Welding of austenitic stainless steels for

cryogenic LNG applications

Low Temperature Behaviour of Austenitic Weldments
Norbert Friedrich, Application Technology, Bhler Welding Austria GmbH, Austria
Gerhard Posch, Head of
Research & Development, Bhler Welding Austria GmbH, Austria
Josef Tsch, Research & Development, Bhler Welding Austria GmbH, Austria
Johann Ziegerhofer, Research & Development, Bhler Welding Austria GmbH, Austria
Walter Berger, Managing Director, Bhler Welding Austria GmbH, Austria
Keywords: LNG, High alloyed weldments; controlled ferrite content, cryogenic app
lication
Abstract:
Austenitic stainless steels of type AISI 304/304L and AISI 316/316L ar
e commonly used
for the storage and distribution of liquefied natural gas (LNG). The steels have
to operate
at very low temperatures, which is the reason why high requirements regarding to
ughness
and lateral expansion at -196C are demanded. From the metallurgical point of vie
w, low
amounts of delta ferrite in the weld metal are necessary to achieve the requirem
ents. This
paper deals with typical values for delta ferrite content and mechanic
al properties which
can be achieved with special designed filler metals for GTAW, SMAW an
d FCAW.
Emphasis is also given to the hot cracking susceptibility, which increases drama
tically with
very low delta ferrite contents.

1 Introduction
The demand for oil and gas is increasing steadily and forecasts (Figu
re 1) promote for
example a gas consumption in 2020 which is about three times higher compared to
1980.
To secure the supply with oil and gas new production plants, transpor
t and storage
systems have to be installed within the next decade and many plates and tubes of
various
materials have to be fitted together to establish the necessary tank
and tubing systems.
Welding plays thereby an important role.
Figure 1: World oil and gas demand (forecast) [1]

Form the materials point of view, the handling of gas is a very interesting topi
c. Due to the
high volume of gas, storage and transportation should be done with liquefied gas
, because
in this case the volume of the liquid is approx. 1/620 of the equiv
alent gas. The main
disadvantage thereby is, that gas is liquid only at very deep temperatures and the
used
materials have to exhibit strong toughness requirements at very low temperatures
.
In Figure 2 typical materials which fulfil the requirements for handling liquefi
ed natural gas
(LNG) are shown.
Application Type Alloy
Spherical or prismatic storage tanks for
ship transportation of LNG.
Tubing for the main cryogenic heat
exchanger.
Forgings such as flanges.
Aluminium alloy 5083 (Al-4.5 % Mg)
Alloy 5154 (Al - 3,5% Mg)
Alloy 6000 (Al - Si)
Al
Sometimes for large storage tank
construction.
Piping in critical applications.
Low expansion 36 % Ni-Fe alloy 36NiFe
Piping; Small vessels.
Sometimes for large storage tanks
Stainless steel type AISI 304 L 304 L
Storage tanks
9 % Ni Steel 9 Ni
Application Type Alloy
Spherical or prismatic storage tanks for
ship transportation of LNG.
Tubing for the main cryogenic heat
exchanger.
Forgings such as flanges.
Aluminium alloy 5083 (Al-4.5 % Mg)
Alloy 5154 (Al - 3,5% Mg)
Alloy 6000 (Al - Si)
Al
Sometimes for large storage tank
construction.
Piping in critical applications.
Low expansion 36 % Ni-Fe alloy 36NiFe
Piping; Small vessels.
Sometimes for large storage tanks
Stainless steel type AISI 304 L 304 L
Storage tanks
9 % Ni Steel 9 Ni
Figure 2: Typical applications of established base materials used for LNG [2]
The austenitic grades, especially the austenitic weldments are the focu
s of this paper. It
has to be mentioned that beside grade AISI 304L also type AISI 316L wil
l be used more

often in future. For joining these grades filler metal type 308L and 316L are us
ed.
The liquefaction temperature of Methane is -163C ( -261F) and this fact
determines the
operating temperature of the LNG plant. The test temperature for mecha
nical properties
has been set to -196C (-320F) due to safety reaso ns but also of the easy reproduc
ibility
of this test condition.
Before setting up the requirements for LNG weldments the general mechanical prop
erties
of the austenitic steel and the main influences on the achieved test
data have to be
discussed.
2 Strength properties austenitic steels for LNG
application
Strength design is primarily done using room temperature properties. Th
e all weld metal
properties at room temperature are quite similar independent of the ap
plied welding
process (Figure 3).
ER308L
E308LT1-4
E308LT1-1
E308LT0-4
E308LT0-1
EC308L
E308L-17
E308L-15
ER308L Si
ER308L
AWS
40 570 390
FCAW EAS 2 PW-FD
35
40
40
40
42
38
39
A5
[%]
560 380
FCAW EAS 2-FD
EAS 2-UP//BB 202
EAS 2-MC
FOX EAS 2-A
FOX EAS 2
EAS 2 IG (Si)
EAS 2 -IG
Bhler Brand
630 420
GMAW
SAW
GMAW

SMAW
SMAW
GTAW
Process
610 430
540 350
550 350
560 390
580 400
R
m
[N/mm]
Rp
0,2
[N/mm]
ER308L
E308LT1-4
E308LT1-1
E308LT0-4
E308LT0-1
EC308L
E308L-17
E308L-15
ER308L Si
ER308L
AWS
40 570 390
FCAW EAS 2 PW-FD
35
40
40
40
42
38
39
A5
[%]
560 380
FCAW EAS 2-FD
EAS 2-UP//BB 202
EAS 2-MC
FOX EAS 2-A
FOX EAS 2
EAS 2 IG (Si)
EAS 2 -IG
Bhler Brand
630 420
GMAW
SAW
GMAW
SMAW
SMAW
GTAW
Process
610 430
540 350
550 350
560 390
580 400
R

m
[N/mm]
Rp
0,2
[N/mm]
Figure 3: Mechanical properties of consumables type 308L for various welding pro
cesses
The mechanical properties are also hardly influenced by variation of t
he delta ferrite
content and the electrode diameter as shown in Figure 4 using for example an ele
ctrode
of type E 308L-15.
6,4 7,6 550 401 3,2 E308L-15
6,9 7,8 551 400 5,0 E308L-15
6,3 7,5 547 395 4,0 E308L-15
9,5 10,3 603 421 2,5 E308L-15
R
m
[N/mm]
Rp
0,2
[N/mm]

[mm]
Electrode
type
Ferrite *
[FN]
6,4 7,6 550 401 3,2 E308L-15
6,9 7,8 551 400 5,0 E308L-15
6,3 7,5 547 395 4,0 E308L-15
9,5 10,3 603 421 2,5 E308L-15
R
m
[N/mm]
Rp
0,2
[N/mm]

[mm]
Electrode
type
Ferrite *
[FN]
*FERITSCOPE MP 30
Figure 4: Mechanical properties all weld metal BHLER FOX EAS 2 (AWS E308L-15)
It is very well known that decreasing temperatures increase the strength of the
austenitic
steel.
Figure 5 shows some strain/stress curves for the base material at var
ious temperatures
and points out the strong effect of the temperature on the strength.

Figure 5: Tensile test specimen stress vs. strain curves of SS grade AISI 304
3 Toughness properties of austenitic steels for
LNG application
As it clearly can bee seen in Figure 5 at lower temperature the elo
ngation, but also the
toughness of the austenitic steel decreases. To establish safe LNG con
structions it is
necessary to set strong toughness requirements at operating temperatures. Theref
ore the
lateral expansion and the impact energy are very useful material prope
rty data for
describing low temperature toughness behaviour of the metal.
3.1 Lateral expansion and impact energy
By comparing lateral expansion and impact energy a correlation also at
very low
temperatures can be seen (Figure 6). This correlation is influenced by
the welding
process, type of welding consumable and slag system.
0,4
0,6
0,8
1
1,2
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
l
a
t
.
e
x
p
a
n
s
i
o
n
[
m
m
]
3,2/350 mm
Impact energy [Joule]
Figure 6: Relation between lateral expansion and impact energy at -196C; consumab
le:
BHLER FOX EAS 2 (E 308 L-15)
3.2 Toughness and delta ferrite content
A very important correlation can also be found between impact energy

and delta ferrite

content of the weld metal. At higher ferrite levels the impact toughness is sign
ificant lower
compared to lower ferrite levels. As an example Figure 7 shows this influence de
pending
on the diameter of a stick electrode of type E308L-15 under quite ex
treme welding
conditions.
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Ferrite content [FN]
I
m
p
a
c
t
v
a
l
u
e
s
A
v
[
J
]
,
I
S
O
V
4,0
3,2
2,5
Pos. PF (3G)
Heat input > 2,75 kJ/mm
2,5
45
13
304 L
1.4306
4,0
3,2
20
30
40
50
60
70

80
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Ferrite content [FN]
I
m
p
a
c
t
v
a
l
u
e
s
A
v
[
J
]
,
I
S
O
V
4,0
3,2
2,5
Pos. PF (3G)
Heat input > 2,75 kJ/mm
Pos. PF (3G)
Heat input > 2,75 kJ/mm
2,5
45
13
304 L
1.4306
4,0
3,2
Figure 7: BHLER FOX EAS 2 (E308L-15); Ferrite content versus impact properties
at 196C; joint welded with very high heat input i n 3G (PF)
The beneficial effect of a lower ferrite content on the deep temperat
ure toughness
described in Figure 7 also remains at higher temperatures (Figure 8).
In this diagram the temperature dependence of the impact toughness can be seen.
Taking
the relation between impact energy and lateral expansion as described
earlier into
account, same considerations are also valid for the lateral expansion.
I
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p
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[
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p
a
c
t
e
n
e
r
g
y
,
I
S
O
V
[
J
o
u
l
e
]
Testing Temperature [C]
L
a
t
e
r

a
l
E
x
p
a
n
s
i
o
n
[
m
m
]
2,4
120
100
1,6 80
1,2 60
0,8 40
0,4 20
+20 +20 -120 -120 -196 -196
2,32
140
All weld metal
1,10
1,32
1,06
1,06
0,68
66
54
50
87
79
74
Heat input ~ 1,1 - 1,25 kJ/mm
0,70
2,0
Ferrite acc.
FERITSCOPE MP 30
9,1 - 11,7 FN
7,1 - 9,2 FN
4,3 - 6,3 FN
Ferrite acc.
FERITSCOPE MP 30
9,1 - 11,7 FN
7,1 - 9,2 FN
4,3 - 6,3 FN
Specimen acc.AWS A5.4
(Testing acc. ASTM E23)
140
Figure 8: BHLER FOX EAS 2 (E308L-15): Influence of the ferrite content on the im
pact
properties down to -196C

As it is clearly shown, the delta ferrite content has a major influe

nce on the deep
temperature toughness of the austenitic weld metal and the relation is
quite strong: The
lower the delta ferrite content the higher toughness properties like i
mpact energy and
lateral expansion [3]. From this point of view, the ferrite level sho
uld be kept as low as
possible to guarantee high toughness values at -196C.
On the other hand, a minimum delta ferrite is required to prevent hot cracking a
t all. As a
minimum level therefore 3FN has been committed for SMAW, GMAW, SAW and GTAW to
guarantee crack-free joints also in case of welding procedures with hi
gh heat inputs. At
ferrite levels below 3FN the hot cracking susceptibility is increased
drastically, as
numerous results of PVR-tests have shown (Figure 9).
E
l
o
n
g
a
t
i
o
n
r
a
t
e
[
m
m
/
m
i
n
]
+ Primary
Vol. % (Frster 1.053)
FN
max. elon ation rate
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
1
1,8

2
3,0
3
4,1
4
5,4
5
6,6
6
7,8
crystallization
Fi ure 9: Ferrite content vs. hot crackin susceptibility (PVR
test) [4]
Goin to the lower metallur ical limits of the elta ferrite content it is neces
sary to consier
all aitional effects which can lea to a wel metal which is below
the lower limit,
inepenent of the chemical composition of the consumable. The most im
portant points
thereby are the etermination of the ferrite content an the arc, esp
ecially the arc len th
on the chemical composition of the wel metal.
3.2.1. Measure vs. calculate FN values
Dealin with electroes which are esi ne for lowest safe FN
levels the iscuss
ion may
rise if measure or base on the chemical composition calculate FN v
alues are
manatory. As the elta ferrite content in the wel metal is a very oo inicat
ion for the
soliification moe of the liqui wel metal (ferritic or austentic) the actual,
the measure
ferrite value is therefore characteristic. Investi ations have shown, th
at there are
ifferences between the measure an calculate values [5] but there are also i
fferences
between results of ifferent labs [6]. This fact shoul be consiere
by settin up the
requirements for LNG projects with specifie ferrite contents.
3.2.2. Influence of arc len th on elta ferrite content
The metallur ical esi n oal for LNG consumables is to secure very low ferrite
contents
in the wel metal to
et satisfyin tou hness values but also to ua
rantee sufficient hot
crackin
resistance. By reachin lowest, controlle ferrite levels in t
he wel metal the
influence of the weler must also be taken into account. The arc len
th is stron ly
influence by the weler.
F
e
r
r
i
t
e

c
o
n
t
e
n
t
a
c
c
.
F

r
s
t
e
r
1
.
0
5
3
[
F
N
]
short arc (~ 3 mm)
135 A / 26 V
lon arc (~ 8 mm)
135 A / 35 V
F
e
r
r
i
t
e
c
o
n
t
e
n
t
a
c
c
.
F

r
s
t

e
r
1
.
0
5
3
[
F
N
]
short arc (~ 3 mm)
135 A / 26 V
lon arc (~ 8 mm)
135 A / 35 V
Fi ure 10: E308L
17: Influence of arc len th on ferrite content; PVR test specim
en [4]
Welin with a very lon arc increases the nitro en pick up an burn off rates o
f alloyin
elements which is responsible for a reuction of the ferrite content
in the wel metal. In
Fi ure 10 this effect is shown usin a laboratory stick electroe of type E 308L

17 with a
nominal ferrite content in the wel metal of 3FN. Increasin the arc
len th from 3mm to
8mm the ferrite level ecreases from 3FN to about 1FN [4]. In case of the very l
ow ferrite
wel metal cracks at the PVR test specimen are visible. But it has
to be mentione that
basic electroes are much more safety re arin this phenomena.
3.3 All wel metal vs. 304L
base metal joints
As earlier mentione, for welin of the base metal of type 304L a
filler of type 308L is
use an the tou hness values of the all wel metal are not equal to values from
the joint.
Comparin Fi ure 8 an Fi ure 11 this influence is shown by welments
with a stick
electroe of type E308L
15.
I
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p
a
c
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r
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,
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V
[
J
o
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l
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]
I
m
p
a
c
t
e
n
e
r
y
,
I
S
O


V
[
J
o
u
l
e
]
Testin temperature [C]
L
a
t
e
r
a
l
e
x
p
a
n
s
i

o
n
[
m
m
]
2,4 120
100
1,6 80
1,2
60
0,8
40
0,4
20
+20 +20
120
120
196
196
1,99
0,88
0,65
0,71
47
39
112
56
48
0,53
2,0
Ferrite acc. Frster 1.053
7,8
10,2 FN
5,0
6,1 FN
Ferrite acc. Frster 1.053
7,8
10,2 FN
5,0
6,1 FN
Thickness: 13 mm
Welin position: 1G/PA
Base metal: 1.4301 (AISI 304L)
Fi ure 11: BHLER FOX EAS 2 (E308L
15): Impact ener y versus ferrite content in
V
joint wels
It can be seen, that at
196C for the low ferrite type the lateral expansion ro
ps from 1,06
mm in the all wel metal own to 0,71 mm in the joint; similar the charpy impact
ener y:
from 66J to 47J. This tenency is also vali for the hi her ferrite raes.
3.4 Welin position
I
m
p
a
c
t
e
n
e
r

y
,
I
S
O


V
[
J
o
u
l
e
]
Test temperature [C]
L
a
t
e
r
a
l
e
x
p
a
n
s
i
o
n
[
m
m
]
2,4 120
100
1,6 80
1,2
60
0,8
40
0,4
20
+20 +20
120
120
196
196
2,14
1,20
0,85
0,71
43
41
111
62

54
0,59
2,0
Ferrite acc. FERITSCOPE
3,2
4,3 FN (1G)
3,3
4,8 FN (3G)
1,68
93
Thickness: 15 mm
Welin position: 1G/3G
3G
1G
Base metal: 1.4301 (AISI 304L)
I
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V
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y
,
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V
[
J
o
u
l
e
]
Test temperature [C]
L
a
t
e
r
a
l
e
x
p
a
n
s
i
o
n
[
m
m
]
2,4 120
100
1,6 80
1,2
60
0,8
40
0,4
20
+20 +20
120
2,14
1,20
0,85
0,71
43
41
111
62
54
0,59
2,0
Ferrite acc.
3,2
4,3 FN
3,3
4,8 FN
Ferrite acc.
3,2
4,3 FN
3,3
4,8 FN

120
196
196

FERITSCOPE
(1G)
(3G)
FERITSCOPE
(1G)
(3G)

1,68
93
Thickness: 15 mm
Welin position: 1G/3G
Thickness: 15 mm
Welin position: 1G/3G
3G
1G
Base metal: 1.4301 (AISI 304L)
Fi ure 12: BHLER EAS2 PW
FD (LF) (E308LT1
4):
Impact ener y in various welin positions: 1G/PA an 3G/PF
In Fi ure 12 the influence of the welin position on the tou hness
properties is shown.
Its not etrimental by comparin the charpy values, more si nificant e
viations are
measure in case of the lateral expansion.
3.5 Influence of shrinka e on impact ener y
A very etrimental influence was observe cause by internal stresses.
If these stresses
are reuce by plastic eformation (visible as shrinka e), it was not
possible to improve
the tou hness by usin an optimise bea sequence with small beas. An example as
it
can be seen in the GTAW samples (Fi ure 13).
low shrinka e 74 6 (9)
hi h shrinka e 53 6 (9)
hi h shrinka e 54 8 (13)
Remarks Impact ener y
ISO
V [Joule]
avera e
Layers
(Beas)
Bea
sequence
low shrinka e 74 6 (9)
hi h shrinka e 53 6 (9)
hi h shrinka e 54 8 (13)
Remarks Impact ener y
ISO
V [Joule]
avera e
Layers
(Beas)
Bea
sequence
Base metal: AISI 304L; Welin position: 1G/PA; Thickness: 15 mm (Gap: 3 mm)
Fi ure 13: GTAW with BHLER EAS 2
IG; impact ener y of joint wels at
196C
3.6 Test specimen preparation
Besie the above mentione aspects a further point has to be taken i
nto account when
iscussin eep temperature tou hness properties: the preparation of the test sp

ecimens.
Investi ations have shown, that the achieve impact tests results at very low te
mperatures
are stron ly influence how the notch into the test specimen was mae. The sharp
er the
cutter use for preparin the notch the hi her the impact values (Fi
ure 14). With
increasin wear of the cutter the plastic eformation at the roun of the notch
increases
an the measure Charpy impact value ecreases.
10
20
30
40
50
60
U
s
e

Hi h spee steel cutter
Type HSS
E (SCHNADT)
Carbie millin cutter
Type CK20 (SCHNADT)
N
e
w
I
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p
a
c
t
e
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r
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A
v
[
J
o
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]
,
I
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V
55

48
40
32
52
48
N
e
w
Specimen from V
Joint
AISI304; th. = 12 mm; 1G
49
44
U
s
e

Fi ure 14: Influence of new an use cutters for preparin the notch on charpy t
est
specimen on tou hness values at
196C
4 Settin up requirements for LNG stainless
steels welments
To achieve an optimum between eep temperature tou hness an hot crack
in
susceptibility, a narrow winow for the ran e of elta ferrite for the
wel metal has to be
efine as shown in Fi ure 15 vali for BHLER FOX EAS 2 (E308L
15).
80
60
40
20
3 6 12
27 J
4
12 FN*
Deltaferrite [FN]
I
n
p
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[
J
o
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]

I
S
O

V
Risk for
hot
crackin
9
Best ran e in
wele joints
3
8 FN
*Acc. to IIW;
All wel metal;
General applications
1 2
Fi ure 15: BHLER FOX EAS 2 (E308L
15); Ferrite content versus impact ener y at

196
Besie this metallur ical orientate requirement re arin the elta ferri
te content
various esi n coes efine minimum values for tou hness to secure safe construc
tions.
4.1 Requirements for austenitic LNG welments
There are 2 main esi n coes available an they escribe the tou hness requirem
ents in
etail: ASME Coe [7] focuses on lateral expansion an set the minimu
m esi n limit to
0,38mm. The comparable European Coe, TV [8], favours the charpy impact
ener y.
The minimum allowable value has to be 32J. Depenin on the use esi
n coe the
lateral expansion or the charpy impacts values are the characteristic material p
roperty ata
for selection of the filler metal.
Besie these major esi n coes various customer
relate requirements ar
e existin .
They are often a mix of these two coes an can be extene with s
ome further
requirements re arin elta ferrite content an/or minimum heat input.
To fulfil these requirements special low ferrite electroes for use in
LNG plants were
evelope. Fi ure 16 ives a small overview an points out the essent
ial selection
criterions as FN (measure), lateral expansion an charpy tou hness at
196C.
3
6
5
7
3
6
4
8
8
11
FN
40 0,60
FCAW E316LT1
4
E316LT1
1

EAS 4 PW
FD (LF)

67 0,60 SMAW E316L
15 FOX EAS 4 M (LF)
45 0,75
FCAW E308LT1
4
E308LT1
1
EAS 2 PW
FD (LF)
1,06
1,17
Lateral expansion
[mm]

196C
FOX EAS 2
EAS 2
IG
Bhler Bran
SMAW
GTAW
Process
112
ER308L
66
ISO
V
[J]

196C
E308L
15
AWS
3
6
5
7
3
6
4
8
8
11
FN
40 0,60
FCAW E316LT1
4
E316LT1
1
EAS 4 PW
FD (LF)
67 0,60 SMAW E316L
15 FOX EAS 4 M (LF)
45 0,75
FCAW E308LT1
4
E308LT1
1
EAS 2 PW
FD (LF)
1,06
1,17
Lateral expansion
[mm]

196C
FOX EAS 2
EAS 2
IG
Bhler Bran
SMAW
GTAW
Process
112
ER308L
66
ISO
V
[J]

196C
E308L
15
AWS

Fi ure 16: Special esi ne, mostly low
ferrite filler metals for LNG applicatio
ns with
typical values
5 Conclusion
As it can be shown, the elta ferrite content of the austenitic wel
metal has a hu e
influence on the tou hness properties of especially at low temperatures
. The lower the
ferrite content the hi her the tou hness of the wel metal. But the
reuction of the elta
ferrite has its limits: a minimum ferrite level is necessary to prevent hot crac
kin .
Dealin with LNG applications of austenitic steels an welments it is necessary
to control
the ferrite content by the chemical composition an the welin parame
ters to fin an
optimum between hi h tou hness properties an hot crackin resistance.
To evelop
safe filler metals also the influence of hi her heat inputs, plastic eformation,
but also the
arc len th on the impact values has to taken into account.

6 References
[1] Information from OMV; 2005
[2] L. Smith: Properties of metallic materials for LNG services; Stainless Stell
Worl,
Oct. 2001
[3] G. Holloway, Z. Zhan , A. Marshall: Stainless Steel Arc Welin Consumables
for
Cryo enic Applications; Stainless Steel Worl 2004; KCI Publishin BV
[4] E. Folkhar
Verla , Wien,
1988

et al: Welin

Metallur y of Stainless Steels, Sprin er

[5] J. Tsch, G. Posch, J. Zie erhofer: Ferrite contents in stainless s

teel FCAW

wels; IIW
oc. II
C 289
04
[6] J. C. M. Farrar: The Measurement of Ferrite Number (FN) in Real Welments;
IIW
Doc. II 1531
04
[7]

Internat. Pipin coe ASME B31.3.

[8]
80

VTV Information Sheet Guielines on suitability of welin filler metals; 19