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Course:
Soil Mechanics
Settlement of Soils
Consolidation of Cohesive Soils

Overview
Soil is a

nonhomogeneous
porous material
consisting of three
phases

Solids
Fluid (normally water)
Air

Soil deformation may

occur by change in:

Stress
Water content
Soil mass
Temperature

When soil deformation

takes place below a

foundation, it results in
settlement
Settlement of soils
below foundations is
the most common
cause of foundation
failure

Settlement in Cohesionless and

Cohesive Soils
Method of solution

depends upon soil

type
Cohesionless Soils

Tends to take place in

a short period of time
Two methods to be
presented:

Houghs Method (this

course)
Schmertmanns Method
(ENCE 4610)

Cohesive Soils
Tends to take place in
a long period of time
Time rate of settlement
is referred to as
consolidation

 Other Types of

Settlement
Dynamic forces
Expansive soil
Collapsible soil

ST SC S S Se

Initial Settlement:
Perloff's Method

1
Sc qBI
Es

Variables
q = unit load on
foundation (assuming
uniform loading)
B = major dimension of
foundation
I = combined influence
factor
= Poissons Ratio
Es = Modulus of
Elasticity of the soil

(also see Murthy Section 13.10)

Variables for Perloffs Method

Perloff Method Example

Solution (using method

presented)

Since method
determines settlement
at corners, divide up
foundations into
quarters, determine
settlement at corners
and add using
superposition

Perloffs Method Example

Use 10 x 10

Foundation

B = L = 10
H = 10
L/B = 1
H/B = 1
= 0.5
From table, I = 0.15

1 2

S c qBI
Es

1 0.52
4 4 10 0.15
0.9'
20

Overview of Primary Settlement and

Consolidation

Consolidation is the process

of gradual transfer of an
applied load from the pore
water to the soil structure as
pore water is squeezed out of
the voids.
The amount of water that
escapes depends on the size
of the load and
compressibility of the soil.
The rate at which it escapes
depends on the coefficient of
permeability, thickness, and
compressibility of the soil.

Two questions need to be

answered by consolidation
analysis:

How much will the structure

settle?
Generally referred to
as the settlement
question
How long will it take for it to
do so?
Generally referred to
as the consolidation
question

Principle of
Consolidation

Consolidation Test
A test intended to

replicate the process of

primary (and secondary)
settlement (distance)
and time (consolidation)
in the field
Necessary to run with
undisturbed specimens,
as disturbance changes
the soil skeleton
structure and thus the
results

Apparatus

Consolidometer

The consolidometer
has a rigid base, a
consolidation ring,
porous stones, a
rigid loading plate,
and a support for a
dial indicator
Fixed or floating ring

Preparation of Specimen

Procedure

Consecutive Times to Record

Data for Each Load
Loads on
0.1 min
Specimen
30 min

.5 ksf
1 ksf
2 ksf
4 ksf
8 ksf
16 ksf
32 ksf

0.2 min
0.5 min
1.0 min
2.0 min
4.0 min
8.0 min
15 min

1 hr

2 hr

4 hr

8 hr

24 hr

Record the dial

reading for each
load increment at
completion of
primary
consolidation for
each load (usually
24 hours)
Remove load in
decrements,
recording dial
indicator readings
Conduct a water
content test on
specimen after
unloading is
complete

If p2 = 10p1,
then Cc = e1-e2

Pressure p, tons/ft2

Results for Normally

Consolidated Soils

Non-Laboratory Estimates of
Compression Index

Primary Compression Settlement

Primary Compression
Settlement

o
Cc H

Sc
log
1 eo
o

(normally consolidated
soils)
Ho = original height of
layer being
compressed
eo = original void ratio

Sample Settlement Problem

(Cohesive Soils)

Given
Two-Layer Soil Profile

N60 = 20
35' thick
Unit weight of soil above
phreatic surface = 110
pcf
Submerged weight of soil
below water table= 65 pcf
Depth of water table = 15

Clay stratum, normally

consolidated

LL= 45
25' thick
Water Content = 40%
Specific Gravity of solids
= 2.78

Given

Clean well-graded fine to coarse

sand layer above clay layer and at
surface

Building placed on
surface

Square Foundation, 30
x 30
Uniform Load of 10 ksf
on entire foundation

Find

Average settlement of
building due to primary
settlement of clay layer

Sample Settlement Problem

(Cohesive Soils)
Step 1: Compute Effective Stresses for Soil Profile
Depth at Top of Layer
Layer, ft
Thickness, ft.
0
15
15
20
35
25
Clay Layer
Gs
2.78
w
0.4
Water Unit Wt.
62.4

Depth at
Bottom of
Layer, ft

Unit Weight
of Soil, pcf
15
110.0
35
65.0
60
52.6

Effective
Stress at
Top of
Layer, psf
0.0
1650.0
2950.0

Effective
Stress at
Bottom of
Layer, psf
1650.0
2950.0
4264.8

Average
Effective
Stress in
Layer, psf
825.0
2300.0
3607.4

Sample Settlement Problem

(Cohesive Soils)
Step 2: Compute

Foundation Load for

Center of Layer
Depth of Center of
Layer = (15 + 20 +
25/2) = 47.5
q
v =
2
z

1
+

10000
v =
2
47
.
5

1+

30

v = 1498 psf

Step 3: Compute

Compression Index
and Void Ratio for
Clay Layer

Compression Index

Void Ratio

Sample Settlement Problem

(Cohesive Soils)
Step 4: Compute Settlement Using Formula

for Cohesive Soils

o
Cc H

Sc
log
1 eo
o

0.315 25 3607 1498

S c 12
log

1 1.112
3607

S c 6.75"

Overconsolidation or Preconsolidation
Overconsolidation

The ratio of the maximum

complicates the analysis of

overburden stress a soil has
primary settlement because
experienced to the present
the ground being compressed
overburden stress
acts as if the previous

overburden pressure is still

c
OCR
being applied, irrespective of

current overburden conditions

Requires dividing the
If OCR >1, the soil is
settlement analysis into two
overconsolidated
parts
If OCR ~1, the soil is
Sometimes referred to as
normally consolidated
preconsolidation
If OCR <1, the soil is
underconsolidated

Effect on Primary Settlement

Cs

Settlement in Overconsolidated
Soils
Formula, o + > c (to the right of F)
c Cc H
o
Cs H

Sc
log
log
1 eo
o 1 eo
c
Formula, o + < c (to the left of F)

o
Cs H

Sc
log
1 eo
o

Overconsolidated Example
Given
Soil with void ratiolog pressure as
shown
6' thick clay layer
under sand layer
Two possible
additional loadings:

5 tsf
7.5 tsf

Find
OCR
Settlement for each
case

Overconsolidated Example
OCR = 6.6/0.3 = 22

7.5 tsf additional load

With overburden: 7.5 +
0.3 = 7.8 tsf
6.6 < 7.8, thus use

5 tsf additional load

With overburden: 5 + 0.3
= 5.3 tsf
0.3 < 5.3 < 6.6, thus use S Cs H log c Cc H log o
c
1 e

1 eo
o

o
c

o
Cs H

Sc
log
1 eo
o
Spc =
(6)(12)/(1+1.05)(0.078)lo
g10(5.3/0.3)
=3.42

Sc =
(6)(12)/(1+1.05)((0.078)
log10(6.6/0.3)
+(0.42)log10(7.8/6.6)) =
4.75

Multiple Layers
Multiple layers can be handled by

computing the single layer consolidation for

each and summing the displacements
Take care to properly compute or assign
the additional vertical stresses generated
by the surface load for each layer (not all of
the stresses will be the same)
Take care when dealing with
overconsolidated soils to properly
understand the consolidation region for
each layer

Secondary Compression of
Cohesive Soils

Computation of Secondary
Compression
Formula

tf
tf
H
S s C
log C H log
1 ep
t
t
p

p
C = coefficient of secondary consolidation
tf = time at end of secondary consolidation

compression
tp = time at end of time period of interest in primary
settlement computations
ep = void ratio at the beginning of secondary
compression

Example of Secondary Compression

Given
Find
As shown
Secondary
Consolidation
Primary Settlement Data
Settlement
Expected time for
primary consolidation ~
13 years
eo = 1 (at beginning of
primary consolidation)
Normally consolidated
clay, Cc = 0.21
Desired life of structure =
110 years
C = 0.02

Secondary Compression Example

Primary Compression Calculation

o 0.2116 12 .75 .8
Cc H

Sc
log
log
6.35"
1 eo
11
.75
o
Compute void ratio ep at end of primary consolidation
o
.75 .8

1 0.21 log
e p eo e eo Cc log
0.93
.75
o
Secondary Compression Calculation
tf
H
16 12
110
S s C
log 0.02
log
1.84"
1 ep
1 0.93 13
tp

Total Compression = 6.35 + 1.84 = 8.19

Houghs Method for Settlement of Shallow

Foundations in Cohesionless Soils
Recommended by FHWA (and thus

AASHTO, state DOTs etc.) because studies

show that it is consistent and conservative
Described in Soils and Foundations
Reference Manual, pp. 7-15 to 7-19
Requires a layer by layer analysis and thus
should be done with a spreadsheet

Houghs Method
Subdivide subsurface soil profile into approximately 3-m (10-ft) layers
based on stratigraphy to a depth of about three times the footing
width.

1.

2.
3.
4.
5.

6.

Make sure layers are approximately homogeneous with relation to SPT

blow count, unit weight and type of soil.
Divide layers at phreatic surface (water table)

Correct SPT blowcounts to an (N1)60 value, using methods previously

discussed.
Determine bearing capacity index (C) using corrected SPT
blowcounts, N, determined in Step 2.
Calculate the effective vertical stress, o, at the midpoint of each
layer and the average bearing capacity index for that layer.
Calculate the increase in stress at the midpoint of each layer, ,
using 2:1 method (for this course.)
Calculate the settlement in each layer, Ho, under the applied load
using the following formula:

o
Ho

S
log
C
o

7.

Sum the settlements in each layer to determine the total settlement

Bearing
Capacity
Index Factors
for Hough
Method

Note max. value

N1 60 C N N 60
CN

2
2 (U.S. Units, ksf)
vo

100
CN
2 (SI Units, kPa)
vo

Sample Settlement Problem

(Cohesionless Soils, Houghs Method)

Given
Two-Layer Soil Profile

N60 = 20
35' thick
Unit weight of soil above
phreatic surface = 110
pcf
Submerged weight of soil
below water table= 65 pcf
Depth of water table = 15

Clay stratum, normally

consolidated

LL= 45
25' thick
Water Content = 40%
Specific Gravity of solids
= 2.78

Given

Clean well-graded fine to coarse

sand layer above clay layer and at
surface

Building placed on
surface

Square Foundation, 30
x 30
Uniform Load of 10 ksf
on entire foundation

Find

Average settlement of
building due to
settlement of sand
layer

Sample Settlement Problem

(Cohesionless Soils, Houghs Method)
Step 1: Compute Effective Stress Profile and

Foundation Stress Profile for Bearing Strata

and Foundation
Effective
Depth at
Depth at
Stress at Effective Stress
Depth at Top of
Layer
Bottom of
Center of Unit Weight
Top of
at Bottom of
Layer, ft
Thickness, ft.
Layer, ft
Layer, ft
of Soil, pcf Layer, psf
Layer, psf
0
15
15
7.5
110.0
0.0
1650.0
15
20
35
25
65.0
1650.0
2950.0
35
25
60
47.5
52.6
2950.0
4264.8

Average Load from

Effective Foundation
Stress in in the Central
Layer, psf
Axis, psf
825.0
6400.0
2300.0
2975.2
3607.4
1498.4

Sample Settlement Problem

(Cohesionless Soils, Houghs Method)
Step 2: Correct SPT

Values for Overburden

Pressure

Layer 1:

N1 60 C N N 60
CN

2
2 (U.S. Units, ksf)
vo

CN

2
1.56 2 (U.S. Units, ksf)
0.825

(N1)60 = (1.6)(20) = 31
Layer 2: CN = 0.9,
(N1)60 = (0.9)(20) = 19

Step 3: Determine

Values for C

Sample Settlement Problem

(Cohesionless Soils, Houghs Method)
Step 4: Compute Settlements of Sand Layers

Layer 1:

o
Ho
15' 825 6400
12
S
log
1.88"
C
90
825

Depth at Top of
Layer, ft
0
15
35

Layer 2: S = 1.33

Depth at Depth at
Layer
Bottom of Center of Unit Weight
Thickness, ft. Layer, ft
Layer, ft of Soil, pcf
15
15
7.5
110.0
20
35
25
65.0
25
60
47.5
52.6

Effective
Average Load from
Stress at Effective Stress Effective Foundation
SPT
Top of
at Bottom of Stress in in the Central Correction Corrected
Layer, psf
Layer, psf Layer, psf Axis, psf
Factor
SPT Value
0.0
1650.0
825.0
6400.0
1.6
31
1650.0
2950.0 2300.0
2975.2
0.9
19
2950.0
4264.8 3607.4
1498.4

Layer
Settlement,
C'
in.
90
1.88
65
1.33
6.75
Total
9.97

Time Rate of Consolidation

Overview of Time Rate

Computations
Consolidation is a process

that takes place over time

and is the result of two
processes:
Dissipation of excess pore

water pressures created by

surcharge or new foundation
loads at the surface. This
takes place when the excess
water is drained from the soil
Rearrangement of the soil
particles (soil skeleton) to
reflect new effective stress
conditions created by
foundation or surcharge

Assumptions
Clay-water system is
homogeneous
Saturation is complete
Water in
incompressible
Soil particles are
incompressible
Flow is in one direction
only (in the direction of
compression)
Darcys Law is valid

Consolidation
Model
Sign Convention
Better Reversed

Coefficient of Compressibility

Coefficient of Volume
Compressibility e

av

p
Porosity Relationship
e
n
1 eo
Substituti ng,
av
n
p mv p
1 eo

Continuity of Flow:

Vw vb vt tA
n

VT
dzA
dv
v
n t t
dz
z
Substituti ng,
v
p
u
mv
mv
z
t
t

u(z,t): Pressure vs. Distance and Time Variable

Darcy's Law
h
1 u
v ki k k
z
w z
Differentiating,
v
1 u
k
2
z
w z
2

Equating,
1 u
u
k
mv
2
w z
t
2

Consolidation Equation
Rearranging,

Coefficient of Consolidation

u
k u
u

cv 2
2
t mv w z
z
2

k
cv
w mv

Boundary conditions are

the conditions of
drainage at the surfaces
of the consolidating layer
Initial conditions are the
effective stress and pore
water conditions

Key variable in primary

consolidation calculations
Tends to be a constant for a
given soil because the ratio
of k to mv tends to remain
constant

Both of these variables tend

to be directly proportional to
the void ratio of the soil

Drainage Conditions
Speed of the drainage

depends upon the

conditions at the
boundaries of the
drainage
Drainage can be one or
two ways
Theory

based on one
way drainage

Distribution of initial pore

pressure can affect time

rate of consolidation (see
diagram at right)

Solution of Consolidation Equation

Solution
Consider the case of
one way drainage
Equation is a second
order, parabolic

Boundary Conditions
differential equation
At top of layer: p = 0
(similar to heat equation)
(free flow)
Solution is an infinite
At bottom of layer:
Fourier series with
p/z = 0 (no flow)
orthogonality and

Initial Conditions
eigenfunctions
p = p = (stress
0
Solution depends upon
induced by applied
both boundary and initial
load, remains
conditions
constant)

Solution

p 4 1
z

cos2i 1 e
po i1 2i 1
2h

i 1

2 i 1

cvt
4H 2

Time Factor for Consolidation

Time Factor

tcv
Tv 2
H dr

t = time of consolidation
Tv = time factor for vertical

drainage
Hdr = longest distance of
drainage to pervious surface
Usually depth of layer
for single drainage, half
of layer depth for double
drainage
cv = coefficient of
consolidation

p 4 1
z

cos2i 1 e
po i1 2i 1
2 h

i 1

2 i 12

2
4

Tv

Degree of
Consolidation
Degree of Consolidation

S c t
ue
U
1
Sc
uo

Expressed as a percentage
Expresses ratio of both pore
pressures and settlement
Allows relating settlement to
time (consolidation)

1
U 1 2
e
2
i1 2i 1

2 i 12 Tv
4

Time Factor vs. Average Degree of

Consolidation

Assumes uniform
initial pressure

Example of Time Factor Calculation

Given
As shown
eo = 1.0
Cc = 0.21
cv = 0.03 ft3/day

Find
Relationship of time

of consolidation
with time factor

Solution of Time Factor Calculation

tcv 0.03t
t
Tv 2 2
H dr
8
2130 days

Days
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000

Hdr
Cv
Spc

Tv

Percent
Settlement,
Consolidation in.
0
0
0
0.01
10
0.64
0.01
10
0.64
0.02
15
0.95
0.02
15
0.95
0.03
20
1.27
0.03
20
1.27
0.04
25
1.59
0.04
25
1.59
0.05
28
1.78
0.09
32
2.03
0.14
40
2.54
0.19
48
3.05
0.23
53
3.37
0.28
60
3.81
0.33
63
4
0.38
68
4.32
0.42
72
4.57
0.47
75
4.76

8
0.03
6.35

Time Factor Calculation Solution

Coefficient of Consolidation

Logarithm of Time Method

Square
Root of
Time
Method

Accelerating Consolidation Settlement

Rate of consolidation

settlement under natural

conditions is frequently
unacceptable for actual
construction and
structure use

Concept of

Consolidation
Acceleration

Provide a highpermeability path for

the water to escape,
thus reducing the time
for consolidation to
take place

Previous Example: 75%

settlement @ 1000 days
= 2 years 8 months 26
Type of acceleration
days
Sand Drains
Accelerating settlement if
Prefabricated Vertical
sometimes necessary to
(Wick) Drains
complete construction
and use structure

Vertical Drain System

Sand Drain
Installation

Wick Drains
Geosynthetic used

as a substitute to
sand columns;
arrayed in a similar
manner to the sand
drains
Installed by being
pushed or vibrated
into the ground

Installation of
Wick Drains

Questions