensure that their movement is not
obstructed by ground equipment and they do not present a hazard to
other personnel.
When connecting ground electrical power, hydraulic or pneumatic
power to an aircraft, ensure that the flight deck controls are not set to a
position where equipment will be activated to move unexpectedly and
pose a hazard to other personnel or foul ground equipment.

When disconnecting a component or system, the operation should be

carried out in a controlled manner to avoid dust, grit etc, from entering.
Approved, clean blanks or caps should be used where appropriate.
Replenishment equipment should be kept clean and only used with
the fluid that is dedicated for. All fluid containers should be kept sealed
when out of use and contents should not be used if contamination is
suspected or the identity is in doubt.
Take care not to introduce corrosion or fatigue risks by scratching
the aircraft paint finish or scoring the aircraft structure through careless
use of tools and equipment.
Ensure that all work areas are clear of tools, equipment and debris
before signing off work. Do include the surrounding floor areas in your
checks.
Fuel and oil spillages must be cleaned up immediately. Many of
these fluids present a fire risk and also create spongy regions if they
impregnate the rubber of aircraft tires.
Ester base oils can strip cellulose and acrylic paints, and act as an
irritant to human skin. Contact with these oils is a major cause of
dermatitis. Prolonged contact can lead to more serious long-term health
problems. Personnel should make use of barrier cream, wear protective
clothing and wash affected areas on the skin.
The maintenance organization should give training to the personnel
in term of safety at workplace while the staff should always follow all the
rules. It is the responsibility of all personnel and organization to ensure
that everyone observe the safety precautions when working in and around
aircraft.

Storage of Compressed Gas Cylinders

Compressed gas cylinder is widely used in aviation industry such as
Nitrogen, Oxygen or Carbon Dioxide. These compressed gas cylinders
pose serious hazards and potential for simultaneous exposure to both
mechanical and chemical hazards to the personnel and equipment around
them. Proper procedure to handle and store compressed gas cylinder must
be observed at all times.
Gas cylinders must be secured at all times to prevent tipping.
Cylinders may be attached individually to the wall, placed in a holding
cage, or have a non-tip base attached. Chains or sturdy straps may be
used to secure them.
Compressed gas cylinders should be fitted with transportation caps
over their stop valves and be stored in unheated, well-ventilated buildings
and not exposed to direct sunlight. Cylinders containing flammable gases
such as hydrogen or acetylene must not be stored in close proximity to
open flames, areas where electrical sparks are generated, or where other
sources of ignition may be present.
Oxygen cylinders, full or empty, shall not be stored in the same
vicinity as flammable gases. The proper storage for oxygen cylinders
requires that a minimum of 20 feet be maintained between flammable gas
cylinders and oxygen cylinders, or the storage areas be separated at a
minimum, by a fire wall five feet high with minimum fire rating of 1/2hour.
Greasy and oily materials shall never be stored around oxygen; nor should
oil or grease be applied to fittings. Aviation breathing oxygen and welding
oxygen cylinders should be segregated.
Cylinders should not be placed on damp ground or exposed to any
corrosive substances or conditions. Acetylene cylinders should always be
stored in an upright position. Cylinders with rounded bottoms may be
stacked horizontally but no more than four cylinders high and they should
be wedged to prevent movement.

Refer to Civil Aviation Procedure CAP 562 Civil Aircraft Airworthiness

Information and Procedures (CAAIP) Leaflet 1-8 Storage of compressed gas
cylinder

CAP 562 Civil Aircraft Airworthiness Information and Procedures

(CAAIP)
Leaflet 1-8 Storage of compressed gas cylinder
Stores which are used for storage of compressed gas cylinders
should be well ventilated. The cylinders should not be exposed to the
direct rays of the sun and no covering should be used which is in direct
contact with the cylinders.
Cylinders should not be laid on damp ground or exposed to any
conditions liable to cause corrosion.
Gas storage cylinders should normally be fitted with a
transportation/storage cap over the shut-off valve to help prevent
handling damage and contamination of parts which could cause a risk of
explosion or fire.
Portable gas cylinders (e.g. therapeutic oxygen, fire extinguishers)
should be stored on racks and, where appropriate, control heads and
gauges should be protected against impact.
No heating is required in stores where compressed gas cylinders are
kept, unless specified by the manufacturer.
Lighting for stores containing combustible gas cylinders (i.e.
acetylene) should be flameproof, or installed outside the building, lighting
the interior through fixed windows.
Store rooms should be manufactured of fireproof materials and the
cylinders so placed to be easily removable in the event of fire. The store

should be at a distance from corrosive influences, e.g. battery charging

rooms.
Full and empty cylinders should be stored in separate rooms, and
appropriate notices displayed to prevent confusion.
Oxygen and combustible gases such as acetylene should not be
stored together.
Acetylene cylinders should be stored in the upright position.
Oxygen cylinders are generally rounded at the bottom, thereby
making it unsafe to store in an upright position without suitable support. If
cylinders are stacked horizontally special wedges should be used to
prevent the cylinders rolling, and the stack of cylinders should not be
more than four high.
Breathing oxygen and welding oxygen should be segregated and
properly labelled to avoid confusion. In some cases welding oxygen may
be used for testing oxygen components not installed in the aircraft, but
welding oxygen should not be used in aircraft oxygen systems.

If cylinders are exposed to heat, the gas pressure will increase and
the cylinder walls may be weakened, causing a dangerous condition.
Cylinders should be stored at some distance from sources of heat such as
furnaces, stoves, boilers, radiators, etc.
Oil or grease will ignite in the presence of oxygen, and if the latter is
under pressure an explosion may result. Cylinders should be kept away
from sources of contamination, such as oil barrels, overhead shafting,
hydraulic components or any container or component that may contain oil
or grease.
Smoking, exposed lights or fires should not be allowed in any room
where compressed gases are stored, and oily or greasy clothes or hands
should be avoided when handling the cylinders. Grit, dirt, oil and water
should be prevented from entering the cylinder valves.
When returning any cylinder that may have been accidentally
damaged or overheated, the supplier should be notified so that any
necessary action may be taken before refilling.

Pipe Bending
Pipes are used widely in aircraft to transfer fluid such as fuel and
hydraulics. Some of these piping needs to be bend to change direction or
to pass any obstacle. There are several procedures as laid down in the
Civil Aircraft Airworthiness Information and Procedures (CAAIP).
When manufacturing pipes for use in aircraft systems, bending
should be carried out with the aid of a tube-bending machine. There are
the Draw Bending Machine, Compression Bending Machine and Simple
Hand Bending Tool.
Some pipe materials require heat treatment to soften them prior to
bending followed by further heat treatment after bending to relieve stress
and restore their properties.
Prior to conducting any heat treatment, the pipe should be
thoroughly cleaned. The presence of carbon in oils, greases and
degreasing agents can lead to serious weld decay problems in some
materials. High-pressure paraffin sprays may be used for initial cleaning
but this should be followed by degreasing with an appropriate solvent
such as trichloroethylene and blow-drying in warm air.
Tubing normally requires some form of internal support during the
bending process to prevent it from flattening in the bend area. Low

melting point fusible alloy is used to fill pipes prior to bending in order to
provide support when full-bore bends are being formed. This reduces the
risk of fracture, wrinkling and kinking. The filler can be easily removed
after bending without affecting the heat treatment state of the pipe
material. Fusible alloys have low melting point that is below 100C and
can be melted out by immersion in boiling water.
The pipe is oiled first before filling with filler to prevent the alloy
adhering to the tube wall. Fusible alloys have a detrimental effect on high
tensile steels and direct contact with them must be avoided. The pipe is
then plugged at one end, pre-heated and then filled with the melted alloy.
Once cooled, the pipe can then be bent as required. Care needs to be
taken not to create air pockets or breaking of the lubrication film during
the loading operation.
After bending, the pipe should be unloaded, by immersing it in
boiling water until the entire alloy has run out. The pipe must then be
cleaned internally to ensure that any alloy adhering to the walls of the
pipe is removed. This is accomplished by using a pull through with the
pipe immersed in boiling water or by using a steam cleaner.
The complete removal of the fusible alloy from the pipe is extremely
important as its presence may lead to blockages or corrosion and, in steel
tubes, which may be subsequently heat-treated, the presence of any alloy
would cause inter-crystalline cracking.
Following the correct procedure from approved manuals will ensure the
long serviceability of the manufactured pipe used in aircraft this
maintaining its airworthiness.
Chemical Corrosion Removal Method On Aluminium Alloy
Corrosion on aircraft structure can widely affect its structural integrity.
Prepare the area before attempting any corrosion removal procedure by
carring out the following:
Position the aircraft in an area with washing facilities for rapid rinsing of all
surfaces.
Bond the aircraft to the ground.
Remove the battery if corrosion is in that area.
Cover pitot static heads, static vents and engine openings. Protect aircraft
interior from moisture and chemicals.
Protect surfaces adjacent to the working area from chemical paint
strippers, corrosion removal agents and surface treatment materials.
Before commencing corrosion rectification, reference must be made to the
aircraft structural repair manual. The following notes are of a general
nature only.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

The following are general safety precautions which should be observed

when handling solvents, special cleaners, paint strippers, etchants and
surface conversion chemicals:
Barrier cream must be rubbed on the hands before starting work.
Avoid prolonged breathing of solvent or acid vapours and do not use them
in confined spaces without adequate ventilation or approved respirator.
Never add water to acid. Always add acid to water.
Always mix chemicals using the approved procedure, with containers
which will withstand heat.
Ensure that a supply of clean water and eye irrigator bottles for
emergency use is available in the immediate area.
Use rubber or pvc gloves, goggles or plastic face shields and suitable
protective clothing.
Immediately wash any harmful material from body, skin or clothing.
Harmful materials splashed in the eyes must be immediately flushed out
with water and medical aid obtained.
Do not eat or keep food in work areas and always wash hands before
eating or smoking.
Clean all equipment after work has been completed.
Many chemicals employed in remedial or corrosion preventative
procedures can cause pollution if discharged into a waterway via a surface
water drainage system. Local regulations vary and the local water
authority must be contacted regarding the disposal of effluent.

DEGREASING
Before attempting to remove corrosion from any metal surface, it must be
cleaned and degreased.
There are a number of solvents and solvent cleaning processes used in
aircraft and component maintenance. Some of these solvents and
processes may have a denigrating effect on aircraft materials, or pose a
threat to health. Therefore, the use of solvents and processes such as
immersion, spraying and vapour bath cleaning etc., should be carried out
strictly in accordance with the procedure stated in the Aircraft
Maintenance Manual or Maintenance Process Specification.
PAINT REMOVAL
Approved non-flammable paint strippers should be used to remove paints.
The surrounding areas should be masked off or covered with suitable
protective material eg., polyurethane sheet. The strippers should be

brushed over the paint, left on the surface for a few minutes and the
softened paint then removed using a non-metallic scraper. After the paint
has been removed all traces of the stripper must also be removed.
Chemical Methods Corrosion Removal
Chemical methods of neutralising corrosion are used mainly on aluminium
and magnesium alloys.
The safety precautions details earlier for handling chemicals etc., must be
observed.
Where thickened phosphoric acid (Deoxidine) is approved for use on
aluminium alloys the following procedure is generally used.
Degrease the area
Remove paint
Remove as much of the corrosion products as possible by mechanical
methods. Feather the edges of surrounding paint.
Apply a coat of the specified thickened phosphoric acid (deoxidine) by
brush to the corroded area, taking care to avoid ingress to crevices or
joints. Avoid contact with ultra-high tensile steels by masking as
necessary. Fresh solution must be used for each application.
Allow 5 to 20 minutes for the solution to act; agitate with a stiff bristle
brush where heavy corrosion is present; ;wipe off, and wash the area with
clean water.
If necessary, repeat the above procedures.
Dry all surfaces thoroughly.
Apply the alocrom 1200 process and allow to dry for a minimum of two
hours, then apply a primer and paint finish scheme within 48 hours.
Deoxidines MUST NOT be used on magnesium alloys. The chemical
method used for removing corrosion from magnesium in the section
headed Rectification of Corrosion on Magnesium

Non-Destructive Testing/Inspection (NDT/NDI) Techniques

Surface damage on aircraft metal structure can lead to catastrophic failure
due to structural fatigue if left untreated. Non-Destructive Test (NDT)
specifically dye penetrant flaw detection is a method that can be carried
out by a licensed aircraft engineer to detect surface damage on metal.
There are several process in carrying out dye penetrant flaw detection.
All procedure is laid down in approved maintenance manual and
Civil Aircraft Airworthiness Information and Procedure (CAAIP) Part 4
Leaflet 4-2 Dye Penetrant Processes. Make sure the personnel carrying out
the task is properly trained and equipped with personel protective
equipment (PPE) such as goggles and gloves.

Penetrant flaw detection may be used to detect surface-breaking

discontinuities in any non-porous materials, including ceramics, metals,
and plastics. It may also be used to detect porosity in those materials that
should not be porous, leaks in tanks and cracking of internal bores.
Briefly, the steps to be taken when performing a penetrant inspection
are:l.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Thorough cleaning of the metal surface.

Applying penetrant.
Removing penetrant with remover-emulsifier or cleaner.
Drying the part.
Applying the developer.
Inspecting and interpreting results.

Interpretation of Results
1.
The success and reliability of a penetrant inspection depends upon
the thoroughness with which the part was prepared.
2.
The penentrant must enter the defect in order to form and
indication. It is important to allow sufficient time so the penetrant can fill
the defect. The defect must be clean and free of contaminating materials
so that the penetrant is free to enter.
3.
The smaller the defect, the longer the penetrating time. Fine cracklike apertures require a longer penetrating time than defects such as
pores.
4.
The size of the indication, or accumulation of penetrant, will show
the extent of the defect, and the brilliance will be a measure of its depth.
Deep cracks will hold more penetrant and therefore, will be broader and
more brilliant. Very fine openings can hold only small amounts of
penetrant and therefore, will appear as fine lines.

False Indications
There is a condition which may create accumulations of penetrant that are
sometimes confused with true cracks and discontinuities.
This condition is caused by poor washing. If the surface penetrant is not
completely removed during washing or rinsing operation, the unremoved
penetrant will be visible. Evidences of incomplete washing are usually
easy to identify since the penetrant is in broad areas rather than in the
sharp patterns found with true indications. When accumulations of
unwashed penetrant are found on a part, the part should be completely
reprocessed. Degreasing is recommended for removal of all traces of the
penetrant.

Advantages and disadvantages

The main advantages of DPI are the speed of the test and the low cost.
Disadvantages include the detection of only surface flaws, skin irritation,
and the inspection should be on a smooth clean surface where excessive
penetrant can be removed prior to being developed. Conducting the test
on rough surfaces, such-as "as-welded" welds, will make it difficult to
remove any excessive penetrant and could result in false indications.
Water-washable penetrant should be considered here if no other option is
available. Also, on certain surfaces a great enough color contrast cannot
be achieved or the dye will stain the workpiece.
CAP 562 Civil Aircraft Airworthiness Information and Procedures
(CAAIP)
Leaflet 4-2 Penetrant Dye Processes
Surface Preparation
Isolate the adjacent surface to the inspection area to avoid any
contamination. Make sure the surface protection and paint is removed.
The surface of the inspection area is cleaned from grease, dirt, oil or any
contaminants that can affect the results by using an approved cleaning
solvent. Sufficient time should be allowed after cleaning for drying out,
otherwise the efficiency of the penetrant dye may be affected.
Application of the Dye
The penetrant dye can be applied to the surface by dipping, spraying or
brushing, depending on the size and type of surface to be inspected. The
surface must be dry before the dye is applied and make sure an even
distribution of the dye on the surface to be inspected.
Penetration Time
Allow some dwell time or penetration time for the dye to penetrate
effectively into the defects usually in the range of 5 minutes to 1 hour, the
smaller the defect the longer the time necessary. Temperatures and
humidity such as below 15C (60F) will retard the penetrant action of the
dye, thus the penetration time should be extended proportionately.
Removal of Excess Dye
Any dye remaining on the surfaces of the parts after expiry of the
penetration time should be removed as thoroughly as possible but without
disturbing the dye which would have found its way into any defects
present. Excessive cleaning, however, may result in the dilution of the dye
or its complete removal from defects.
Surface Drying
Prior to applying the developer, it should be ensured that the surfaces
ofthe part under test is completely dry.
Application of the Developer

The developer usually consists of a very fine absorbent white powder

which may be applied in form of spray or dipping. Make sure to apply the
developer evenly as a too thin application will make it hard to observe the
marks and too thick can mask out the penetrant appearing.
Interpretation of Defects
Allow some time for the red indication to appear as a fine cack may take a
longer time to appear compared to visible crack. Magnifying glass can be
used to assist in detecting fine defects on the surface. Mark and identify
the defect appearing and refer to the approved manuals for its limitations.
Return back the parts where the inspection and rectification has been
carried out to its original condition and issue the certificate release to
service.

Landing Gear Oleo Extension Found Low

Landing gear shock strut oleo carries the compression loads of aircraft
landing and support it on the ground. Any defects on the shock strut oleo
can cause a further damage on the aircraft structure. If the shock strut

oleo is found low, there are several steps to be taken to rectify the
problem.
Debrief with the pilot on the condition of the landing gear shock
strut. Refer to any entries on the landing gear shock strut in the aircraft
techlog.
Make sure the landing gear ground lockpin is installed before
carrying any task.
Inspect the landing gear oleo for any damage. Check the nitrogen
pressure of the oleo strut by using the pressure gauge. Charge the oleo
with approved nitrogen cart if the pressure os found low by referring to
the approved maintenance manual and the landing gear oleo servicing
chart.
Inspect the landing gear shock strut oleo for any damage and leak.
If hydraulic leak is found on the oleo, there might be damage on the
dynamic seal of the oleo. Carry out oleo seal replacement and service the
landing gear shock strut with correct amount of oil and nitrogen gas by
referring to the approved maintenance manual.
Dissimilar loading of the aircraft can cause some of the landing gear
shock strut oleo to be compressed more than the other causing it to
appear low. Extra fuel on one wing due to faulty fuel transfer valve can
cause the oleo on that side of the wing to be compressed and appear low
more than the other side.
Another cause for oleo extension low is because the inner cylinder is
jammed up with the outer cylinder caused by ingression dirt in the oleo. To
rectify this, jack the aircraft and clean the inner cylinder with approved
fluid.
Inspection
Leak - rectification
Condition
Abnormalities
If inspection found nothing
Troubleshooting
Fuel tank quantity/aircraft loading
When all rectification has been done satisfactorily, issue and sign
certificate release to service. Always follow up on the landing gear oleo
extension and pressure after 1 landing cycle.
All personnel must make sure the condition of the aircraft meets the
airworthiness requirement. An early detection of the defect can increase
the life of the component and maintain the serviceability of the aircraft.

Precaution when working with oxygen

Oxygen is used in aviation industry as breathing oxygen and gas welding.
It poses a serious hazard on personnel and equipment as it support
combustion and mechanical hazard due to high pressure. There are
several precautions need to be observed when working with oxygen gas.
Never charge an air or nitrogen system with oxygen. The mixture
will present a significant fire and explosion risk. These systems have
different charging connectors to prevent from inadvertently doing this.
Never mix oxygen with other gases.
Ensure that you are using the correct specification of oxygen. The bottles
are black with white hemispherical tops and are marked with the word
OXYGEN and the chemical symbol O2 in white lettering. The bottle also
carries the warning USE NO OIL OR GREASE in red lettering on a white
background. The American use green as the identifying colour for oxygen
bottles.
Do not attempt to re-charge an oxygen cylinder that has been fully
discharge (empty). There is a strong possibility that it contains condensed
moisture and it will need purging by the contractor. Used cylinder should
have at least 50psi of oxygen left inside to prevent ingress of air and
moisture.
Ensure that there is no moisture, oil or grease on the equipment and
tools or in the vicinity. This includes your hands and your clothing.
Ensure that clothing worn during oxygen system servicing is kept
clean and dry and is only worn for that purpose. Personnel should wear
clean lint-free cotton gloves. Remove clothing and hang it in a well
ventilated area for at least a quarter of an hour after completing the task.
Oxygen will penetrate fabrics and make them highly flammable.
Do not expose oxygen to a source of sparks or fire. A small fire rapidly
becomes a very big one in the presence of oxygen.
When charging aircraft systems ensure that the area is well
ventilated and that the aircraft and the charging trolley is earthed. Place
NO SMOKING signs outside the aircraft. Avoid all testing of electrical or
radio systems. Appropriate fire extinguisher should be positioned where it
can be easily accessed.
Before connecting hose to a charging point, open the regulating
valve slowly and allow a low flow of oxygen out of the hose to purge it of
moisture and air for about 30 sec. Keep the flow on whilst connecting the
hose to avoid introducing air into the system.
Always open valves slowly by hand and do not attempt to force them.
Keep charging rates low to prevent creating excessive heat.

When charging is complete, close the aircraft system charging valve

and charging cylinder stop valve before releasing the charging line
pressure by closing the regulator valve slowly to prevent a rapid release of
pressure.
Always blank off any open ports in oxygen systems and charging
hoses when these are not in use.
Never lubricate the threads of oxygen equipment with oil or grease.
Oxygen that emits a bad smell is most certainly contaminated with
moisture. Do not use it.

General safety precautions on aircraft towing

Towing is necessary to enable the aircraft to be moved without engine
power. The procedure required will vary greatly dependent on the type of
aircraft to be moved.
The relevant maintenance manual will normally specify details of
the towing arm and any limitations on the towing procedure. On many
aircraft with nose-wheel steering, it is normal practice to disconnect or
depressurise the aircraft steering system before towing.
For large aircraft, the tow bar incorporates a shock absorber system,
normally a large spring to avoid snatching movements being transmitted
to the aircraft structure. The tow bar also incorporates a shear pinto
prevent excessive loads occurring between the tractor and nose
undercarriage.
The following precautions must be observed when towing operations
are in progress. Reference must be made to the manual for specific
instructions.
1. Aircraft must not exceed walking pace while being towed (in closed
area).
2. Oleo-leg and tyres must be correctly inflated prior to moving the
aircraft, and sufficient brake pressure available for an emergency stop.
3. Undercarriage down locks must be fitted prior to towing.
4. At night, aircraft navigation lights must be ON.
5. By-pas pin or towing pin must be fitted before connecting the tow bar.
6. A person in-charge with all other team members in his sight.
7. Personnel must be stationed on the wing tip and tail to ensure
clearance round obstacles.
8. There must be a competent person occupying the pilot seat to operate
the aircraft brakes in case of emergency.
9. When manhandling light aircraft by pushing, do not push on the flying
control surfaces or other delicate parts such as fabric skin. The leading
edges of the wings are normally the strongest, so push the aircraft
backwards.
10. To avoid unnecessary stress to tyres and undercarriage, the
maximum turning angle should never be exceeded. The manufacturers
maximum turning angle is normally painted on the side of the aircraft
nose. Try to terminate towing by leaving the aircraft in a straight line.
This will prevent side loads remaining on the tyres when the aircraft
comes to a stop.
11. Do not operate the aircraft brakes while the aircraft is being towed.
Allow the tractor or tug to keep the aircraft under control.

12. A propeller must never be used to push or pull the aircraft, as the
engine should always be regarded as 'live' and a propeller may kick if it
is turned.

Jacking Procedures For Landing Gear Retraction Test

While the following procedures will, generally, ensure safe and satisfactory
jacking of most aircraft, precedence must always be given to the
procedures and precautions specified in the relevant Maintenance Manual.
One person should co-ordinate the operation and one person should
control each jacking point. On larger aircraft a levelling station will also
need to be monitored and all members of the team may need to be in
radio or telephone communication with the co-ordinator.
Checks should be made on the aircraft weight, its fuel state, and
centre of gravity, to ensure they are within the specified limits as detailed
in the Maintenance Manual. The aircraft should be headed into wind (if it is
in the open), the main wheels chocked fore and aft, the brakes released
and the undercarriage ground locks installed.
It is vital that the earth cable be connect to the earth point on the
aircraft and it must be ensured that there is adequate clearance above
every part of the aircraft and that there is clearance for lifting cranes or
other equipment, which may be required.
Jacking pads should be attached to the jacking points and adapters
provided for the jacks as required. Load cells may also be included if
needed.
The jacks should be positioned at each jacking point and checks
made, to confirm that the jacks are adjusted correctly (i.e. release valve
closed, jack body vertical, weight evenly distributed about the legs when
the adapters are located centrally in the jacking pads, and the weight of
the aircraft is just being taken by the jacks).
Before jacking commences, the chocks must be removed and then
the aircraft should be raised slowly and as evenly as possible. Whilst
jacking is in progress, the locking collars should be continually wound
down, keeping them close to the body of the jack. When the aircraft is
raised to the correct height, the locking collar should be fully tightened
down.

When jacking is complete, then supports may be placed under the

wings and fuselage as indicated in the Maintenance manual.
A pillar (bottle) jack and an adapter are often used for raising a
single undercarriage for changing a single wheel. Alternatively a trolley
jack or stirrup jack may be used. The remaining wheels should be checked
to prevent aircraft movement, and it may be specified that a tail support
be located when raising a nose undercarriage. The jack should be raised
only enough to lift the unserviceable wheel clear of the ground.

Inspection on rivet joint on aircraft structure

Before commencing any type of riveting job, the operator should
whenever possible, make a dummy run by forming rivets in some spare
piece of metal of corresponding thickness, checking the rivet allowance
and the ability to produce well-set satisfactory rivets.
Whilst in service, rivets must be inspected regularly, to check for a
number of faults that might have occurred, such as corrosion, fretting and
fatigue. After the rivets have been closed they should be inspected to
ensure that they are tight and fully formed. Rivet heads must not be
deformed or cracked, and the surrounding area should be free from
distortion and undamaged by the riveting tools.
Rivets, which are obviously not performing their function, should be
replaced, but replacement of rivets, which are found to be only slightly
below standard, might do more harm than leaving them in position,
particularly in thin materials. Before rejecting such rivets, the strength
requirements of the particular joint and the effectiveness of the rivets in
question should be considered.
When a flushness tolerance is specified for countersunk rivets, this
is normally checked before riveting is commenced; however, the milling of
solid rivet heads may sometimes be permitted after riveting to obtain a
uniform protrusion. In this case protective treatments must be re-applied
after milling.
Type of aircraft joint normally used is Butt joint, Joggle joint, Lap joint, T
joint, Edge joint and Corner joint

Procedure and precautions for aircraft parking

When an aircraft is out of service and in the open it should be secured
against inadvertent movement and protected against adverse weather
conditions. The operations recommended in the relevant Maintenance
Manual depend on the type of aircraft, the length of time it will be out of
service and the prevailing or forecast weather conditions.
For short term parking between flights, it is usually sufficient to
apply the parking brakes, lock the control surfaces and chock the wheels
but, in a strong wind, light aircraft should be headed into the wind. Light
aircraft without wheel brakes should be headed into wind and their wheels
chocked front and rear.
Flying controls, on many aircraft, are locked by movement of a lever
in the cockpit/cabin. The lever is connected to locking pins at convenient
positions in the control runs or at the control surfaces. When this type of
control lock is not provided, locking attachments may have to be fitted to
the control column and rudder pedals.
A more positive method entails the use of external control surface
locks, that prevent control surface movement and, thus, prevent strain on
the control system. All external locks should have suitable streamers
attached, to make them more visible.
If an aircraft is to be parked overnight or for longer periods in the open,
then additional precautions should be taken, to guard against the effects
of adverse weather.
The undercarriage ground locks should be fitted, and all openings,
such as static vents, engine and cooling air intakes, should be blanked, to
prevent ingress of dirt, birds, insects and moisture. Items such as pitot
head and incidence indicators should also be covered.

When severe weather is anticipated it is recommended that covers

for cockpit, canopy and wheel are fitted if available. Blanks and covers
should not be left in position when the aircraft is prepared for service.
Servicing instructions should include a pre-flight check to ensure that all
covers are removed.
If an aircraft has to be parked overnight or for longer periods in the
open, then additional precautions should be taken to guard against
ingress of foreign object damage (FOD) and the effects of adverse
weather as follows:
1. The undercarriage ground locks must be fitted.
2. Pitot Tubes small probes, which are open to external dynamic
pressure, are covered.
3. Static vents -small holes in the fuselage, which are open to external
static pressure, are covered.
4. Engine intakes are covered.
5. Engine exhausts are covered.
6. Cooling air intakes are covered.
Procedures And Precautions During Aircraft Refuelling
Instructions, regarding the responsibilities of the various personnel
involved in fuelling procedures and these will always take precedence in
conjunction with the relevant Maintenance Manual.
Particular care must be taken when fuelling aircraft, so that the
operation may be accomplished in the safest possible manner. Whenever
possible, aircraft should be fuelled in the open, and not in a hangar. This
will minimise the fire risk from high concentrations of flammable vapours.
Fire appliances should be readily available during all fuelling
operations. Carbon dioxide, or foam, extinguishers are recommended but,
if there is a perceived increased fire risk, then fire-fighting vehicles should
be standing by.
Within the specified danger area, around an aircraft being fuelled,
no sources of ignition or sparks should be allowed and no electrical power
should be switched on or off during the fuelling operation.
It is vital that the correct type and grade of fuel is used for the
fuelling operation. Use of a turbine fuel in a piston aircraft will certainly
cause an engine malfunction, or failure, that could lead to loss of an
aircraft. The correct type and grade of fuel is always detailed in the
Maintenance Manual and marked adjacent to the aircrafts fuelling
point(s).

Care should also be exercised so as to avoid contamination of the

fuel system with water or other contaminants. The fuel supply should be
regularly checked for water contamination and a sample of fuel drained
off after refuelling, so that a water check may be done.
It will sometimes be necessary to filter the fuel during over-wing
refuelling, particularly in dusty climates.
Electrical bonding of the fuel system is vital during fuelling
operations, as when fuel flows through the refuelling hose, static
electricity may be generated. This may lead to potential differences at
adjacent metal parts and initiate a spark, fire or explosion.
To minimise this risk the following actions should be completed
before fuelling operations commence:
1. The aircraft should be earthed
2. The refuelling tanker should be earthed
3. The nozzle of the fuel hose should be electrically bonded to the
fuelling point.

Precautions To Prevent Electrical Fire

The human body makes excellent conductors of electricity, so it is
important that safe work processes are adopted when using electric
equipment. Sparks from electrical equipment may also create fire and
explosion risks when the equipment is used in areas containing flammable
gases or substances. People are at risks of becoming over-familiar with
the use of many of the more common portable electrical power tools and
often fail to treat them with proper care.
Always check that the supply voltage is compatible with the
equipment. Ensure the current is switched off when connecting or
disconnecting electrical tools and equipment from the mains outlets, and
also ensure that the tools or equipment are selected to off before
switching on the mains power to them.
Avoid handling electrical equipment when you are standing on wet
floors or you are wearing wet footwear. This will provide a path to earth
and completes the live circuit that you may have become part of. Do not
handle electrical equipment with wet hands.
Most 240V electrical ground equipment is fitted with a three-core
cable that includes an earth wire. Ensure all electrical equipment is

correctly earthed. Never connect electrically powered hand tools to

lighting sockets because they will not be earthed.
Frayed, pulled and badly kinked cables or exposed wires may
produce a situation where an exposed live conductor contacts the earth
conductor. When this occurs, the equipment body will become live and
contact with it will put you in the live circuit. So, do not use equipment
that has damaged cables or cracked connectors.
Electrical current flowing through a cable produces heat in
proportion to the resistance of the cable. If the current being drawn by the
equipment is higher than the rating of the cable, there is a risk that the
cable insulation will overheat, melt or burn and the equipment body may
become live as a result. Therefore, never use extension leads that contain
cable that has too low a rating for the equipment. Dont forget to unwind
extension leads fully or there is very high risk that the cable insulation will
melt through overheating.
Do not overload power outlet sockets. Isolate equipment from the
power source before attempting to dismantle or carry out adjustments to
equipment. Do not hang electrically powered equipment from the supply
cables.
Do not leave supply cables and extension leads trailing on the floor
where they may be run over by equipment or pose a trip hazard to
personnel.
Report all electrical faults immediately and do not attempt to use it
until a competent person has properly repaired it.
Always ensure that fuses or circuit breakers are of the correct value
and make sure that the faults that cause them to blow or trip are properly
investigated. Do not keep on replacing or re-setting circuit protection
devices that continue to fail.
Ensure that all electrical equipment is inspected before use for
obvious damage and that it has been re-inspected at the stipulated
intervals by a competent person.
Electrical equipment should not be used in areas where there are
flammable gases or substances present unless the equipment is
specifically cleared for use in such areas.
When connecting an external electrical power source to an aircraft,
check that the supply voltage, frequency and phase are compatible with
the aircraft system. The ground supply must be switched off prior to
connection and the connector must be fully mated before the supply is
switched on.

Precautions handling synthetic ester based engine lubricating oil

There is a range of oils on aircraft for: engine lubrication systems, ancillary
gearboxes, oil filled landing gear struts and hydraulic systems.
Turbine engine lubricating oils are low viscosity, synthetic ester-base
oils and are formed from a cocktail of chemical compounds that are toxic.
First generation turbine oils are referred to as Type 1 oils. These do not
meet the operating requirements of modern gas turbines. Types 2 oils
were developed to withstand the higher operating temperatures of later
engines. The two types are NOT compatible with each other and must
never be mixed together.

The irritant nature of turbine engine lubricating oils means that it is

essential to read the safety instructions. Avoid prolonged skin contact with
these oils and must never inadvertently ingest them. In the short term,
skin contact produces Dermatitis. In the long term, there is a risk of health
problems occurring as a result of prolonged contact and absorption
through the skin.
Ester-base oils are hygroscopic in that they tend to absorb moisture
from the air. It is important that dispensing equipment and oil containers
are kept clean and sealed. Dispensing equipment should be dedicated to
one oil specification and never used for anything else. Open containers of
oil should never be used and they should be disposed of. Ester-base oils
are also aggressive to most aircraft paint finishes. Polyurethane paint
finishes offer the best protection from them.
Never mix Type 1 and Type 2 oils together. Check, to make sure you have
the correct specification oil. It is in the Aircraft Maintenance Manual and
you can also refer to the information marked close to the replenishment
points.
Wear protective gloves, apron and face shield when handling these
oils. Wash hands thoroughly after contact with the oil and do not smoke,
drink or eat until you have done this. If oil enters the eyes, seek medical
attention.
Always use the correct dispensing equipment and make sure it is
clean. Clean up spillages immediately before they attack surface finishes
and correct replenishment procedure is followed.

Inspection Following Heavy Landings

A heavy or overweight landing can cause damage to the aircraft both
visible and hidden. All damage found should be entered in the aircrafts
Technical Log. An aircraft landing gear is designed to withstand landing at
a particular aircraft weight and rate of descent. If either of these
parameters was exceeded during a landing, then it is probable that some
damage has been caused to the landing gear, its supporting structure or
elsewhere on the airframe.

Over-stressing may occur if the aircraft is not parallel to the runway

when it lands or if the nose- or tail-wheel strikes the runway before the
main wheels.
Some aircraft are provided with heavy landing indicators, which give
a visual indication that specified g forces have been exceeded. Long
aircraft may have a tail scrape indicator fitted, as a scrape is more likely.
In all instances of suspect heavy landings, the flight crew should be
questioned for details of the aircrafts weight, fuel distribution, landing
conditions and whether any unusual noises were heard during the
incident.
Primary damage that may be expected following a heavy landing
would normally be concentrated around the landing gear, its supporting
structure in the wings or fuselage, the wing and tailplane attachments and
the engine mountings.
Secondary damage may be found on the fuselage upper and lower
skins and on the wing skin and structure.
Different aircraft have their own heavy landing procedures. For
example, some aircraft, which show no primary damage, need no further
inspection, whilst others require that all inspections are made after every
reported heavy landing. This is because some aircraft can have hidden
damage in remote locations whilst the outside of the aircraft appears to
be undamaged.
Inspect the tyres for any flat spot or wear marks. Examine the
landing gear for any damage and leaks. Check the landing gear shock
strut oleo extension. Check the landing gear attachment and structural
fuse for any abnormalities and damage. Examine wheels and brakes for
cracks and other damage. Carry out retraction and nose wheel steering
tests
Check the mainplanes and tailplanes for any damage such as
wrinkling and pulled rivets. Check for any fuel leaks if the aircraft has its
integral tank on the wing. Check the root attachments and fairings for
cracks. Carry out functional test on full, free and correct movement of
control surface system.
Check the fuselage skin, frames, stringers and bulkhead for damage
and wrinkles. Ensure the inertia switches have not tripped. Check pipes
and ducts for security. Make sure all doors and panels fit correctly.

Check the engines controls for freedom of movement. Examine all

mountings and pylons for damage and distortion. Check the compressor

and turbine blades for freedom of rotation. Examine all cowlings for
wrinkling and distortion. Check all fluid lines, filters and chip detectors.
There are numerous other checks that need to be done, depending
on the damage found during the inspections. This can include engine runs
and functional checks of all the aircraft systems. Signs of some damage
and distortion could be a reason to do full rigging and symmetry checks of
the airframe.

Inspection Following Lightning Strikes

Lightning is the discharge of electricity in the atmosphere, usually

between highly charged cloud formations, or between a charged cloud
and the ground. If an aircraft is flying in the vicinity of the discharge or it
is on the ground, the lightning may strike the aircraft. This will result in
very high voltages and currents passing through the structure.
The general procedure of inspection following lightning strike on an
aircraft has these three tasks:
1. Examination of the External Surfaces for Lightning Strike
2. Examination of the internal Components for Lightning Strike
3. Inspection and Operational Check of the Radio and Navigation
Systems.
Make sure the aircraft is electrically and statically grounded
following the lightning strike to ensure all charges has been dissipated.
Inspect the external surface of the aircraft for any damage,
discoloration, burn marks, holes and pitting. This type of damage usually
indicates the entry point of the lightning strike on the aircraft. If the
lightning strikes any composite parts such as the radome, there will be
delaminating of the structure. This can be identified by non-destructive
test or coin tapping. The exit point of the lightning strike will usually be
indicated by missing static wicks.
Any ferromagnetic structure on the aircraft will usually be
magnetized after lightning strike. This can be indicated by erratic and
problems with the electrical system, radio system, navigation system and
display. There will be some noise in radio frequency and abnormal
fluctuations of indicator in the cockpit.
Aircraft bonding check can be carried out to make sure the potential
difference between aircraft structures including components is within
limitation with 0.1ohm for primary structure and 0.05 for secondary
structure. Check aircraft bonding cable if there is High Intensity Radiated
Field (HIRF) interference found.
Check the flight control hinge bearing by carrying functional check
of the flight control. High voltage of current from the lightning strike can
melt bearings due to its high energy.

All separate parts of the aircraft are electrically bonded together, to

provide a low-resistance path to conduct the lightning away from areas
where damage may hazard the aircraft.
The maintenance schedule or maintenance manual should specify
the inspections applicable to the aircraft but, in general, bonding straps
and static discharge wicks should be inspected for damage. Damaged
bonding straps on control surfaces may lead to tracking across control

surface bearings, this in turn may cause burning, break up or seizure due
to welding of the bearings.
This type of damage may result in resistance to movement of the
controls, which can be checked by doing a functional check of the
controls. Additional checks may include:
1. Examine engine cowlings and engines for evidence of burning or
pitting. As in control bearings, tracking of the engine bearings may
have occurred. Manufacturers may recommend checking the oil
filters and chip detectors for signs of contamination. This check may
need to be repeated for a specified number of running hours after
the occurrence.
2. Examine fuselage skin, particularly rivets for burning or pitting.
3. If the landing gear was extended, some damage may have occurred
to the lower parts of the gear. Examine for signs of discharge.
4. After the structural examination it will be necessary to do functional
checks of the radio, radar, instruments, compasses, electrical
circuits and flying controls. A bonding resistance check should also
be done.
The aircraft has all the necessary and known lightning strike
protection measures.
Most of the external parts of the aircraft are metal structure with sufficient
thickness to be resistant to a lightning strike. This metal assembly is its
basic protection. The thickness of the metal surface is sufficient to protect
the internal spaces from a lightning strike.
The metal skin also gives protection from the entrance of electromagnetic
energy into the electrical wires of the aircraft. The metal skin does not
prevent all electromagnetic energy from going into the electrical wiring;
however, it does keep the energy to a satisfactory level.
If lightning strikes the aircraft, then all of the aircraft must be fully
examined, to find the areas of the lightning strike entrance and exit
points.
When looking at the areas of entrance and exit, this structure should be
carefully examined to find all of the damage that has occurred.
Lightning strike entrance and exit points (refer to Fig. 1) are, usually,
found in Zone 1, but also can occur in Zones 2 and 3. Lightning strikes
can, however, occur to any part of the aircraft, including the fuselage,
wing skin trailing edge panels. wing-body fairing, antennas, vertical
stabiliser, horizontal stabiliser, and along the wing trailing edge in Zone 2.
In metal structures, strike damage usually shows as pits, burn marks
or small circular holes. These holes can be grouped in one location or
divided around a large area. Burned or discoloured skin also shows
lightning strike damage.
In composite (non-metallic) structures, solid laminate or honeycomb
damage shows as discoloured paint. It also shows as burned, punctured,

or de-laminated skin plies. Hidden damage can also exist. This damage
can extend around the visible area. Signs of arcing and burning can also
occur around the attachments to the supporting structure.
Aircraft components made of ferromagnetic material may become
strongly magnetised when subjected to large currents. Large currents,
flowing from the lightning strike in the aircraft structure, can cause this
magnetisation.
Should inaccuracies in the standby compass be reported, after a
lightning strike, then a check swing will be necessary.

Examine the external surfaces carefully to find the entrance and exit
points of lightning strike. Make sure to look in the areas where one surface
stops and another surface starts. Examine the internal and external
surfaces of the nose radome for burns, punctures, and pinholes in the
composite honeycomb sandwich structure. Examine the metallic structure
for holes or pits, burned or discoloured skin and rivets. Examine the
external surfaces of the composite components for discoloured paint,
burned, punctured, or de-laminated skin plies. Use instrumental NDI (NDT)
methods or tap tests to find composite structure damage which is not
visible.
Examine the flight control surfaces for signs of strike damage. If the
control surfaces show signs of damage, examine the surface hinges,
bearings and bonding jumpers for signs of damage. If the ailerons show
signs of a lightning strike, examine the surface hinges, bearings, and
bonding jumpers for signs of damage. If the speed brakes show signs of a
lightning strike, examine the surface hinges, bearings, and bonding
jumpers for signs of damage. If the trailing edge flaps show signs of a
lightning strike, examine the surface hinges, bearings, and bonding
jumpers for signs of damage. If the leading edge flaps/slats show signs of
a lightning strike, examine the surface hinges, bearings, and bonding
jumpers for signs of damage. Examine the nose radome for pin-holes,
punctures and chipped paint. Also ensure bonding straps are correctly
attached. Examine the lightning diverter strips and repair or replace them
if damaged. If there is radome damage, examine the WXR antenna and
wave-guide for damage.
Functional tests will need to be done as follows:
Ensure the navigation lamps, rotary lights and landing lights operate.
If the previously mentioned control examinations show signs of damage:
Do an operational test of the rudder if there are signs of lightning strike
damage to the rudder or vertical stabiliser.
Do an operational test of the elevator if there are signs of lightning strike
damage to the elevator or horizontal stabiliser.
Do an operational test of the ailerons if there are signs of lightning strike
damage to the ailerons.
Do an operational test of the speed brakes if there are signs of lightning
strike damage to the speed brake system.

 Do an operational test of the trailing edge flaps if there are signs of

lightning strike damage to the trailing edge flaps.
Do an operational test of the leading edge flap/slats if there are signs of
lightning strike damage to the trailing edge flap/slats.
If there are signs of strike damage to the landing gear doors, disengage
the main gear door locks and manually move the doors to ensure they
move smoothly. Visually examine the door linkage, hinges, bearings and
bonding jumpers for strike damage. Ensure the proximity switch indication
unit gives the correct indication.
Examination of Internal Components
If a lightning strike has caused a system malfunction, do a full
examination of the system.
Do a check of the stand-by compass system if the flight crew reported a
very large compass deviation.
Make sure the fuel quantity system is accurate. This can be achieved by
a BITE test.
Examine the air data sensors for signs of strike damage. Do an
operational test of the pitot system if there are signs of damage to the
probes. Do a test of the static system if there are signs of damage near
the static ports.
Do an operational check of any of the following systems that did not
operate following the strike, or if the flight crew reported a problem, or if
there was any damage found near the system antenna:
HF communications system
VHF communications system
ILS navigation system
Marker beacon system
Radio altimeter system
Weather radar system
VOR system
ATC system
DME system
Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) system
If one or more of the previous systems have problems with their
operational checks, examine and do a test of the coaxial cables and
connectors.
After all areas have been inspected and lightning damage has been
repaired, components replaced as necessary and tests completed if
necessary, the aircraft may be returned to service.
Effects of a Lightning Strike
Lightning strikes are likely to have two main effects on the aircraft:
Strike damage where the discharge enters the aircraft. This will normally
be on the extremities of the aircraft, the wing tips, nose cone and tail cone
and on the leading edge of the wings and tailplane. The damage will

usually be in the form of small circular holes, usually in clusters, and

accompanied by burning or discoloration.
Static discharge damage at the wing tips, trailing edges and antenna.
The damage will be in the form of local pitting and burning. Bonding strips
and static wicks may also disintegrate, due to the high charges.