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N.P.R. POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE

NATHAM 624 401.
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E LEARNING MATERIAL

SUB CODE: 13081

POWER ELECTRONICS

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS

ENGINEEIRNG
(VI - SEMESTER)
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SYLLABUS
POWER ELECTRONICS
SUB CODE : 13081

UNIT

TOPIC

THYRISTOR FAMILY, TRIGGERS, CIRCUITS

II

PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER

III

COMMUTATION CIRCUITS AND INVERTER CIRCUITS

IV

CHOPPERS AND CYCLO CONVERTERS

CONTROL DC AND AC CIRCUITS

Unit - I

Thyristor family:
(Review) SCR-symbol, working , characteristic, holding current, latching
current, dv/dt, di/dt ratings, gate protection- Insulated gate bipolar transistor
(IGBT) MOSFET - Symbol, working and characteristics of DIAC, TRIAC, SUS,
SCS, SBS, LASCR, and GTO symbol, working and characteristics specifications of the above power devices.

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Triggers:
Gate trigger circuits DC triggering, AC triggering, pulse gate triggering- Pulse
transformer in trigger circuit Electrical isolation by opto isolator Resistance
firing circuit and waveform Resistance capacitor firing circuit and waveform,
Synchronized UJT triggering ( ramp triggering) Ramp and pedestal trigger
circuit for ac load.
Commutation Circuits:
SCR turn off methods Natural commutation Forced commutation- Class A,
Class B, Class C, Class D, Class E and Class F- Explanation with wave form.
Unit - II
Introduction-applications of phase controlled rectifier-classifications of rectifierhalf wave controlled rectifier with resistance load ,resistance inductive load,
effect of freewheeling diode with waveform single phase half controlled bridge
with RL load (semi converter) average DC output voltage waveform input
power factor ( definition and expression) single phase fully controlled bridge
with RL load (full converter ) average DC output voltage waveform input
power factor ( definition and expression) effect of single phase fully controlled
bridge with source impedance for RL load wave form working.
Three phase fully controlled bridge with RL load firing sequence average
DC output voltage and current waveform three phase half controlled bridge
with RL load- average DC output voltage waveform.
Complete protection of converter against surge current, surge voltage, dv/dt
and di/dt protection.
Unit - III
Choppers:
Introduction applications principle of chopper control strategies (time ratio
and current limit control) types of chopper type A, B, C, D, and E step up
chopper Jones chopper Morgan chopper Chopper using MOSFET PWM
Control circuit for driving MOSFET in chopper.
Inverters:
Introduction applications inverter classifications single phase series
inverter basic parallel inverter , voltage and current waveform single phase
full bridge inverter single phase inverter output voltage control types single
pulse width modulation multiple pulse width modulation sinusoidal pulse

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width modulation basic three phase bridge inverter with 120 degree
conduction mode circuit, trigger sequence, waveform and working parallel
inverter using MOSFET and IGBT SMPS Buck, Boost, Fly back converter
Control circuit for SMPS UPS working of UPS on-line and off-line UPS.
Unit - IV
Introduction History of DC drive - applications basic dc motor speed
equation operating region of armature voltage control and field current control
constant torque and constant hp regions schemes for separately excited dc
motor speed control single phase full converter drives - circuit, operating
quadrants, waveform power factor improvement in phase controlled converter
phase angle control, semi converter operation of full converter, asymmetrical
firing three phase full converter drives operation and waveform chopper
fed dc series motor drive. - four quadrant DC DC converter drive using
MOSFET and IGBT circuit and operation
Closed loop control of dc drives basic block diagram Phase locked loop(PLL)
control of dc drives block diagram microprocessor based closed loop control
of dc drive block diagram and working
Unit - V
Introduction applications torque speed characteristics of three phase
induction motor speed control of induction motor stator voltage control,
variable frequency control necessity of maintaining v/f ratio constant rotor
resistance control inverters for variable voltage and frequency control speed
control by rotor resistance for slip ring motors static scherbius drive (slip
power recovery scheme) closed loop control of AC drive block diagram
microcomputer based pulse width modulation control of induction motor drive.
Cyclo converter - introduction single phase to single phase cyclo converter
input, output waveform with resistive load single phase bridge type cyclo
converter three phase to three phase cyclo converter schematic diagram,
basic circuit and working.

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Reference Books:
1. Power Electronics- Converter Applications And Design - Mohan
Underland Robbins, John Wiley and Sons ,NewYork 2nd Edition.
2. Fundamentals of Electrical Drives - G K Dubey ,Narosa Publishing
House, New Delhi Fourth reprint 2004.
3. Fundamentals of Power Electronics - SRamaReddy, Narosa
PublishingHouse,New Delhi, First Reprint 2002.
4. Power Electronics - Dr P S Bimhra, Khanna Publishers . 1991
5. Power Electronics - P C Sen, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company New
Delhi, 24th reprint 2005.
6. Power Electronics - MUHAMMED H.RASHID ,Prentice-Hall of India Pvt.
Ltd New Delhi-110001. Third Edition-2005

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UNIT - I
THYRISTOR FAMILY, TRIGGERS, CIRCUITS.

THYRISTOR
Thyristors or silicon controlled rectifiers (SCR) as they are sometimes known
may appear to be unusual electronics components in many ways, but they are
particularly useful for controlling power circuits. As such these electronics
components are often used for applications such as light dimmers, and there
may be thyristor circuits used in many power supply applications. Thyristors are
simple to use and cheap to buy and often thyristor circuits are easy to build and
use. All these reasons make thyristors ideal components to consider for many
applications.
The idea for the thyristor is not new. The idea for the device was first put
forward in 1950 by William Shockley, one of the inventors of the transistor.
Although some later investigation of the device was undertaken by others a
couple of years later, it was not until the early 1960s when they became
available. After the introduction of the thyristor, they soon became popular for
power supply circuits.
Thyristor
The thyristor may be considered a rather an unusual form of electronics
component because it consists of four layers of differently doped silicon rather
than the three layers of the conventional bipolar transistors. Whereas
conventional transistors may have a p-n-p or n-p-n structure with the electrodes
named collector, base and emitter, the thyristor has a p-n-p-n structure with the
outer layers with their electrodes referred to as the anode (n-type) and the
cathode (p-type). The control terminal of the SCR is named the gate and it is
connected to the p-type layer that adjoins the cathode layer.

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Structure of a thyristor or silicon controlled rectifier (SCR)
Thyristors are usually manufactured from silicon, although, in theory other types
of semiconductor could be used. The first reason for using silicon for thyistors is
that silicon is the ideal choice because of its overall properties. It is able to
handle the voltage and currents required for high power applications.
Additionally it has good thermal properties. The second major reason is that
silicon technology is well established and it is widely used for a variety of
semiconductor electronics components. As a result it is very cheap and easy for
semiconductor manufacturers to use.
Thyristor work
The way in which a thyristor operates is different to other devices. Normally no
current flows across the device. However if a supply is connected across the
device, and a small amount of current is injected into the gate, then the device
will "fire" and conduct. It will remain in the conducting state until the supply is
removed.
To see how the thyristor operates, it is worth looking at a thyristor equivalent
circuit. For the sake of an explanation, the thyristor circuit can be considered as
two back to back transistors. The first transistor with its emitter connected to
the cathode of the thyristor is an n-p-n device, whereas a second transistor with
its emitter connected to the anode of the thyristor, SCR is a p-n-p variety. The
gate is connected to the base of the n-p-n transistor as shown below.

Thyristor equivalent circuit

When a voltage is applied across a thyristor no current flows because neither
transistor is conducting. As a result there is no complete path across the device.
If a small current is passed through the gate electrode, this will turn "on" the
transistor TR2. When this occurs it will cause the collector of TR2 to fall towards

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the voltage on the emitter, i.e. the cathode of the whole device. When this
occurs it will cause current to flow through the base of TR1 and turn this
transistor "on". Again this will now try to pull the voltage on the collector of TR1
towards its emitter voltage. This will cause current to flow in the emitter of TR2,
causing its "on" state to be maintained. In this way it only requires a small
trigger pulse on the gate to turn the thyristor on. Once switched on, the thyristor
can only be turned off by removing the supply voltage.
It can be seen that current will only flow in one direction through the thyristor. If
a reverse voltage is applied, then no current will flow, even if some gate current
is applied. In this way for thyristor circuits used for AC, operation only occurs
over one half of the AC waveform. For the other half of the cycle the device
remains inoperative and no current can flow.

Thyristor symbol
The thyristor symbol is easy to recognize. Like the circuit symbols for most
electronic components, the symbols may vary slightly dependent upon who has
generated them, but in general it is as shown below. The thyristor symbol
effectively shows a diode rectifier symbol with a control gate.

Thyristor symbol used in circuit diagrams

Thyristor circuit
There are many thyristor circuits that are in common use. They can be sued in
many applications from AC control as in the case of motor or light dimmers to
other circuits including power supply crowbar circuits.
The circuit below shows a power supply crowbar circuit. It can be used to protect
circuitry within the main equipment from the effects of the failure of the series
regulator in a power supply. If the series regulator fails short circuit, then high

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voltages can be paled on the power rail inside the equipment and this could
result in serious damage to the overall equipment.

Thyristor overvoltage crowbar circuit

The SCR over voltage crowbar or protection circuit is connected between the
output of the power supply and ground. The zener diode voltage is chosen to be
slightly above that of the output rail. Typically a 5 volt rail may run with a 6.2
volt zener diode. When the zener diode voltage is reached, current will flow
through the zener and trigger the silicon controlled rectifier or thyristor. This will
then provide a short circuit to ground, thereby protecting the circuitry that is
being supplied form any damage.
Further details of this circuit can be found in the "Analogue Circuits" section of
this website.
Thyristor Family-Types of Thyristors

The P-N-P-N devices with zero, one or two gates constitute the basic thyristor.
But today the thyristor family includes other similar multilayer devices also. The
complete list of thyristor family members include diac (bidirectional diode
thyristor), triac (bidirectional triode thyristor), SCR (silicon controlled rectifier),
Shockley diode, SCS (silicon controlled switch), SBS (silicon bilateral switch),
SUS (silicon unilateral switch) also known as complementary SCR or CSCR,

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LASCR (light activated SCR), LAS (light activated switch) and LASCS (light
activated SCS).
The most important member of the thyristor family is the silicon
controlled rectifier (SCR). SCR is a four layer (P-N-P-N), three junction
semiconductor device with three terminals, namely, the anode, the cathode and
the gate. It is a unilateral device and conduction takes place from anode to
cathode under proper bias conditions (forward bias).
Diacs and triacs are bidirectional devices. The diac is a two-terminal, three layer
device and is commonly used for triggering triacs. The triac is a 3-terminal
semiconductor device and may be considered equivalent to two SCRs connected
in ant parallel. Shockley diode is a two terminal reverse blocking diode thyristor
having no gate. SCS (silicon controlled switch) is similar to SCR except that it
has two gates and can be turned-on or off by either gate. SUS (silicon unilateral
switch) has gate on the anode side and can be employed as a programmable uni
junction transistor (PUJT). SBS (silicon bilateral switch) is a device consisting of
two identical SUS structures arranged in antiparallel but having only one gate,
that is used only for external synchronization or for proper biasing. LASCR is the
light-activated SCR which is turned on by photon bombardment.
UJT (unijunction transistor), unlike a bipolar transistor has only one junction,
and like other conventional transistors, it processes the transistor action and
operates like a switch. The characteristics of UJT are similar to those of a SUS.
Its construction is, however, different and it does not belong to thyristor family.

Introduction to SCR-Silicon Controlled Rectifier

As the terminology indicates, the SCR is a controlled rectifier constructed of a
silicon semiconductor material with a third terminal for control purposes. Silicon
was chosen because of its high temperature and power capabilities. The basic
operation of the SCR is different from that of an ordinary two-layer
semiconductor diode in that a third terminal called a gate, determines when the
rectifier switches from the open-circuit to short-circuit state. It is not enough
simply to forward-bias the anode-to-cathode region of the device. In the
conduction state the dynamic resistance of the SCR is typically 0.01 to 0.1 ohm
and reverse resistance is typically 100 kilo ohm or more. It is widely used as a
switching device in power control applications. It can control loads by switching
on and off upto many thousand times a second. It can switch on for a variable
lengths of time duration, thereby delivering desired amount of power to the load.

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Thus, it possesses the advantage of a rheostat as well as a switch with none of
their drawback. A schematic diagram and symbolic representation of an SCR are
shown in figures a & b respectively. As illustrated in fig-a, SCR is a threeterminal four-layer semiconductor device, the layers being alternately of P-type
and N-type. The junctions are marked Jj, J2 and J3 (junctions Jj and J3 operate in
forward direction while middle junction J2 operates in the reverse direction)
whereas the three terminals are anode (A), cathode (C) and gate (G) which is
connected to the inner P-type layer. The function of the gate is to control the
firing of SCR. In normal operating conditions, anode is positive with respect to
cathode.
Construction of an SCR
SCR - construction types
it is clear that SCR is essentially an ordinary rectifier (PN) and a junction
transistor (N-P-N) combined in one unit to form PNPN device. Three terminals
are taken: one from the outer P-type material, known as anode, second from the
outer N-type material, known as cathode and the third from the base of
transistor section known as the gate.
The basic material used for fabrication of an SCR is N-type silicon. It has a
specific resistance of about 6 ohm-mm. Silicon is the natural choice as base
material because of the following advantages
(i) ability to withstand high junction temperature of the order of 150 C
(ii) high thermal conductivity;
(iii) less variations in characteristics with temperature; and
(iv) less leakage current in P-N junction.
It consists, essentially, of a four layer pellet of P and N type silicon
semiconductor materials. The junctions are diffused or alloyed. The material
which may be used for P diffusion is aluminium and for N diffusion is
phosphorous. The contact with anode can be made with an aluminium foil and
through cathode and gate by metal sheet. Diffusion must be carried out at a
proper temperature and for necessary duration to provide correct concentration
because this decides the properties of the device. Low power SCRs employ the
planar construction shown in fig a. Planar construction is useful for making a
number of units from a silicon wafer. Here, all the junctions are diffused. The

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other technique is the mesa construction shown This technique is used for high
power SCRs. In this technique, the inner junction J2 is obtained by diffusion, and
then the outer two layers are alloyed to it. The PNPN pellet is properly braced
with tungsten or molybdenum plates to provide greater mechanical strength and
make it capable of handling large currents. One of these plates is hard soldered
to a copper or an aluminum stud, which is threaded for attachment to a heat
sink. This provides an efficient thermal path for conducting the internal losses to
the surrounding medium. The uses of hard solder between the pellet and backup plates minimizes thermal fatigue, when the SCRs are subjected to
temperature induced stresses. For medium and low power SCRs, the pellet is
mounted directly on the copper stud or casing, using a soft solder which absorbs
the thermal stresses set up by differential expansion and provides a good
thermal path for heat transfer. For a larger cooling arrangement, which is
required for high power SCRs, the press-pack or hockey-puck construction is
employed, which provides for double-sided air for cooling.
The salient features to be considered, while designing an SCR, are the diameter
and thickness of wafer, composition of the base material, type and amount of
the material to be diffused into the wafer, shape, position and contact area of
the gate, shape and size of the SCR, type of heat sink etc.
Fabrication technology determines various properties of the device. The voltage
rating of a device can be increased by lightly doping the inner two layers and
increasing their thickness. But due to this increased resistance, forward voltage
drop increases and large triggering currents are required causing greater power
dissipation accompanied by smaller current ratings. The heat dissipation of
silicon falls from 1.5 W/cm2 at 25 C to 1.25 W/ cm2 at 125 C. A high voltage
power device can seldom be used beyond 125 C.
The current carrying capacity and voltage rating of the device can be increased
by irradiating silicon with neutrons. The current rating of the device can also be
increased by reducing the current density at the junction but this result in a
bulky device with large turn-on time.

Current ratings of an SCR

The current carrying capability of an SCR is solely determined by the junction
temperature. Except in case of surge currents, in no other case the junction
temperature is permitted to exceed the permissible value. Some of the current
ratings used in industry to specify the device are given below.

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(i) Forward Current Rating.
The maximum value of anode current, that an SCR can handle safely (without
any damage), is called the forward current rating. The usual current rating of
SCRs is from about 30 A to 100 A. In case the current exceeds the forward
current rating, the SCR may get damaged due to intensive heating at the
junctions.
(ii) On-state Current.
When the device is in conduction, it carries a load current determined by the
supply voltage and the load. On-state current is defined in terms of average and
rms values.
ITav is the average value of maximum continuous sinusoidal on-state current
(frequency 40-60 Hz, conduction angle 180) which should not be exceeded
even with intensive cooling. The temperature at which the current is permissible
has to be mentioned. It is this current which determines the application of
device.
ITrms is the rms value of maximum continuous sinusoidal on-state current
(frequency 40-60 Hz, conduction angle 180) which should not be exceeded
even with intensive cooling.
Latching Current.
It is the minimum device current, which must be attained by the device, before
the gate drive is removed while turning-on, for maintaining it into conduction.
Holding Current.
It is the minimum on-state current required to keep the SCR in conducting state
without any gate drive. Its usual value is 5 m A.
(v) Surge Current.
It is the maximum admissible peak value of a sinusoidal half cycle of 10 ms
duration at a frequency of 50 Hz. The value is specified at a given junction
temperature.
During maximum surge on-state current the junction temperature is exceeded
though temporarily and forward blocking capabilities are lost for a short period.
The maximum surge on-state current should only occur occasionally.

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(vi) I2t Value.
I2t value is the time integral of the square of the maximum sinusoidal on-state
current. This is usually specified for 3 ms and 10 ms, and determines the
thermal rating of the device.
(vii) Critical Rate of Rise of Current.
The maximum rate of increase of current during on-state which the SCR can
tolerate is called the critical rate of rise of current for the device. This is specified
at maximum junction temperature.
During initial period of turning-on, only a small area near the gate conducts the
anode current. If the current increases too fast, localized overheating may take
place. This is called the hole storage effect. Due to localised heating the device
may get permanently damaged. To-day devices are available which can
withstand rate of rise of current upto 200-250 A/microsecond, however in
application this rate is hardly allowed to exceed beyond 5-10 A/micro second.
Protection against dI/dt is provided by series inductor.

SCR Voltage Ratings

(i) Break over Voltage.
The minimum forward voltage, when the gate is open, at which SCR starts
conducting heavily (that is turned-on) is called the break over voltage. To
specify this value, the gate is in the open-circuit condition and the junction
temperature is at its maximum permitted value, although VFB0 is still a function
of dv/dt. Though the SCR can be turned-on, with gate open, by making the
supply voltage equal to breakover voltage, but in practice, the SCR is operated
with supply voltage less than breakover voltage and it is turned-on by applying a
small voltage (typically 1.5 V) to the gate. Commercially available SCRs have
breakover voltages from about 50 V to 500 V.
(ii) Peak Forward Voltage.
This is the limiting positive anode voltage above which the SCR may get
damaged. In general peak forward voltage (PFV) is larger than forward
breakover voltage VFB0 so that there is some inherent protection for the device.
However, if there is a voltage transient with an amplitude larger than the
transient rating of the SCR, although it is unlikely to damage the device, it may

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lead to malfunctioning of the circuit if it causes the device to turn-on at the
wrong instant. If the junction temperature is low, it is possible that the PFV is
lesser than VFBQ.
(iii) Maximum On-State Voltage.
It is the maximum value of the voltage appearing across the device during the
conduction. For an SCR with current load, the voltage across load is also
included. Normally value of this voltage is of 1.5 V.
(iv) Peak Reverse Voltage.
The maximum reverse voltage (cathode positive with respect to anode) that can
be applied to an SCR without conduction in the reverse direction, is called the
peak reverse voltage (PRV) or peak inverse voltage (PIV).
Peak reverse voltage (PRV) is an important consideration while SCR is operating
in an ac circuit. During negative half cycle of ac supply reverse voltage acts
across the SCR and if it exceeds beyond PRV, there may be avalanche
breakdown and SCR will get damaged if the current is not limited by the external
circuit. Commercially available SCRs have PRV ratings upto 2.5 kV.
(v) Critical Rate of Rise of Voltage.
Critical rate of rise of voltage, dv/dt, is the maximum rate at which the voltage
in the forward direction can rise without triggering the device. It is expressed in
volts /microseconds.
It is found that sometimes an SCR unintentionally switches-on by itself during
sudden variation of the applied anode voltage at a time when there is no gate
current applied and the SCR is supposed to be in the forward blocking state. This
false triggering is because of the capacitance possessed by the large area of
junction J2. When the rate of rise of the applied voltage dV/dt is very large, the
capacitive charging current, CdV/dt may become large enough to trigger the
device. This is not likely to damage the device, but an unintended triggering may
lead to either high di/dt through the SCR or large shortest circuit current which
may lead to the failure of the device.

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RC SNUBBER CIRCUIT
One way of preventing false triggering due to capacitive charging current C
[dV/dt] is by using an R-C snubbe shown in figure. If a high-speed switching
transient does appear on the supply voltage, its rate of rise is reduced at the
anode because of the R-C circuit. The rate of the anode voltage rise dV/dt
depends on load resistance RL as well as on the values of R and C. By including
an inductor in series, as shown in fig., rate of rise of current dI/dt is also
reduced in addition to decreasing of rate of rise of voltage.
(vi) Voltage Safety Factor.
To avoid puncture of SCR due to uncertain conditions, normal operating voltage
is kept well below PRV value of the device. The operating voltage and PRV are
related by voltage safety factor Vf defined as Vf = PRV/ 2x rms value of input
voltage The normal value of V, lies between 2 and 2.5.

SCR-Ratings and Specifications

The performance of an SCR is affected by the junction temperature, because of
change in carrier densities in the four layers and the junction temperature
naturally depends upon the internal power losses of the device and the efficiency
of heat transfer mechanism. The factors contributing toward rise in junction
temperature are

on-state voltage drop across the device (SCR),

leakage current in the blocking or off state and
power dissipation at gate.

There are three types of ratings for an SCR like continuous; repetitive and nonrepetitive. Because the SCR has a short thermal time constant, there is no
difference between continuous and intermittent ratings above a few second
conduction period.
(a) Continuous Current Ratings.
Continuous current ratings of SCRs are normally given in terms of average or
rms values depending upon whether the device is unilateral or bilateral.
However, rms current rating is more commonly used in the rating procedure for
a device. The rms current rating of the device is useful, because it is essentially
independent of the conduction angle, whereas the average current rating
decreases with the decrease in conduction angle. Also, the rms current rating of

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the device is larger than the average current rating. This rms current flows
through the conductive part of the lead assembly, the device wiring and internal
assembly parts and raises the temperature. The rms current rating must be
limited to a safe value to prevent excessive heating in the resistive elements of
the SCR, such as joints, leads etc. The rms current rating is also important when
SCRs are used to supply large peak current to a load with low duty cycle.
(b) Repetitive Overload Current Ratings.
It is very common for rectifier equipment to frequently run on over-load. Though
the duration of over-load is short, it is repetitive. It is quite obvious that the
peak allowable junction temperature is never to be exceeded under any
condition. So, the magnitude, duration and repetitive frequency of the overload
current of the device should be such that under no case the peak allowable
junction temperature is exceeded. This again depends on the thermal resistance
and transient thermal impedances of the device and the type and size of the
heat sink. It also depends on the method of cooling (i.e. natural air cooling or
forced air cooling), the velocity of cooling air, ambient temperature etc.
(c) Non-repetitive Surge Current Ratings.
Non-repetitive surge current ratings of the SCRs are provided by the
manufacturer. Such surge current is assumed to be imposed on the device when
it is operating at the maximum rated voltage, current and temperature condition
in a half-wave circuit delivering a resistive load. These ratings are such that
during the surge current, the maximum repetitive junction temperature of the
device may be exceeded. During this brief period, the forward blocking capability
of the device is lost until the device is cooled down to or below the maximum
rated operating temperature. The surge current is not a regular feature of the
device and occurs during severe fault condition. These ratings provide the
instantaneous over-load capacity of the device and are used in designing the
protective devices for it. Such ratings are usually provided in terms of nonrecurring surge current with respect to time duration of occurrence and I2t. The
maximum surge current rating is provided for minimum time duration of one half
cycle of the supply frequency, i.e. 10 ms; for the supply frequency of 50 Hz. I2t
ratings apply for non-repetitive surge overloads shorter than one half cycle. At
this condition SCR behaves like a resistor with a fixed thermal capacity. The heat
dissipation during the small period is negligible. I2t rating of the device
represents the capability of the device to withstand the overload current for the
specified time. The current is rms value for the time interval t.

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Turning-off Methods of an SCR
As already mentioned in previous bloc post, once the SCR is fired, it remains
on even when triggering pulse is removed. This ability of the SCR to remain on
even when gate current is removed is referred to as latching. So SCR cannot be
turned off by simply removing the gate pulse.
There are three methods of switching off the SCR, namely natural
commutation, reverse bias turn-off, and gate turn-off.

(a) Natural Commutation

When the anode current is reduced below the level of the holding current, the
SCR turns off. However, it must be noted that rated anode current is usually
larger than 1,000 times the holding value. Since the anode voltage remains
positive with respect to the cathode in a dc circuit, the anode current can only be
reduced by opening the line switch S, increasing the load impedance RL or
shunting part of the load current through a circuit parallel to the SCR, i.e. shortcircuiting the device.
(b) Reverse-bias Turn-off
A reverse anode to cathode voltage (the cathode is positive with respect to the
anode) will tend to interrupt the anode current. The voltage reverses every half
cycle in an ac circuit, so that an SCR in the line would be reverse biased every
negative cycle and would turn off. This is called phase commutation or ac line
commutation. To create a reverse biased voltage across the SCR, which is in the
line of a dc circuit, capacitors can be used. The method of discharging a
capacitor in parallel with an SCR to turn-off the SCR is called forced
commutation.
In power electronic applications one advantage of using SCRs is that they are
compact. The control equipment is also compact if integrated circuits are used.
There has also been an attempt to miniaturize capacitors used for forced
commutation and for filtering. The former use is important because the currents
can be high and thermal dissipation takes high priority in design considerations.
Small sizes of capacitors are at present being achieved by the use of metalized
plastic film or a plastic film and aluminum foil.

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(c) Gate Turn Off
In some specially designed SCRs the characteristics are such that a negative
gate current increases the holding current so that it exceeds the load current
and the device turns-off. The current ratings are presently below 10 A and this
type will not be considered further.
How to turn ON an SCR?
As mentioned earlier, the SCR can be switched on either by increasing the
forward voltage beyond forward break over voltage VFB0 or by applying a positive
gate signal when the device is forward biased. Of these two methods, the latter,
called the gate-control method, is used as it is more efficient and easy to
implement for power control. The following points have to be noted when
designing the gate-control circuit.
1. Appropriate gate-to-cathode voltage must be applied for turn-on when the
device is forward biased.
2. The gate signal must be removed after the device is turned-on.
3. No gate signal should be applied when the device is reverse-biased.
4. When the device is in the off-state, a negative voltage applied between the
gate and the cathode will improve the characteristics of the device. In such an
instance, a large positive voltage will be required to overcome this negative bias
for turn-on.
There are three methods of triggering the device by gate control.
(a) Triggering By a DC Gate Signal.
In this method, a dc voltage of proper polarity and magnitude is applied between
the gate and the cathode when the device is to be turned-on. It must, however,
be noted that the SCR is a current-operated device and it is the gate current that
turns-on the device. The drawback of this method is that gate signal has to be
continuously applied resulting in increase in internal power dissipation and that
there is no isolation of the gate-control circuit from the main power circuit.
(b) Triggering By an AC Gate Signal.
In many power-control circuits that use ac input, the gate-to-cathode voltage is
obtained from a phase-shifted ac voltage derived from the main supply. The
main advantage of this method is that proper isolation of power and control

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circuits can be provided. The firing angle control is obtained very conveniently by
changing the phase angle of the control signal. However, the gate drive is
maintained for one half-cycle after the device is turned-on and a reverse voltage
is applied between the gate and the cathode during the negative half-cycle.
(c) Triggering By a Pulsed-Gate Signal.
In this method, the gate-drive consists of a single pulse appearing periodically,
or a sequence of high-frequency pluses. This is called the carrier frequency
gating. A pulse transformer is used for isolation. The gate losses are very much
reduced since the drive is discontinuous.
Trigger Current and Trigger Voltage.
An SCR, as shown in figure, has a gate voltage of VG. When this gate voltage is
in the vicinity 6f 0.7 V, the SCR will turn-on and the output voltage will drop
from + Vcc to a low value. When a gate resistor RG is used as shown, the input
voltage required to trigger an SCR can be determined from the following
equation:
VIN = VT + IT KG
where VT and IT are the trigger voltage and trigger current respectively, required
for the device gate. This information is available on data sheets. For instance,
the data sheet of a 2 N4441 gives VT = 0.75 V and IT = 10 m A. Sometimes a
gate resistor is not used. In this case, Rr is the Thevenins resistance of the
circuit driving the gate. Unless equation is satisfied, the SCR cannot turn-on.
After the SCR has. turned on, it stays on even VIN is reduced to zero. In this
case, the output voltage remains low indefinitely.
How to trigger an SCR using UJT ?
One common application of the uni junction transistor is the triggering of the
other devices such as the SCR, triac etc. The basic elements of such a triggering
circuit are shown in figure. The resistor RE is chosen so that the load line
determined by RE passes through the device characteristic in the negative
resistance region, that is, to the right of the peak point but to the left of the
valley point, as shown in figure. If the load line does not pass to the right of the
peak point P, the device cannot turn on.
For ensuring turn-on of UJT
RE <

VBB Vp / IP

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This can be established as below
Consider the peak point at which IRE = Ip and VE = VP
(the equality IRE = IP is valid because the charging current of capacitor, at this
instant is zero, that is, the capacitor, at this particular instant, is changing from
a charging state to
a discharging state). Then VE = VBB IRE RE
So, RE(MAX) = VBB VE / IRE = VBB Vp / IP at the peak point.
At the valley point, V
IE = IV and VE = VV so that
VE = VBB IRE RE
So RE(MIN) = VBB VE / IRE = VBB VV / IV or for ensuring turn-off.
RE > = VBB VV / IV
So, the range of resistor RE is given as
VBB VP / IP >RE > VBB VV / IV
The resistor R is chosen small enough so as to ensure that SCR is not turned on
by voltage VR when emitter terminal E is open or IE = 0
The voltage VR = RVBB/R + RBB for open-emitter terminal.
The capacitor C determines the time interval between triggering pulses and the
time duration of each pulse. By varying RE, we can change the time constant RE
C and alter the point at which the UJT fires. This allows us to control the
conduction angle of the SCR, which means the control of load current.

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SCS-Silicon Controlled Switch

Silicon controlled switch (SCS), like the SCR, is a unilateral, four layer three
junction P-N-P-N silicon device with four electrodes namely cathode C, cathode
gate Gx, anode gate G2 and the anode A, as shown in figure. Infact, the SCS is a
low power device compared with the SCR. It handles currents in milli amperes
rather than amperes. SCS differs from an SCR in the following aspects. It has an
additional gatethe anode gate.It is physically smaller than SCR.It has smaller
leakage and holding currents than SCR.It needs small triggering signals. It gives
more uniform triggering characteristics from sample to sample.
The basic structure and schematic symbol of SCS are shown in the figures. It
may be fabricated by using either the grown junction technique or the planar
technique.
Operation of a Silicon Controlled Switch
The easiest way to understand how it operates is to realize it to be formed of
two transistors Q1 and Q2 placed back-to-back, as shown in figure.b
In a two-transistor equivalent circuit shown in figure.c, it is seen that a negative
pulse at the anode gate G2 causes transistor Q1 to switch on. Transistor Q1
supplies base current to transistor Q2, and both transistors switch-on. Similarly,
a positive pulse at the cathode gate G1 can switch the device on. Since only
small currents are involved, the SCS may be switched off by an appropriate
polarity pulse at one of the gates. At the cathode gate a negative pulse is
required for switching-off while at the anode gate a positive pulse is needed.
Volt-Ampere Characteristic of SCS
The volt-ampere characteristic of an SCS is similar to that of an SCR and is
shown in figure. With the increase in applied voltage, the current first increases
slowly upto point A and then rapidly in the region AB, as shown in the figure. At
point B, the product 12 exceeds unity and the device is suddenly switched on.
In the on-state, the current increases enormously and is limited by the external
series resistor. SCS also exhibits negative differential resistance in the on region
similar to SCR. SCS gets switched on accidentally if the anode voltage gets
applied suddenly. This is known as rate effect, which is caused by inter-electrode
capacitance between electrodes G1 and G2, known as transition capacitance.
Advantages and Applications of SCS

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An advantage of SCS over an SCR is the reduced turn-off time, typically within
the range of 1 to 10 micro seconds for the SCS and 5 to 30 micro seconds for
the SCR. Other advantages of the SCS over SCR are increased control and
triggering sensitivity and a more predictable firing situation. However, the SCS is
limited to low power, current, and voltage ratings (typical maximum anode
currents range from 100 mA to 300 mA with dissipation rating of 100 to 500
mW).
A few of the more common areas of application of SCS include a variety of
computer circuits (such as counters, registers, and timing circuits) voltage
sensors, pulse generators, oscillators etc

What is a Triac?
- a summary or overview describing what is a triac, and detailing ways
of using triacs and some triac circuits.
Triacs are widely used in AC power control applications. They are able to switch
high voltages and high levels of current, and over both parts of an AC waveform.
This makes triac circuits ideal for use in a variety of applications where power
switching is needed. One particular use of triac circuits is in light dimmers for
domestic lighting, and they are also used in many other power control situations
including motor control.
The triac is a development of the thyristor. While the thyristor can only control
current over one half of the cycle, the triac controls it over two halves of an AC
waveform. As such the triac can be considered as a pair of parallel but opposite
thyristors with the two gates connected together and the anode of one device
connected to the cathode of the other, etc..

Triac symbol
The basic triac symbol used on circuit diagram indicates its bi-directional
properties. The triac symbol can be seen to be a couple of thyristor symbols in
opposite senses merged together.
Like a thyristor, a triac has three terminals. However the names of these are a
little more difficult to assign, because the main current carrying terminals are

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connected to what is effectively a cathode of one thyristor, and the anode of
another within the overall device. There is a gate which acts as a trigger to turn
the device on. In addition to this the other terminals are both called Anodes, or
Main Terminals These are usually designated Anode 1 and Anode 2 or Main
Terminal 1 and Main Terminal 2 (MT1 and MT2). When using triacs it is both MT1
and MT2 have very similar properties.

How does a triac work?

Before looking at how a triac works, it helps to have an understanding of haow a
thyristor works. In this way the basic concepts can be grasped for the simpler
device and then applied to a triac which is more complicated. The operation of
the thyristor is covered in the article in this section and accessible through the
"Related Articles" box on the left of the page and below the main menu.
For the operation of the triac, it can be imagined from the circuit symbol that the
triac consists of two thyristors in parallel but around different ways. The
operation of the triac can be looked on in this fashion, although the actual
operation at the semiconductor level is rather more complicated.
When the voltage on the MT1 is positive with regard to MT2 and a positive gate
voltage is applied, one of the thyristors conducts. When the voltage is reversed
and a negative voltage is applied to the gate, the other thyristor conducts. This
is provided that there is sufficient voltage across the device to enable a
minimum holding current to flow.

Using triacs
there are a number of points to note when using triacs. Although these devices
operate very well, to get the best performance out of them it is necessary to
understand a few hints on tips on using triacs.
It is found that because of their internal construction and the slight differences
between the two halves, triacs do not fire symmetrically. This results in
harmonics being generated: the less symmetrical the triac fires, the greater the
level of harmonics that are produced. It is not normally desirable to have high
levels of harmonics in a power system and as a result triacs are not favoured for

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high power systems. Instead for these systems two thyristors may be used as it
is easier to control their firing.
To help in overcoming the problem non-symmetrical firing ad the resulting
harmonics, a device known as a diac (diode AC switch) is often placed in series
with the gate of the triac. The inclusion of this device helps make the switching
more even for both halves of the cycle. This results from the fact that the diac
switching characteristic is far more even than that of the triac. Since the diac
prevents any gate current flowing until the trigger voltage has reached a certain
voltage in either direction, this makes the firing point of the triac more even in
both directions.
DIAC, a hysteretic device triggered on during a portion of an AC half-cycle will
latch and remain on throughout the remainder of the half-cycle until the AC
current decreases to zero, as it must to begin the next half-cycle. Just prior to
the zero-crossover point of the current waveform, the thyristor will turn off due
to insufficient current (this behavior is also known as natural commutation) and
must be fired again during the next cycle. The result is a circuit current
equivalent to a "chopped up" sine wave. For review, here is the graph of a
DIAC's response to an AC voltage whose peak exceeds the break over voltage of
the DIAC: (Figure below)
Triac-Construction and Operation
Introduction to Triac-Its construction and Operation
The triac is another three-terminal ac switch that is triggered into conduction
when a low-energy signal is applied to its gate terminal. Unlike the SCR, the
triac conducts in either direction when turned on. The triac also differs from the
SCR in that either a positive or negative gate signal triggers it into conduction.
Thus the triac is a three terminal, four layer bidirectional semiconductor device
that controls ac power whereas an SCR controls dc power or forward biased
half cycles of ac in a load. Because of its bidirectional conduction property, the
triac is widely used in the field of power electronics for control purposes. Triacs
of 16 kW rating are readily available in the market.
Triac is an abbreviation for three terminal ac switch. Tri-indicates that the
device has three terminals and ac indicates that the device controls alternating
current or can conduct in either direction.

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Construction of a Triac
As mentioned above, triac is a three terminal, four layer bilateral semiconductor
device. It incorporates two SCRs connected in inverse parallel with a common
gate terminal in a single chip device. The arrangement of the triac is shown in
figure. As seen, it has six doped regions. The gate terminal G makes ohmic
contacts with both the N and P materials. This permits trigger pulse of either
polarity to start conduction. Electrical equivalent circuit and schematic symbol
are shown in figure. b and figure. c respectively. Since the triac is a bilateral
device, the term anode and cathode has no meaning, and therefore,
terminals are designated as main terminal 1. (MT1), main terminal 2 (MT2) and
gate G. To avoid confusion, it has become common practice to specify all
voltages and currents using MT1 as the reference.
Operation and Working of a Triac
Though the triac can be turned on without any gate current provided the supply
voltage becomes equal to the break over voltage of the triac but the normal way
to turn on the triac is by applying a proper gate current. As in case of SCR, here
too, the larger the gate current, the smaller the supply voltage at which the triac
is turned on. Triac can conduct current irrespective of the voltage polarity of
terminals MT1 and MT2 with respect to each other and that of gate and terminal
MT2. Consequently four different possibilities of operation of triac exists. They
are:
1.

Terminal MT2 and gate are positive with respect to terminal MT1

When terminal MT2 is positive with respect to terminal MT1 current flows through
path P1-N1-P2-N2. The two junctions P1-N1 and P2-N2 are forward biased whereas
junction N1 P2 is blocked. The triac is now said to be positively biased.
A positive gate with respect to terminal MT1 forward biases the junction P2-N2
and the breakdown occurs as in a normal SCR.
2. Terminal MT2 is positive but gate is negative with respect to terminal
MT1
Though the flow path of current remains the same as in mode 1 but now
junction P2-N3 is forward biased and current carriers injected into P2 turn on the
triac.

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3. Terminal MT2 and gate are negative with respect to terminal MT1
When terminal MT2 is negative with respect to terminal MT1, the current flow
path is P2-N1-P1-N4. The two junctions P2-N1 and P1 - N4 are forward biased
whereas junction N1-P1 is blocked. The triac is now said to be negatively biased.
A negative gate with respect to terminal MT1 injects current carriers by forward
biasing junction P2-N3 and thus initiates the conduction.
4. Terminal MT2 is negative but gate is positive with respect to terminal
MT1
Though the flow path of current remains the same as in mode 3 but now
junction P2-N2 is forward biased, current carriers are injected and therefore, the
triac is turned on.
Generally, trigger mode 4 should be avoided especially in circuits where high
di/dt may occur. The sensitivity of triggering modes 2 and 3 is high and in case
of marginal triggering capability negative gate pulses should be used. Though
the triggering mode 1 is more sensitive compared to modes 2 and 3, it requires
a positive gate trigger. However, for bidirectional control and uniform gate
trigger modes 2 and 3 are preferred.
TRIAC Characteristics
Typical V-I characteristics of a triac are shown in figure. The triac has on and off
state characteristics similar to SCR but now the char acteristic is applicable to
both positive and negative voltages. This is expected because triac consists of
two SCRs connected in parallel but opposite in direc tions.
MT2 is positive with respect to MTX in the first quadrant and it is negative in the
third quad rant. As already said in previous blog posts, the gate triggering may
occur in any of the following four modes.
Quadrant I operation

VMT2, positive; VG1 positive

Quadrant II operation

VMT21 positive; VGl negative

Quadrant III operation :

VMT21 negative; VGl negative

Quadrant IV operation

VMT21 negative; VG1 positive

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where VMT21 and VGl are the voltages of terminal MT2 and gate with respect to
terminal MT1.
The device, when starts conduction permits a very heavy amount of current to
flow through it. This large inrush of current must be restricted by employing
external resist ance, otherwise the device may get damaged.
The gate is the control terminal of the device. By applying proper signal to the
gate, the firing angle of the device can be controlled. The circuits used in the
gate for triggering the device are called the gate-triggering circuits. The gatetriggering circuits for the triac are almost same like those used for SCRs. These
triggering circuits usually generate trigger pulses for firing the device. The
trigger pulse should be of sufficient magnitude and duration so that firing of the
device is assured. Usually, a duration of 35 us is sufficient for sustaining the
firing of the device.
A typical triac has the following voltage/current values:

Instantaneous on-state voltage 1.5 Volts

On-state current 25 Amperes
Holding current, IH - 75 Milli Amperes
Average triggering current, IG 5 Milli Amperes

Introduction to Diac-Operation and Construction

A diac is an important member of the thyristor family and is usually employed
for triggering triacs. A diac is a two-electrode bidirectional avalanche diode which
can be switched from off-state to the on-state for either polarity of the applied
voltage. This is just like a triac without gate terminal, as shown in figure. Its
equivalent circuit is a pair of inverted four layer diodes. Two schematic symbols
are shown in figure. Again the terminal designations are arbitrary since the diac,
like triac, is also a bilateral device. The switching from off-state to on-state is
achieved by simply exceeding the avalanche break down voltage in either
direction.

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Construction of a Diac.
A diac is a P-N-P-N structured four-layer, two-terminal semiconductor device, as
shown in figure.A. MT2 and MTX are the two main terminals of the device. There
is no control terminal in this device. From the diagram, a diac unlike a diode,
resembles a bipolar junction transistor (BJT) but with the following exceptions.

there is no terminal attached to the middle layer (base),

the three regions are nearly identical in size,
the doping level at the two end P-layers is the same so that the device
gives symmetrical switching characteristics for either polarity of the
applied voltage.

Operation of a Diac.
When the terminal MT2 is positive, the current flow path is P1-N2-P2-N3 while for
positive polarity of terminal MT1 the current flow path is P2-N2-P1-N1. The
operation of the diac can be explained by imagining it as two diodes connected
in series. When applied voltage in either polarity is small (less than breakover
voltage) a very small amount of current, called the leakage current, flows
through the device. Leakage current caused due to the drift of electrons and
holes in the depletion region, is not sufficient to cause conduction in the device.
The device remains in non-conducting mode. However, when the magnitude of
the applied voltage exeeds the avalanche breakdown voltage, breakdown takes
place and the diac current rises sharply, as shown in the characteristics shown in
figure.
Characteristics of a Diac
Volt-ampere characteristic of a diac is shown in figure. It resembles the English
letter Z because of the symmetrical switching characteristics for either polarity of
the applied voltage.
The diac acts like an open-circuit until its switching or breakover voltage is
exceeded. At that point the diac conducts until its current reduces toward zero
(below the level of the holding current of the device). The diac, because of its
peculiar construction, does not switch sharply into a low voltage condition at a
low current level like the SCR or triac. Instead, once it goes into conduction, the
diac maintains an almost continuous negative resistance characteristic, that is,
voltage decreases with the increase in current. This means that, unlike the SCR
and the triac, the diac cannot be expected to maintain a low (on) voltage drop
until its current falls below a holding current level.

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LIGHT ACTIVATED SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER(LASCR)
A LASCR is an optoelectronic switching device.the symbol of LASCR is turned on
by direct radiation of light on its silicon water loght falls on the devices,electron
hole pairs are generated under the influence of electric field.this leads to a flow
of current with in the devices and the device turns on
Once the lascr is triggerd to the ON state,it behaves like a normal SCR and it will
stay on state even if the light disappears.it will turn off only if its anode current
is decreased below its holding current.
The LASCR is most sensitive to light when its gate is open.this sensitive Can be
varied by connecting a variable resistor in between gate and cathode.the
voltage rating can be varied by 4kv with light triggering power of less than
100mw.the typical di/dt is 250a/ms and dv/dt could be as high as 200v/micro
second
Specification
Voltage rating:4kv at 1500a with light triggering power of less than 100mv
Di/dt:250a/microsecond
Dv/dt:200v/microsecond
Application
1.hvdc transmission
2.static reactive power
UNIT-II PHASE CONTROLLED RECIFIER

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Single phase fully controlled half wave rectifier
10.2.1 Resistive load

Fig.10. 1(a) shows the circuit diagram of a single phase fully controlled halfwave
rectifier supplying a purely resistive load. At t = 0 when the input supply
voltage becomes positive the thyristor T becomes forward biased. However,
unlike a diode, it does not turn ON till a gate pulse is applied at t = . During
the period 0 < t . , the thyristor blocks the supply voltage and the load
voltage remains zero as shown in fig 10.1(b). Consequently, no load current
flows during this interval. As soon as a gate pulse is applied to the thyristor at
t = it turns ON. The voltage across the thyristor collapses to almost zero
and the full supply voltage appears across the load. From this point onwards the
load voltage follows the supply voltage. The load being purely resistive the load
current io is proportional to the load voltage. At t = as the supply voltage
passes through the negative going zero crossing the load voltage and hence the
load current becomes zero and tries to reverse direction. In the process the
thyristor undergoes reverse recovery and starts blocking the negative supply
voltage. Therefore, the load voltage and the load current remains clamped at
zero till the thyristor is fired again at t = 2 + . The same process repeats
there after.
From the discussion above and Fig 10.1 (b) one can write
For <t.
0iiv=v=2 V sint (10.1)

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0i0vVi==2 sintRR (10.2)
Version 2 EE IIT, Kharagpur 5
v0 = i0 = 0 otherwise.
Therefore 2OAV0i011V=vdt=2 V sint dt22 (10.3)
Or iOAVVV=(1+cos)2 (10.4)
22ORMS001V=vdt2 (10.5) 22i1=2vsintdt2 2iV=(1cos2t)dt2 2iVsin2=-+22...... 12iVsin21-+22..=....
12ORMSVOOAVsin21-+V2 FF==V(1+cos)..... (10.6)
Similar calculation can be done for i0. In particulars for pure resistive loads FFio
= FFvo.
10.2.2 Resistive-Inductive load

Fig 10.2 (a) and (b) shows the circuit diagram and the waveforms of a single
phase fully controlled halfwave rectifier supplying a resistive inductive load.
Although this circuit is hardly used in practice its analysis does provide useful
insight into the operation of fully controlled rectifiers which will help to
appreciate the operation of single phase bridge converters to be discussed later.
Version 2 EE IIT, Kharagpur 6

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As in the case of a resistive load, the thyristor T becomes forward biased when
the supply voltage becomes positive at t = 0. However, it does not start
conduction until a gate pulse is applied at t = . As the thyristor turns ON at
t = the input voltage appears across the load and the load current starts
building up. However, unlike a resistive load, the load current does not become
zero at t = , instead it continues to flow through the thyristor and the
negative supply voltage appears across the load forcing the load current to
decrease. Finally, at t = ( > ) the load current becomes zero and the
thyristor undergoes reverse recovery. From this point onwards the thyristor
starts blocking the supply voltage and the load voltage remains zero until the
thyristor is turned ON again in the next cycle. It is to be noted that the value of
depends on the load

10.3 Single phase fully controlled bridge converter

Fig 10.3 (a) shows the circuit diagram of a single phase fully controlled bridge
converter. It is one of the most popular converter circuits and is widely used in
the speed control of separately excited dc machines. Indeed, the RLE load
shown in this figure may represent the electrical equivalent circuit of a
separately excited dc motor.
The single phase fully controlled bridge converter is obtained by replacing all the
diode of the corresponding uncontrolled converter by thyristors. Thyristors T

and T are fired together while T and T are fired 180 after T and T . From the
2

circuit diagram of Fig 10.3(a) it is clear that for any load current to flow at least
one thyristor from the top group (T , T ) and one thyristor from the bottom
1

group (T , T ) must conduct. It can also be argued that neither T T nor T T can
2

1 3

2 4

conduct simultaneously. For example whenever T and T are in the forward

3

blocking state and a gate pulse is applied to them, they turn ON and at the same

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time a negative voltage is applied across T

and T

commutating them

immediately. Similar argument holds for T and T .

1

For the same reason T T

1 4

or T T

2 3

can not conduct simultaneously.

Therefore, the only possible conduction modes when the current i can flow are
0

T T and T T . Of coarse it is possible that at a given moment none of the

1 2

3 4

thyristors conduct. This situation will typically occur when the load current
becomes zero in between the firings of T T and T T . Once the load current
1 2

3 4

becomes zero all thyristors remain off. In this mode the load current remains
zero. Consequently the converter is said to be operating in the discontinuous
conduction mode.
Fig 10.3(b) shows the voltage across different devices and the dc output
voltage during each of these conduction modes. It is to be noted that whenever
T and T conducts, the voltage across T and T becomes v . Therefore T and T
1

can be fired only when v is negative i.e, over the negative half cycle of the input
i

supply voltage. Similarly T and T can be fired only over the positive half cycle of
1

the input supply. The voltage across the devices when none of the thyristors
conduct depends on the off state impedance of each device. The values listed in
Fig 10.3 (b) assume identical devices.
Under normal operating condition of the converter the load current may or
may not remain zero over some interval of the input voltage cycle. If i is always
0

greater than zero then the converter is said to be operating in the continuous
conduction mode. In this mode of operation of the converter T T and T T
1 2

conducts for alternate half cycle of the input supply.

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However, in the discontinuous conduction mode none of the thyristors
conduct over some portion of the input cycle. The load current remains zero
during that period.
10.3.1 Operation in the continuous conduction mode

As has been explained earlier in the continuous conduction mode of operation i

never becomes zero, therefore, either T T or T T conducts. Fig 10.4 shows the
1 2

3 4

waveforms of different variables in the steady state. The firing angle of the
converter is . The angle is given by 1Esin=2V (10.15)

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-

It is assumed that at t = 0 T T was conducting. As T T are fired at t = they

3 4

1 2

turn on commutating T T immediately. T T are again fired at t = + . Till

3 4

3 4

this point T T conducts. The period of conduction of different thyristors are

1 2

pictorially depicted in the second waveform (also called the conduction diagram)
of the dc link voltage waveform shown next follows from this conduction
diagram and the conduction table shown in Fig 10.3(b). It is observed that the
emf source E is greater than the dc link voltage till t = . Therefore, the load
current i continues to fall till this point. However, as T T are fired at this point
0

1 2

v becomes greater than E and i starts increasing through R-L and E. At t =

0

v again equals E. Depending upon the load circuit parameters i reaches its
0

maximum at around this point and starts falling afterwards. Continuous

conduction mode will be possible only if i remains greater than zero till T T are
0

3 4

fired at t = + where upon the same process repeats. The resulting i

waveform is shown below v . The input ac current waveform i is obtained from i

0

by noting that whenever T T conducts i = i and i = - i whenever T T conducts.

1 2

3 4

The last waveform shows the typical voltage waveform across the thyristor T . It
1

is to be noted that when the thyristor turns off at t = + a negative voltage

is applied across it for a duration of . The thyristor must turn off during this
interval for successful operation of the converter.
It is noted that the dc voltage waveform is periodic over half the input cycle.
Therefore, it can be expressed in a Fourier series as follows.
[0OAVanbnn=1v=V+v cos2nt+v sin2nt (10.16)
Where +OAV0i122V=v dt= V cos (10.17)
an0i0222cos(2n+1)cos(2n-1)v=v cos2nt dt= V -2n +12n -1
(10.18)
bn0i0222sin(2n+1)sin(2n-1)v=v sin2nt dt= V -2n +12n -1
(10.19)
Therefore the RMS value of the nth harmonic
22OnRMSanbn1V=v+v2 (10.20)
RMS value of v can of course be completed directly from.
0

+2ORMS0i1V=vdt=V (10.21)
Fourier series expression of v is important because it provides a simple method
0

of estimating individual and total RMS harmonic current injected into the load as
follows:
The impedance offered by the load at nth harmonic frequency is given by
2nZ=R+(2nL) (10.22)

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122onRMSonRMSOHRMSonRMSn=1nVI=; (10.23)

From (10.18) (10.23) it can be argued that in an inductive circuit I

onRMS

0 as

fast as 1/n . So in practice it will be sufficient to consider only first few

harmonics to obtain a reasonably accurate estimate of I
form equation
OHRMS

10.23. This method will be useful, for example, while calculating the required
current derating of a dc motor to be used with such a converter.

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However to obtain the current rating of the device to be used it is necessary to
find out a closed form expression of i . This will also help to establish the
0

condition under which the converter

mode.
To begin with we observe that the
waveform is periodic over an interval
i over any interval of length will be
0

will operate in the continuous conduction

voltage waveform and hence the current
. Therefore, finding out an expression for
sufficient. We choose the interval t

+ .
In this interval
00idiL+Ri+E=2V sintdt (10.24)
The general solution of which is given by
()t-- tani0sin2Vsin(t-)-i=Ie+cosZ(10.25)
Where, 222iLZ=R+L; tan=; E=2Vsin; R=ZcosR
Now at steady state 00t=t=+i=i since i is periodic over the chosen
0

interval. Using this boundary condition we obtain

()t-- tani0- tan2sin(-)s2Ve+ sin(t-) - i=cosZ1-e(10.26)
The input current i is related to i as follows:
i

i0i=i for t+ (10.27)

i = - i otherwise.
i

Fig 10.5 shows the waveform of i in relation to the v waveform. It will be of

i

interest to find out a Fourier series expression of i . However, using actual

i

expression for i will lead to exceedingly complex calculation. Significant

i

simplification can be made by replacing i with its average value I . This will be
0

justified provided the load is highly inductive and the ripple on i is negligible
0

compared to I Under this assumption the idealized waveform of i becomes a

0.

square wave with transitions at t = and t = + as shown in Fig 10.5. i is

i1

the fundamental component of this idealized i .

i

Evidently the input current displacement factor defined as the cosine of

the angle between input voltage (v ) and the fundamental component of input
i

current (i ) waveforms is cos (lagging).

i1

and iRMS0I= (10.29)

Therefore the input current distortion factor =i1RMSiRMSI22I= (10.30)
The input power factor = ii1RMSiiRMSVI cosActual Power=Apparent PowerVI
22=cos (lagging) (10.31)
Therefore, the rectifier appears as a lagging power factor load to the input ac
system. Larger the poorer is the power factor. The input current i also contain
rd

th

significant amount of harmonic current (3 , 5 , etc) and therefore appears as a

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harmonic source to the utility. Exact composition of the harmonic currents can
be obtained by Fourier series analysis of i and is left as an exercise.
i

Single phase fully controlled bridge converters are widely used in many industrial
applications. They can supply unidirectional current with both positive and
negative voltage polarity. Thus they can operate either as a controlled rectifier
or an inverter. However, many of the industrial application do not utilize the
inverter mode operation capability of the fully controlled converter. In such
situations a fully controlled converter with four thyristors and their associated
control and gate drive circuit is definitely a more complex and expensive
proposition. Single phase fully controlled converters have other disadvantages as
well such as relatively poor output voltage (and current for lightly inductive load)
form factor and input power factor.
The inverter mode of operation of a single phase fully controlled converter is
made possible by the forward voltage blocking capability of the thyristors which
allows the output voltage to go negative. The disadvantages of the single phase
fully controlled converter are also related to the same capability. In order to
improve the output voltage and current form factor the negative excursion of the
output voltage may be prevented by connecting a diode across the output as
shown in Fig 11.1(a). Here as the output voltage tries to go negative the diode
across the load becomes forward bias and clamp the load voltage to zero. Of
course this circuit will not be able to operate in the inverter mode. The
complexity of the circuit is not reduced, however. For that, two of the thyristors
of a single phase fully controlled converter has to be replaced by two diodes as
shown in Fig 11.1 (b) and (c). The resulting converters are called single phase
half controlled converters. As in the case of fully controlled converters, the
devices T and D conducts in the positive input voltage half cycle after T is
1

turned on. As the input voltage passes through negative going zero crossing D

comes into conduction commutating D in Fig 11.1 (b) or T in Fig 11.1 (c). The
2

load voltage is thus clamped to zero until T is fired in the negative half cycle. As
3

far as the input and output behavior of the circuit is concerned the circuits in Fig
11.1 (b) and (c) are identical although the device designs differs. In Fig 11.1 (c)
the diodes carry current for a considerably longer duration than the thyristors.
However, in Fig 11.1 (b) both the thyristors and the diodes carry current for half
the input cycle. In this lesson the operating principle and characteristics of a
single phase half controlled converter will be presented with reference to the
circuit in Fig 11.1 (b).

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11.2 Operating principle of a single phase half controlled bridge converter

With reference of Fig 11.1 (b), it can be stated that for any load current to flow
one device from the top group (T or T ) and one device from the bottom group
1

must conduct. However, T T or D D cannot conduct simultaneously. On the

1

other hand T D and T D conducts simultaneously whenever T or T are on and

1

the output voltage tends to go negative. Therefore, there are four operating
modes of this converter when current flows through the load. Of course it is
always possible that none of the four devices conduct. The load current during
such periods will be zero. The operating modes of this converter and the voltage
across different devices during these operating modes are shown in the
conduction table of Fig 11.2. This table has been prepared with reference to Fig
11.1 (b).

Version 2 EE IIT, Kharagpur 5

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It is observed that whenever D conducts the voltage across D is -v and
2

whenever D conducts the voltage across D is v . Since diodes can block only
4

negative voltage it can be concluded that D and D conducts in the positive and
2

the negative half cycle of the input supply respectively. Similar conclusions can
be drawn regarding the conduction of T and T . The operation of the converter
1

can be explained as follows when T is fired in the positive half cycle of the input
1

voltage. Load current flows through T and D . If at the negative going zero
1

crossing of the input voltage load current is still positive it commutates from D

to D and the load voltage becomes zero. If the load current further continuous
4

till T is fired current commutates from T to T . This mode of conduction when

3

the load current always remains above zero is called the continuous conduction
mode. Otherwise the mode of conduction becomes discontinuous.
11.2.1 Single phase half controlled converter in the continuous conduction mode
From the conduction table and the discussion in the previous section it can be
concluded that the diode D and D conducts for the positive and negative half
2

cycle of the input voltage waveform respectively. On the other hand T starts
1

conduction when it is fired in the positive half cycle of the input voltage
waveform and continuous conduction till T is fired in the negative half cycle. Fig.
3

11.3 shows the circuit diagram and the waveforms of a single phase half
controlled converter supplying an R L E load.

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Referring to Fig 11.3 (b) T D starts conduction at t = . Output voltage during
1

this period becomes equal to v . At t = as v tends to go negative D is

i

forward biased and the load current commutates from D to D and freewheels
2

through D and T . The output voltage remains clamped to zero till T is fired at
4

t = + . The T D conduction mode continues upto t = 2. Where upon

3

load current again free wheels through T and D while the load voltage is
3

clamped to zero.
From the discussion in the previous paragraph it can be concluded that the
output voltage (hence the output current) is periodic over half the input cycle.
Hence

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ioavoio2V11V=vdt=2V sin t dt=(1+cos) (11.1)

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Unit IV
CONTROL OF DC DRIVES
Dc drives are widely used in application requiring variable speed, frequent
starting, braking and reversing. depending on the application, some drives
drives are fixed speed and some of them are variable speed. direct current dc
motors have been used in variable speed drives for a long time.
Basically in dc motors, the speed can be by varying the voltage applied to the
armature. in olden days the motors generator set was used for a long time to
obtain variable voltage. but now a days this has been largely replaced by
thyristor converters. due to their ability to supply a continuously variable dc
voltage, controlled rectifiers and dc choppers made a resolution in modern
industrial control equipments and variable speed drives. controlled rectifiers are
generally used for the speed control of dc motors.
HISTROY OF DC DRIVES
Dc drives are extensively used in industry all over the world. the methods of dc
motor are simpler and less expensive than there of ac motors. dc drives has
been around for 100 years in one form to another. most early forms applied a
fixed voltage to the armature
And varied themotor field strengths. the field strength was increased when
motors back emf will be increased. this in turn causes the motor to draw less
current and the speed will be decreased
DC drives consist of an SCR (Silicon
Controlled Rectifier) bridge, which
converts incoming three or single-phase
AC volts to DC volts. During this
conversion process DC drives then can
regulate speed, torque, voltage and
current conditions of the DC motor. This
is ideal for industrial processes such as
tube mills, extruders, mixers, paper
machines and various other controlled
applications. Joliet Technologies can
provide several DC Drives from different
reputable manufactures. Packages can
vary from Onsite Retrofits to custom
multi drive cabinets.

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Application of dc drives
Rolling mill motors: steel and aluminium industries, contiuous cold mills,
contiuous hot strip mills and reversing hot mills
Mine hoists: mine hoists can be over hung from the hoist drum or fitted with
supporting bearing.
Industrial duty motors: ysed for fan drives, banbury mixers, extrudes
Paper mills, machine tools, electric traction, and cranes
DC MOTORS
DC MOTORS

Basic DC motors as used on nearly all packaged drives have a very simple
performance characteristic the shaft turns at a speed almost directly proportional
to the voltage applied to the armature. Figure 1 shows a typical voltage/speed
curve for a motor operating from a 115 volt control.

From the above curve you can see that with 9 volts applied to the armature, this
motor would be operating at Point 1 and turn at approximately 175 RPM.
Similarly with 45 volts applied, the motor would be operating at Point 2 on the
curve or 875 RPM. With 90 volts applied, the motor would reach its full speed of
1750 RPM at point 3.

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From this example a general statement can be made that DC motors have "no
load" characteristics that are nearly a perfect match for the curve indicated in
Figure 1.
However, when operated at a fixed applied voltage but a gradually increasing
torque load, they exhibit a speed droop as indicated in Figure 2.

This speed droop is very similar to what would occur if an automobile accelerator
pedal was held in a fixed position with the car running on level ground. Upon
starting up an incline where more driving torque would be needed, the car would
slow down to a speed related to the steepness of the hill. In a real situation, the
driver would respond by depressing the accelerator pedal to compensate for the
speed loss to maintain a nearly constant speed up the incline.
In the DC drive a similar type of "compensation" is employed in the control to
assist in maintaining a nearly constant speed under varying load (torque)
conditions.
The measurement of this tendency to slow down is called Regulation and is
calculated with the following equation:

% Regulation =

No Load Speed - Full Load Speed

X 100
No Load Speed

In DC drives the regulation is generally expressed as a percentage of motor base

speed.
One other very important characteristic of a DC motor should be noted.
Armature amperage is almost directly proportional to output torque regardless of

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speed. This characteristic is shown by Figure 3. Point 1 indicates that a small
fixed amount of current is required to turn the motor even when there is no
output torque. This is due to the friction of the bearings, electrical losses in the
motor materials and load imposed by the air in the motor (windage).

Beyond Point 1 through Point 2 and 3, the current increases in direct proportion
to the torque required by the load.
From this discussion and Figure 3 a general statement can be made that for PM
and Shunt Wound motors load torque determines armature amperage.
In summary, two general statements can be made relative to DC motor
performance.
1. Motor Speed is primarily determined by Applied Armature Voltage.
2. Motor Torque is controlled by Armature Current (amperes).
Understanding these two concepts of DC motors
understanding total drive performance.

provides

the key to

DC MOTOR CONTROL CHARACTERISTICS

A shunt-wound motor is a direct-current motor in which the field windings and
the armature may be connected in parallel across a constant-voltage supply. In
adjustable speed applications, the field is connected across a constant-voltage
supply and the armature is connected
across an independent adjustable-voltage
supply. Permanent magnet motors have
similar control characteristics but differ

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primarily by their integral permanent magnet field excitation.
The speed (N) of a DC motor is proportional to its armature voltage; the torque
(T) is proportional to armature current, and the two quantities are independent,
as illustrated in Figure 5.
CONSTANT TORQUE APPLICATIONS
Armature voltage controlled DC drives are constant torque drives. They are
capable of providing rated torque at any speed between zero and the base
(rated) speed of the motor as shown by Figure 6. Horsepower varies in direct
proportion to speed, and 100% rated horsepower is developed only at 100%
rated motor speed with rated torque.
CONSTANT HORSEPOWER APPLICATIONS
Armature Controlled DC Drives - Certain applications require constant
horsepower over a specified speed range. The screened area, under the
horsepower curve in Figure 6, illustrates the limits of constant horsepower
operation for armature controlled DC drives. As an example, the motor could
provide constant horsepower between 50% speed and 100% speed, or a 2:1
range. However, the 50% speed point coincides with the 50% horsepower point.
Any constant horsepower application may be easily calculated by multiplying the
desired horsepower by the ratio of the speed range over which horsepower must
remain constant. If 5 HP is required over a 2:1 range, an armature only
controlled drive rated for 10 (5 x 2) horsepower would be required.
DC DRIVES - PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

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DC drives, because of their simplicity, ease of application, reliability and
favorable cost have long been a backbone of industrial applications. A typical
adjustable speed drive using a silicon controller rectifier (SCR) power conversion'
section, common for this type unit, is shown in Figure 2. The SCR, (also termed
a thyristor) converts the fixed voltage alternating current (AC) of the power
source to an adjustable voltage, controlled direct current (DC) output which is
applied to the armature of a DC motor.
SCR's provide a controllable power output by "phase angle
control", so called because the firing angle (a point in time
where the SCR is triggered into conduction) is synchronized
with the phase rotation of the AC power source. If the device
is triggered early in half cycle, maximum power is delivered
to the motor; late triggering in the half cycle provides
minimum power, as illustrated by Figure 3. The effect is
similar to a very high speed switch, capable of being turned
on and "conducted" off at an infinite number of points within
each half cycle. This occurs at a rate of 60 times a second on
a 60 Hz line, to deliver a precise amount of power to the
motor. The efficiency of this form of power control is
extremely high since a very small amount of triggering
energy can enable the SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier) to
control a great deal of output power.
DC DRIVE TYPES
Non-regenerative DC Drives Non-regenerative DC drives are the most
conventional type in common usage. In their most basic form they are able to
control motor speed and torque in one direction only as shown by Quadrant I in
Figure 4. The addition of an electromechanical (magnetic) armature reversing
contactor or manual switch (units rated 2 HP or less) permits reversing the
controller output polarity and therefore the direction of rotation of the motor
armature as illustrated in Quadrant III. In both cases torque and rotational
direction are the same.

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Regenerative DC Drives - Regenerative adjustable speed drives, also known

as four-quadrant drives, are capable of controlling not only the speed and
direction of motor rotation, but also the direction of motor torque. This is
illustrated by Figure 4.
The term regenerative describes the ability of the drive under braking conditions
to convert the mechanical energy of the motor and connected load into electrical
energy which is returned (or regenerated) to the AC power source.
When the drive is operating in Quadrants I and III, both motor rotation and
torque are in the same direction and it functions as a conventional nonregenerative unit. The unique characteristics of a regenerative drive are
apparent only in Quadrants II and IV. In these quadrants, the motor torque
opposes the direction of motor rotation which provides a controlled braking or
retarding force. A high performance regenerative drive, is able to switch rapidly
from motoring to braking modes while simultaneously controlling the direction of
motor rotation.
A regenerative DC drive is essentially two coordinated DC drives integrated
within a common package. One drive operates in Quadrants I and IV, the other
operates in Quadrants II and III. Sophisticated electronic control circuits provide
interlocking between the two opposing drive sections for reliable control of the
direction of motor torque and/or direction of rotation.
Converter Types - The power conversion or rectified power section of a DC
drive is commonly called the converter. The individual characteristics of the
various converter types used in standard industrial applications have had a
definite influence in the design of compatible DC motors as shown in Table 2.

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TABLE 1. COMPARISON OF NON-REGENERATIVE VS. REGENERATIVE

DC DRIVE CAPABILITIES
Non-regenerative

Regenerative

Braking

No
inherent
braking
capability.
Requires
the
addition
of
a
dynamic
braking
circuit
which
dissipates
the
braking
energy as heat in a resistor.
Braking effort is exponential
with initial high torque
which reduces to zero at
zero speed. Braking circuits
are rated for stopping only,
not continuous hold back, or
as a holding brake.

Inherent electronically by
regeneration whereby the
knetic energy of the motor
and driven machine is
restored to the AC power
source. Can be regulated to
control the braking torque
down to, and at zero speed.
Typically
capable
of
contonuous braking torque
for hold back applications.

Reversing

No
inherent
reversing
capability.
Requires
the
addition
of
reversing
contacts or a switch to
reverse the polarity of DC
voltage
applied
to
the
motor. Normally rated for
occasional reversing.

An
inherent
capability.
Motor polarity is reversed
electronically
with
no
contacts to arc, burn or
wear.
Desirable
for
applications
requiring
frequent reversals.

Simplicity

The least complex and least More

complex
since
it
expensive form of electronic includes
double
the
adjustable
speed
motor nonregenerative circuitry.
control.

Efficiency

Controller efficiency up to 99%, complete drive with

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and
Speed motor 87%. Speed range up to 50:1 without a feedback
Range
tachometer, 200:1 and greater with a tachometer or
encoder.

Field Controlled DC Drives - Another characteristic of a shunt wound DC

motor is that a reduction in field voltage to less than the design rating will result
in an increase in speed for a given anmature voltage. It is important to note,
however, that this results in a higher armature current for a given motor load. A
simple method of accomplishing this
is by inserting a resistor in series
with the field voltage source. This
may be useful for trimming to an
ideal
motor
speed
for
the
application.
An
optional,
more
sophisticated method uses a variable
voltage field source as shown by
Figure 6. This provides coordinated
automatic armature and field voltage
control for extended speed range
and constant HP applications. The
motor is armature voltage controlled
for constant torque-variable HP
operation to base speed where it is transferred to field control for constant HPvariable torque operation to motor maximum speed.
OPERATING REGION OFD ARMATURE VOLTAGE CONTROL AND FIELD CURRENT
CONTROL
The speed control of dc motors is possible in two ways. they are
1.armature voltage
armature is varied

control method-in this method the voltage across the

2.field control method-in this method the current through the field is varied.

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Analog phase-locked loop

Phase-locked loop block diagram

A phase detector compares two input signals and produces an error signal which
is proportional to their phase difference. The error signal is then low-pass filtered
and used to drive a VCO which creates an output frequency. The output
frequency is fed through an optional frequency divider back to the input of the
system, producing a negative feedback loop. If the output frequency drifts, the
error signal will increase, driving the VCO frequency in the opposite direction so
as to reduce the error. Thus the output is locked to the frequency at the other
input. This input is called the reference.
Analog phase locked loops are generally built with a phase detector, low pass
filter and VCO placed in a negative feedback closed-loop configuration. There
may be a frequency divider in the feedback path or in the reference path, or
both, in order to make the PLL's output signal frequency a rational multiple of
the reference. A non integer multiple of the reference frequency can also be
created by replacing the simple divide-by-N counter in the feedback path with a
programmable pulse swallowing counter. This technique is usually referred to as
a fractional-N synthesizer or fractional-N PLL.
The oscillator generates a periodic output signal. Assume that initially the
oscillator is at nearly the same frequency as the reference signal. If the phase
from the oscillator falls behind that of the reference, the phase detector changes
the control voltage of the oscillator so that it speeds up. Likewise, if the phase
creeps ahead of the reference, the phase detector changes the control voltage to
slow down the oscillator. Since initially the oscillator may be far from the
reference frequency, practical phase detectors may also respond to frequency
differences, so as to increase the lock-in range of allowable inputs.
Depending on the application, either the output of the controlled oscillator, or
the control signal to the oscillator, provides the useful output of the PLL system.

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Phase detector
Main article: phase detector
The two inputs of the phase detector are the reference input and the feedback
from the voltage controlled oscillator (VCO). The PD output controls the VCO
such that the phase difference between the two inputs is held constant, making
it a negative feedback system. There are several types of phase detectors in the
two main categories of analog and digital.
Different types of phase detectors have different performance characteristics.
For instance, the frequency mixer produces harmonics that adds complexity in
applications where spectral purity of the VCO signal is important. The resulting
unwanted (spurious) sidebands, also called "reference spurs" can dominate the
filter requirements and reduce the capture range and lock time well below the
requirements. In these applications the more complex digital phase detectors
are used which do not have as severe a reference spur component on their
output. Also, when in lock, the steady-state phase difference at the inputs using
this type of phase detector is near 90 degrees. The actual difference is
determined by the DC loop gain.
A bang-bang charge pump phase detector must always have a dead band
where the phases of inputs are close enough that the detector detects no phase
error. For this reason, bang-bang phase detectors are associated with significant
minimum peak-to-peak jitter, because of drift within the dead band.[citation needed]
However these types, having outputs consisting of very narrow pulses at lock,
are very useful for applications requiring very low VCO spurious outputs. The
narrow pulses contain very little energy and are easy to filter out of the VCO
control voltage. This results in low VCO control line ripple and therefore low FM
sidebands on the VCO.[citation needed]
In PLL applications it is frequently required to know when the loop is out of lock.
The more complex digital phase-frequency detectors usually have an output that
allows a reliable indication of an out of lock condition.
Filter
The block commonly called a low pass filter generally has two distinct functions.
The primary function is to determine loop dynamics, also called stability. This is
how the loop responds to disturbances, such as changes in the reference

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frequency, changes of the feedback divider, or at startup. Common
considerations are the range over which the loop can achieve lock (pull-in range,
lock range or capture range), how fast the loop achieves lock (lock time, lock-up
time or settling time) and damping behavior. Depending on the application, this
may require one or more of the following: a simple proportion (gain or
attenuation), an integral (low pass filter) and/or derivative (high pass filter).
Loop parameters commonly examined for this are the loop's gain margin and
phase margin. Common concepts in control theory including the PID controller
are used to design this function.
The second common consideration is limiting the amount of reference frequency
energy (ripple) appearing at the phase detector output that is then applied to
the VCO control input. This frequency modulates the VCO and produces FM
sidebands commonly called "reference spurious". The low pass characteristic of
this block can be used to attenuate this energy, but at times a band reject
"notch" may also be needed.[citation needed]
The design of this block can be dominated by either of these considerations, or
can be a complex process juggling the interactions of the two.
Oscillator
Main article: Electronic oscillator
All phase-locked loops employ an oscillator element with variable frequency
capability. This can be an analog voltage controlled oscillator either driven by
analog circuitry in the case of an APLL or driven digitally through the use of a
digital-to-analog converter as is the case for some DPLL designs. Pure digital
oscillators such as a numerically-controlled oscillator are used in ADPLLs.
Feedback path and optional divider

An Example Digital Divider (by 4) for use in the Feedback Path of a Multiplying
PLL

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PLLs may include a divider between the oscillator and the feedback input to the
phase detector to produce a frequency synthesizer. A programmable divider is
particularly useful in radio transmitter applications, since a large number of
transmit frequencies can be produced from a single stable, accurate, but
expensive, quartz crystalcontrolled reference oscillator.
Some PLLs also include a divider between the reference clock and the reference
input to the phase detector. If the divider in the feedback path divides by N and
the reference input divider divides by M, it allows the PLL to multiply the
reference frequency by N / M. It might seem simpler to just feed the PLL a lower
frequency, but in some cases the reference frequency may be constrained by
other issues, and then the reference divider is useful.
Frequency multiplication in a sense can also be attained by locking the PLL to the
'N'th harmonic of the signal.[clarification needed]
It should also be noted that the feedback is not limited to a frequency divider.
This element can be other elements such as a frequency multiplier, or a mixer.
The multiplier will make the VCO output a sub-multiple (rather than a multiple)
of the reference frequency. A mixer can translate the VCO frequency by a fixed
offset. It may also be a combination of these. An example being a divider
following a mixer; this allows the divider to operate at a much lower frequency
than the VCO without a loss in loop gai

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