Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
UNIT FIVE
DETERMINANTS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
In unit one the determinant of a 2 2 matrix was introduced and used in the evaluation of
a cross product. In this chapter we extend the definition of a determinant to any size
square matrix. The determinant has a variety of applications. The value of the
determinant of a square matrix A can be used to determine whether A is invertible or
noninvertible. An explicit formula for A1 exists that involves the determinant of A.
Some systems of linear equations have solutions that can be expressed in terms of
determinants.
5.2 DEFINITION OF THE DETERMINANT
a12
a
Recall that in chapter one the determinant of the 2 2 matrix A = 11
was
a 21 a 22
defined to be the number a11 a 22 a12 a 21 and that the notation det (A) or A was used to
[ ]
nn
, the notation A ij
will be used to denote the (n 1) (n 1) submatrix obtained from A by deleting the ith
row and the jth column of A. The determinant of any size square matrix A = aij nn is
[ ]
[ ]
n n
be an n n matrix.
(-1)
k =1
1+ k
a1k det(A1k )
Example
If A = [5] , then by part (1) of the definition of the determinant, det (A) = 5.
2 3
1+1
1+2
If A =
, then by parts (2) and (1), det (A) = (1) (2)det[5] + (1) (3)det[4]
4
5
= (1)(2)(5) + (1)(3)(4) = 10 12 = 2
2 3 4
If A = 5 6 7 , then using parts (2) and (1), we calculate the det (A) as follows.
8 9 1
69
6 7
5 7
5 6
+ (1)1+ 2 (3)det
+ (1)1+3 (4)det
det(A) = (1)1+1 (2)det
9 1
8 1
8 9
= (1)(2)(57) + (1)(3)(51) + (1)(4)(3) = 114 + 153 12 = 27.
Cofactor If A is a square matrix, the ijth cofactor of A is defined to be (1)i+jdet(Aij).
The notation Cij will sometimes be used to denote the ijth cofactor of A.
1 2 3
5 6
Example Let A = 4 5 6 . Then C11 = (1)1+1det
= (1)(45 48) = 3 ,
8 9
7 8 9
4 6
1 2
= (1)(3642) = 6 and C23 = (1)2+3det
C12 = (1)1+2det
= (1)(814) = 6.
7 9
7 8
In the definition of the determinant, part (2) consists of multiplying each first row entry
of A by its cofactor and then summing these products. For this reason it is called a first
row cofactor expansion.
2 3 4 5
1 3 2 4
. Use a first row cofactor expansion to evaluate det(A).
Example Let A =
5 3 4 1
4 2 3 5
Solution det(A) =
3 2 4
1 2 4
1 3 4
1 3 2
1+1
1
+
2
1
+
3
1
+
4
( 1) ( 2)det 3 4 1 + ( 1) (3)det 5 4 1 + ( 1) ( 4)det 5 3 1 + ( 1) (5)det 5 3 4
2 3 5
4 3 5
4 2 5
4 2 3
3 4
3 1
4 1
=(1)(2) (1)1+1 (3)det
+ (1)1+3 (4)det
+ (1)1+ 2 (2)det
2 3
2 5
3 5
4 1
5 1
5 4
+(1)(3) (1)1+1 (1)det
+ (1)1+ 2 (2)det
+ (1)1+3 (4)det
3 5
4 5
4 3
3 1
5 1
5 3
+(1)(4) (1)1+1 (1)det
+ (1)1+ 2 (3)det
+ (1)1+3 (4)det
2 5
4 5
4 2
3 4
5 4
5 3
+ (1)1+ 2 (3)det
+ (1)1+3 (2)det
+(1)(5) (1)1+1 (1)det
2 3
4 3
4 2
70
Although the definition of the determinant uses a first row cofactor expansion, the
determinant of A may be calculated by taking any row (or column) and multiplying the
entries of that row (or column) by their cofactors and summing the products. This result
is given in the next theorem whose proof is omitted.
Theorem Let A be a square n n matrix, then
n
k =1
k =1
1 3 4
Example Let A = 2 0 1 . Evaluate det (A) by
3 1 0
(a) a second row cofactor expansion.
(b) a third column cofactor expansion.
Solution
3 4
1 4
1 3
(a) det (A) = (1) 2+1 (2)det
+ (1) 2+ 2 (0)det
+ (1) 2+3 (1)det
1 0
3 0
3 1
= (1)(2)(4) + (1)(0)(12) + (1)(1)(8) = 8 + 0 + 8 = 16.
2 0
1 3
1 3
(b) det (A) = (1)1+3 (4)det
+ (1) 2+3 (1)det
+ (1) 3+3 (0)det
3 1
3 1
2 0
= (1)(4)(2) + (1)(1)(8) + (1)(0)(6) = 8 + 8 + 0 = 16.
Theorem If A is a square matrix containing a row (or column) of zeros, then det(A) = 0.
Proof Use a cofactor expansion along the row (or column) of zeros.
Theorem If A is an n n matrix with two identical rows (or columns), then det (A) = 0.
a12
a
Proof The theorem is certainly true for n = 2 since det 11
= a11 a12 a11 a12 = 0 .
a11 a12
If n = 3, use a cofactor expansion along the row different from the two identical rows.
Let this row be the kth row. Using a cofactor expansion along this row gives
det (A) = (1)k+1(ak1)det(Ak1) + (1)k+2(ak2)det(Ak2) + (1)k+3(ak3)det(Ak3). But each of
the submatrices Ak1, Ak2 and Ak3 has two identical rows so their determinants are 0,
hence det (A) = 0 for any 3 3 matrix.
If n > 3 proceed as above writing det (A) as a sum of products involving submatrices
with two identical rows whose determinants are 0.
71
Triangular and Diagonal Matrices A square matrix is said to be an upper
triangular matrix if all the entries below the main diagonal are zero. A square matrix is
said to be a lower triangular matrix if all the entries above the main diagonal are zero.
A square matrix is said to be a diagonal matrix if all entries not on the main diagonal are
zero. A diagonal matrix is both upper triangular and lower triangular.
Example
1 2 3
0 4 5 is an upper triangular matrix.
0 0 6
1 0 0
2 3 0 is a lower triangular matrix.
4 5 6
1 0 0
0 2 0 is a diagonal matrix. It is both upper and lower triangular.
0 0 3
2 0 0
det 0 3 0 = (2)(3)(5) = 30
0 0 5
72
1 2 3
Example Use the basket-weave method to calculate the determinant of A = 2 1 4.
3 2 5
Solution
1
2
3
2
1
2
8
3
4
5
20
1
2
3
2
1
2
24
5.2 PROBLEMS
1. Use the definition of the determinant to evaluate the determinant of the given matrix.
1 2 1
2 1 3
1 1 3
1 0 1
(a) 2 3 1
(b) 4 3 5
(c) 2 1 4
(d) 2 1 0
3 2 2
1 0 2
5 3 2
3 4 5
1
2
(e)
0
0
1
2
3
1
3
4
1
0
1
3
3
5
(f)
0
2
0
4
1
0
3
0
0
1
2
2
5
0
(g)
3
4
4
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
4
3
0
(h)
2
0
2
3
1
2
4
1
0
1
3
0
2. Use the basket-weave method to evaluate the determinants 1(a), 1(b), 1(c) and 1(d).
3. Evaluate the determinants of the following matrices by inspection.
2 3 4
(a) 0 5 6
0 0 1
3 5 9
(b) 0 6 3
0 0 2
4 0 0
(c) 5 3 0
1 3 2
2 0 0
(d) 0 3 0
0 0 4
1 2 3
4. Let A = 2 3 5. Find the following cofactors of A.
6 4 1
(a) C11
(b) C12
(c) C13
1-k
5. Find all values of k for which det
2
(d) C21
3
= 0.
2 k
(e) C22
(f) C32
73
5.3 ELEMENTARY ROW OPERATIONS ON DETERMINANTS
The evaluation of the determinant of an n n matrix using the definition involves the
summation of n! terms, each term being a product of n factors. As n increases, this
computation becomes too cumbersome and so another technique has been devised to
evaluate the determinant. This technique uses the elementary row operations to reduce
the matrix to a triangular form. The effect of each elementary row operation on the value
of the determinant is taken into account and then the determinant of the triangular matrix
is evaluated by finding the product of the entries on the main diagonal.
Theorem If A and B are square matrices and B is obtained from A by interchanging
two rows (or columns) of A, then det (B) = det (A).
a12
a 22
a
a
Proof Let A and B be n n matrices. If n = 2, then A = 11
and B = 21
a 21 a 22
a11 a12
so det(B) = a 21 a12 a11 a 22 = (a11 a 22 a12 a 21 ) = det(A).
If n = 3, then we use a cofactor expansion for B along the row that was not interchanged.
Let this be row k. Then det(B) = (1)k+1ak1det(Bk1) + (1)ak2det(Bk2) + (1)ak3det(Bk3).
Each submatrix Bkj is the submatrix Akj with its rows interchanged so det(Bkj) = det(Akj).
Hence det(B) = (1)k+1ak1(1)det(Ak1) + (1)ak2(1)det(Ak2) + (1)ak3(1)det(Ak3)
= (1) [(1)k+1ak1det(Ak1) + (1)ak2det(Ak2) + (1)ak3det(Ak3)]
= (1) det(A) = det (A) as required.
If n > 3 proceed as above using cofactor expansions along rows that were not
interchanged to get the final result. The proof for interchanged columns is similar.
Theorem Let A and B be n n matrices with B obtained from A by multiplying all the
entries of some row (or column) of A by a scalar k. Then det (B) = k det (A).
Proof Suppose B is obtained from A by multiplying the entries of the jth row of A by k.
Use a cofactor expansion for B along its jth row to evaluate the determinant of B and
noting that these cofactors for B are equal to the corresponding cofactors for A we get
det (B) = (1)j+1kaj1det(Bj1) + (1)j+2 kaj2det(Bj2) + "" + (1)j+n kajndet(Bjn)
= (1)j+1kaj1det(Aj1) + (1)j+2 kaj2det(Aj2) + "" + (1)j+n kajndet(Ajn)
= k[(1)j+1aj1det(Aj1) + (1)j+2 aj2det(Aj2) + "" + (1)j+n ajndet(Ajn)]
= k det(A).
The proof in the case where B is obtained from A by multiplying a column of A by k is
similar.
5 is a common factor in row 2 of the given matrix.
7 3
7 3
Example det
= 5 det
= (5)(14 3) = 55
5 10
1 2
Corollary det (kA) = kn det (A).
Proof Since all n rows of A are multiplied by the scalar k to get kA, using the above
theorem n times gives det (kA) = (k )(k ) """ (k) det (A) = kn det (A).
74
12 6
4 2
4 2
= (3)(3) det
= 3 2 det
Example det
= (9)(12 2) = (9)(10) = 90
3 9
1 3
1 3
Example Let A be a 3 3 matrix and let det(A) = 5. Find det(2A).
Solution det(2A) = 23 det(A) = (8)(5) = 40
since matrix has 2 identical rows
1 2 3
1 2 3
Example
det 3 6 9 = 3 det 1 2 3 = (3)(0) = 0 . Notice that row 2 of the
4 5 6
4 5 6
original matrix is 3 times row 1. This leads to the following corollary.
Corollary If A is a square matrix that has a row (or column) that is a scalar multiple of
another row (or column), then det (A) = 0.
)
Proof Suppose the jth row of A is k times the ith row of A. Then det (A) = k det ( A
has two identical
is the matrix A with the jth row multiplied by 1/k. But A
where A
) = 0. Hence det (A) = k det( A
) = k 0 = 0.
rows, (row i = row j), so det( A
Theorem Let A be a square matrix and let B be the matrix obtained from A by adding
a multiple of one row (or column) of A to another row (or column) of A.
Then det (B) = det (A).
Proof Suppose B is obtained from A by adding c times row i to row j.
Evaluate det (B) using a cofactor expansion along row j. Then
n
(1)
k =1
n
j+ k
(1)
k =1
(cai k + a j k )det(A j k )
j+ k
(cai k + a j k )det(B j k )
since B jk = A jk for all k.
) + det (A)
= c det ( A
= c 0 + det (A)
= det (A)
k =1
75
2 6 9
Example Evaluate det 1 2 4
3 6 15
Solution
1 2 4
1 2 4
1 2 4
2 6 9
= (1)(3)(1)(2)(1) = 6.
multiples of row 1
added to rows 2 & 3
product of entries
on main diagonal
1. Use elementary row operations to evaluate the determinants of the following matrices.
2 3 4
(a) 1 4 3
3 6 9
2
1
(e)
2
3
3
4
6
5
0
6
3
3 1 5
(b) 2 6 8
1 3 2
4
2
4
1
1
(f)
2
2
4
4
6
3
4
1
9
4 8 4
(c) 2 6 8
3 9 6
4
7
5
3
6
(g)
9
1 2 3
(d) 6 3 9
4 2 8
1
5
3
2
2
3
2
4
4
7
1
76
) 0 if and only if det(A) 0 and similarly
are invertible operations; therefore det( A
) = 0 if and only if det(A) = 0.
det(A
1 2
1 2
= 6 8 = 2 0 so 4 3 is an invertible matrix.
4
3
1
2
1
2
det
= 0 so 2 4 is not invertible.
2
4
det
The result in the above theorem can be generalized to any two n n matrices. The proof
is omitted but stated in the following theorem.
77
Theorem If A and B are square matrices of the same size, then det(AB) = det(A)
det(B).
4 3
6 7
39 52
Example Let A =
, and let B =
, then AB =
.
1 2
5 8
16 23
det(A) = 8 3 = 5
det(B) = 48 35 = 13 and
2 4
2 1
Example Let A =
, then AT =
. det(A) = (2)(3) (1)(4) = 6 4 = 2.
1 3
4 3
det (AT) = (2)(3) (4)(1) = 6 4 = 2. So det (A) = det(AT) = 2.
When computing the inverse of a matrix A one should verify the correctness of the
computation by demonstrating that both the products AA1 and A1A equal I. The
preceding theorem proves that in fact that it is sufficient to show that only one of these
two products needs to be shown equal to I.
78
5.4 PROBLEMS
3 4
1 2
(b)
3 6
1 2 3
(c) 2 1 4
3 4 7
1 2 3
2 3 1
(d) 4 5 6 (e) 1 2 3
7 8 9
3 5 2
2. Use determinants to show that the following systems of linear equations have unique
solutions.
x + 2 y + 3z = 5
2x + 3y + z = 2
x + 2y = 3
3x 4 y = 7
(a)
(b)
(c) 2 x + y + 4 z = 3
(d) x + 2 y + 3 z = 4
3x + 4 y = 1
2x + 5 y = 9
3x + 4 y + 7 z = 6
3x + 5 y + 2 z = 5
3. Let A and B be 2 2 matrices with det(A) = 3 and det(B) = 4. Find the following.
(a) det(AB)
(b) det(A2)
(c) det(AB1)
(d) det(AB)1
(e) det(ATB)
4. Let A and B be 3 3 matrices with det(A) = 2 and det(B) = 5. Find the following.
(a) det(AB)
(b) det(A2)
(c) det(AB1)
(d) det(AB)1
(e) det(ATB)
Recall the kth row cofactor expansion of an n n matrix A for n 2 was defined to be
det(A) = a k 1 (1) k +1 det(A k1 ) + a k 2 (1) k + 2 det(A k2 ) + """ + a kn (1) k + n det(A kn ) where
the quantity (1) k + j det(A kj ) is called the kjth cofactor of A. To simplify our notation we
will denote this quantity by the symbol Ckj. Thus the kth row cofactor expansion for
det(A) can be written more simply as det(A) = a k1C k1 + a k 2 C k2 + "" + a kn C kn . Suppose
that in this expression we replace the kth row entries a k1 , a k 2 "", a kn by the jth row
entries a j1 , a j 2 "" , a jn to get a j1C k1 + a j 2 C k2 + "" + a jn C kn . Such an expression
would arise if the entries of the kth row of A were replaced by the entries of the jth row of
A and a cofactor expansion along this new kth row were done. But the value of this
determinant would be 0 since the matrix has two identical rows (rows k and j are same).
We have thus established the following theorem.
Theorem
a
k =1
ik
det(A) if i = j
C jk =
if i j
0
In a similar fashion, we can deduce the following result for a column cofactor expansion.
79
a
k =1
ki
det(A) if i = j
C kj =
.
if i j
0
Cofactor Matrix Let A be a square matrix. The cofactor matrix of A, denoted cof(A)
is the matrix obtained from A by replacing every entry of A by its cofactor.
Example
1 2 6
If A = 5 8 7,
0 3 4
3
2
then cof(A) =
3
2
8
7
4
6
4
6
7
5 7
0
1
0
1
4
6
4
6
7
5 8
0 3
11 20 15
1 2
4 3 .
= 10
0 3
34 23 2
1 2
5 8
Example
1 2 6
11 - 20 15
11 10 - 34
T
A = 5 8 7 , cof(A) = 10
4 - 3 and so adj(A) = [cof(A)] = - 20 4 23
0 3 4
- 34 23 - 2
15 - 3 - 2
1 2 6 11 10 34 61 0 0
Consider now the product A adj(A) = 5 8 7 20 4
23 = 0 61 0
0 3 4 15 3 2 0 0 61
But
8 7
5 7
5 8
(2)det
+ (6)det
det(A) = (1)det
We see that the product A adj(A) is a diagonal matrix with the diagonal entries = det(A).
This example suggests the following theorem.
80
Theorem If A is a square matrix, then A adj(A) = det(A) I
Proof A adj(A) =
a11
a
21
a n1
a12
a 22
a n2
a1n C11
a 2 n C12
a nn C1n
C 21
C 22
C 2n
C n1
C n2
C nn
1k C1k
k =1
n
k =1
ank C1k
k =1
0
0
0
0
det(A)
1
0
0
det(A)
0
0
0
0
0
det(A)
0
0 = det(A)0
0
0
det(A)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
det(A)
k =1
n
2 k C1k
k =1
1k C2k
1k Cnk
a2k Cnk
=
k =1
ank Cnk
k =1
k =1
n
2 k C2k
nk C2k
k =1
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 = det(A) I
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
1
adj(A).
det(A)
Proof From the previous theorem we have A adj(A) = det(A) I . Since det(A) 0 we
1
1
adj(A) = I so A1 =
adj(A).
can divide by det(A) to get A
det(A)
det(A)
1 2 6
Example Use the preceding theorem to find A for the matrix A = 5 8 7 .
0 3 4
1
Solution This is the same matrix used in the previous example where we found
11 10 34
1
adj(A) we get
adj(A) = 20 4
23 and det(A) = 61. Using A1 =
det(A)
15 3 2
11 10 34 11 / 61 10 / 61 34 / 61
1
A =
20 4
23 / 61 .
23 = 20 / 61 4 / 61
61
15 3 2 15 / 61 3 / 61 2 / 61
1
81
5.5 PROBLEMS
1. For each of the following matrices find its adjoint, then use the adjoint (and the value
of the determinant) to find the inverse of the matrix.
1 2
(a)
3 4
1 1
(b)
0 1
1 1
(c)
1 1
1 2 0
(d) 2 0 1
0 1 2
1 0 1
(e) 2 1 0
2 1 3
2 1 3
(f) 1 0 1
3 1 2
Cramer's rule provides a formula for solving a system of n linear equations in n variables
when the system has a unique solution.
Theorem (Cramer's Rule) Let Ax = b be a system of n linear equations in n
variables with det(A) 0. Let Ak be the matrix obtained from A by replacing the kth
column of A by the column vector b. Then the system has the unique solution
det(A k )
xk =
, k = 1, 2, "", n .
det(A)
Proof Since det(A) 0 , A is invertible and the system Ax = b has the unique solution
C11 C 21 C n1 b1
C
C 22 C n2 b2
12
1
1
x = A1b. Therefore x =
adj(A) b =
det(A)
det(A)
C1n C 2n C nn bn
82
b1C11 + b2 C 21 + """ + bn C n1
b C + b C + """ + b C
1 12
2 22
n n2
1
.
det(A)
b1C1n + b2 C 2n + """ + bn C nn
Thus x k =
b1C1k + b2 C 2k + """ + bn C nk
for k = 1, 2, """, n.
det(A)
Now the numerator of x k consists of the kth column cofactors of A multiplied by the
corresponding entries of b. We get the same result if we use a kth column cofactor
det(A k )
for k = 1, 2""", n.
expansion of Ak so x k =
det(A)
Example Use Cramer's rule to solve the following system of linear equations.
x + 2y + z = 9
2x + y + z = 7
x + y + 3z = 10
Solution
9 2 1
det 7 1 1
10 1 3 7
x=
=
=1
1 2 1 7
det 2 1 1
1 1 3
1 9 1
det 2 7 1
1 10 3 21
y=
=
=3
7
1 2 1
det 2 1 1
1 1 3
1
det 2
1
z=
1
det 2
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
9
7
10 14
=2
=
1
7
1
3
4.6 PROBLEMS
(b) 4x + y = 13
x + 3y = 6
(c) x + 2y = 1
2x + y = 5
(d) x + y + z = 6
xy+z=0
x+yz=2
(e) 2x + y z = 0
x + 2y z = 1
x+y=2
(f) x + y + z = 3
2x + y 3z = 2
3 x + 4y + 2z = 7
83
5.7 APPLICATIONS USING THE DETERMINANT
In this section two applications using the determinant will be considered. The first is a
convenient method for evaluating a cross product. The second application is finding the
volume of a parallelepiped.
Cross Product Recall if u = (u1 , u 2 , u 3 ) and v = (v1 , v 2 , v3 ), then
u v = (u 2 v3 u 3 v 2 , u 3 v1 u1v3 , u1v 2 u 2 v1 )
= (u 2 v3 u 3 v 2 )i + (u 3 v1 u1v3 ) j + (u1v 2 u 2 v1 )k
where i = (1, 0, 0), j = (0, 1, 0) and k = (0, 0, 1).
A convenient method for arriving at the cross product u v is to use the matrix form
j k
i
u u u and do a first row cofactor expansion as you would do to evaluate a
2
3
1
v1 v 2 v3
determinant.
Example Let u = (3, 2, 1) and let v = (4, 5, 6). Find u v .
i
j k
2 1
3 1
3 2
Solution u v = 3 2 1 =
i
j+
k = 7i 14 j + 7k = (7, 14, 7)
5 6
4 6
4 5
4 5 6
w2
u2
v2
w3
u1
u 3 = det v1
v3
w1
u2
v2
w2
u3
v3
w3
Hence the volume of the parallelepiped can be found by taking the absolute value of
either of the above determinants.
Example Find the volume of the parallelepiped having the vectors (1, 0, 1), (2, 3, 4)
and (3, 5, 5) as edges.
Solution
1 0 1
Volume = det 2 3 4 = 4 = 4 .
3 5 5
84
5.7 PROBLEMS
2. Find the volume of the parallelepiped having the following vectors as edges.
(a) (2, 3, 1), (3, 4, 6), (5, 7, 9)