Chapter 8 - Foreign Policy, 1814-41

How successful was Castlereagh in securing an effective peace at Vienna,

and from 1814 to 1822?
The Vienna Settlement, 1814-5
France defeated after
-

Napoleons failure in Russia 1812

Wellingtons victories in Spain and Portugal

Creation of Fourth Coalition 1813

Threat of Napoleon then ended after

-

Napoleon abdicated 1814

Bourbon monarchy restored

The Hundred Days 1815

French defeat at Waterloo

Great powers feared a repeat of French domination of Europe - created a balance

of power. Castlereagh, wanted a settlement that would satisfy each mainland
power, to keep peace in future and so Britain could remain free from European
commitments.
Vienna settlement evolved over more than a year. Consisted of 3 agreements 181415
1. Treaty of Paris (30th May 1814) peace treaty with France after Napoleons
abdication
2. Final Act of the Congress of Vienna (October 1814-June 1815) contained most of
post-war settlement
3. Second Treaty of Paris (20th November 1815) made peace terms with France
slightly harsher after Napoleons Hundred Days
Terms of the post war settlement
-

Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia all expected to strengthen their own
position by acquiring land in Europe of Frances previous colonies

satisfied all the great powers

Castlereagh
-

wanted Belgium to be independent to protect British coastline and

guarantee access to European markets

Spain and Portugal free from French influence

Italy should be an area of Austrian influence and Prussia expanded, this will
allow Austria and Prussia to guard against future Russian expansion

Centre of Europe bolstered against aggression in East from Russia and France in
West by strengthening position of of Austria in Germany and Italy
Austria gained Venetia and Dalmatia, and kept northern Italian state of Lombardy
as well as lands in Germany and in Galicia.
Russia only gained territory in northern Europe
Prussia most successful, doubled population, gained lots of land.
Britain
-

gained Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon and Mauritius, these were strategic and
commercial importance in relation to India

gained territories that provided Britain with a base in the Mediterranean to

guard against advance of Russia

reinforced Britains commercial control over the Caribbean, gained St Lucia

and Tobago from France

Other terms of the agreement

-

France not treated too harshly

Castlereagh eager to encourage liberal economic ideas in Europe

Britain pressed for abolition of the slave trade

Monarchies resorted in Spain and Naples

Kingdom of the Netherlands created by uniting Holland and Belgium

The congress system

Main aim of great powers was to ensure political stability in Europe - congress
system set up to enable them to meet and resolve problems when necessary
Article VI (drawn up by Castlereagh) - purposefully vague term that allowed allies
to keep together for as long as possible however a more specific commitment
would have been overruled by his cabinet colleagues, who were opposed to further
involvement in Europe
Congress met in different places and at irregular intervals. There was no
permanent staff to support congress.
The first congress was called to deal with outstanding problems arising from the
allies treatment of France - discussed the revolutions breaking out across Europe
between 1820 and 1822

Holy and Quadruple Alliances

By end of 1815, 2 further alliances had been signed: the Holy Alliance of Austria,
Russia and Prussia in Sept and the quadruple Alliance of Britain, Russia, Austria and
Prussia in Nov
- Holy Alliance was Tsar Alexander Is idea. He wanted to establish an alliance
of Christian Kings who would work together to maintain order, peace and
friendly relations between states of Europe. Britain didnt sign this alliance
because it was unnecessary and vague
- Quadruple Alliance was largely concerned with the future running of Europe.
Its aims were more specific than Holy Alliance
- Quadruple alliance against France was to be preserved for 20 years, an army
of occupation was to remain in France for between 3 and 5 years and
napoleon was never to be allowed to return to France
Britain and the four congresses
-

At first congress, France was brought back as one of the great powers in
Quadruple Alliance to balance growing power of Russia
Tsar Alexander wanted Alliance to guarantee existing rulers their thrones
and he also argued for regular congresses to be held to direct the use of
troops to restore deposed leaders. But Castlereagh opposed proposal as he
didnt agree with intervention by the great powers.
Second congress was called because the rebellions in Spain, Naples and
Portugal threatened rulers there. Its main concern was to maintain the
balance of power in Europe
Castlereagh was prepared to support change in balance of power as long as
it didnt threaten the overall peace of the continent
Russia, Prussia and Austria took opposite view and signed the Troppau
Protocol
The state paper of May 1820 is a fundamental statement in British foreign
policy in which Castlereagh set out his understanding of the nature of the
Quadruple Alliance and rejected the right of the powers of Europe to
interfere in the internal affairs of their neighbours

He was determined to prevent great power intervention in Spain for 2 reasons:

1. British public opinion overwhelmingly supported the revolt,
2. Spain was neutral buffer state on important trade routes.
-

Congress reassembled at Laibach in January 1821

Outbreak of a revolt in Wallachia and Moldavia was followed by the Greek
revolt which united Britain and Austria as both countries were anxious that
the Russians shouldnt profit from situation by expanding at the expense of
Turkey
Little was settled at Laibach and new congress was arranged to meet at
Verona in 1822.
Castlereagh died and Canning was his successor
Verona congress made it increasingly clear that the interests of great
powers had diverged

Verona was last formal gathering of great power Castlereaghs policies

between 1814 and 1822 were based on his belief in a balance of power
between the great European powers as a way of securing Britains defense

How effectively did canning secure British Interests between 1822 and
1830?
-

Canning joined cabinet in 1816

He gained a reputation for liberalism and nationalism
He sought to regain the freedom of action that would allow Britain to pursue
its proper interests: security, trade and support for liberal causes

Canning and the Americans:

- In Spanish America, demands for change had led to revolution
- Britain feared that the European great powers would intervene and this
posed a problem for its important economic interests in both North and
South America
- Canning had no choice but to be cautious for 2 reasons: 1) he was opposed
by the King and Wellington 2) he recognised that the US was suspicious of
British motives in South America
- In Dec 1823, president Monroe issues his famous Munroe Doctrine in which
he banned all European countries from assisting Spain in its struggle against
the rebels
- Munroe Doctrine maintained that the new World was the USs sphere of
interest
- Canning supported the rebel colonies for 2 reasons: 1) he was motivated by
Britains economic interests, 2) it proved popular with his supporters inside
and outside of parliament
- This helped to reinforce his political credibility as a supporter of liberal
political movements. In reality however support was given to movements for
political reform when it was in Britains interest to do so and denied when it
was not

Canning and Portugal

-

1823- 1829: revolutionaries struggling for power in Portugal.

1824 Canning wanted to maintain Britains special relationship with Portugal;

-

Sent over the British fleet to support King Juan VI.

Arranged peaceful separation of brazil from Portuguese rule

This opened Brazilian markets to British trade (though not relevant to struggle in
Portugal)
1826: Juan died 8 year old Donna Maria became queen (crowned in 1834)
because her father renounced the thrown so he could remain as the emperor of
Brazil. Her uncle, Miguel, then tried to claim the throne, supported by Spain;
Britain sent 5000 troops to Lisbon and threaten war on Spain.
As a result -

Marias succession was secured

The 1826 liberal constitution was accepted by the Portuguese parliament

British naval power was significant at the time, and allowed British influence in
Portugal to continue, as the navy was present in Lisbon.
Canning and Greece
The conservative alliance ( Russia, Austria and Prussia) meant Britain was isolated
in Europe, so disagreements between Russia and Austria over the Greek revolt
against the Turks in 1821 meant Britain could take a lead role in establishing an
independent Greece.
Russia wanted to expand influence into Ottoman Empire & Mediterranean, and
become a naval power in these areas.
It was in British interest to prevent this; securing the Ottoman Empire would allow
a further market for trade.
Greek revolt had mixed responses in Britain; Canning thought preserving Ottoman
Empire would be best way to ensure Mediterranean stability
However
25,000 Christians were massacred by Turks on the island of Chios and 47,000 were
sold to slavery in 1822.This outraged the British public, who were influenced by
the 1,000 people who went to Greece to support the rebellion, including Lord
Byron the poet. The ruling class in Britain were educated on the literature and
culture of classic Greece so had sympathy for them.
Greek crisis threatened British trade and European stability, as British banks had
invested in turkey = potential loses

Canning required a solution that preserved Ottoman Empire and satisfied Greece
independence demands
Russia was sympathetic to Greek independence as it would allow for the erosion of
the Ottoman Empires boundaries. However, this support destroyed the
conservative alliance.
March 1823: Canning recognised Greece as a lawful country fighting a lawful war,
so Tsar Alexander tried to persuade British to agree to joint intervention. By 1824,
Alexander abandoned this plan, as no countries agreed to it.
July 1825: Greece experienced ottoman military victories, so appeal to Britain for
protection and mediation.
Canning intended to use negotiation to resolve the issues, as it was important that
Russia and Turkey didnt go to war over Greece, as it would allow the possibility of
Russian territorial expansion.
St Petersburg Protocol of April 1826 was created with Nicholas the First, Tsar
Alexanders successor, which concluded Greece should become an autonomous
state under the sovereignty of the sultan of turkey.
Austria and Prussia refused to accept, but was still formalised in the treaty of
London in 1827Turks, strengthened by victories, refused to accept the protocol, so
British French and Russia ships were sent to the eastern Mediterranean.
20th October 1827:
-

Turkish

and Egyptian fleet beaten in two hours at battle of Navarino.

Outbreak of war, between Russia and turkey, followed in April 1828.

Policy of mediation pursued since 1826 came to an end when this war broke out,
but canning died before the break down of his foreign policy could be seen.
Wellington:
-

Foreign policy drifted

Domestic issued dominated parliament

Russia made small territorial gains from its war with Turkey, that ended with
the treaty of Adrianople in September 1829

Greece achieved independence from turkey in 1830

Conclusion
Canning was a successful foreign secretary, due in part to his effective selfpublicity, unlike Castlereagh.
But, both had similar aims;
1. Security

2. Trade
3. Liberal cause
Castlereagh = negociation and cooperation
Canning = more abrasive and competitive, only seeking help wen desperate.
Cannings achievements were more limited than he though, as in American his
policy had little concrete success, and his attempts to restore Greek stability
broke down after his death. Portugal alone was an overall success.

How effectively did Palmerston secure British interests between 1830

and 1841?
-

More prepared to intervene abroad to protect British interests than Canning

Believed Britain stood for constitutional rights in other countries too

(extension of liberty and civilisation)

1830s:
-

July revolution (1830) seen as a limited political revolution brought upon

himself by king bourbon by not recognising need for reform

Louis-Phillippes government not aggressive best way of maintaining

stability was to recognising it

Revolution had spread to Belgium ( riots in august)

Belgian problem
Vienna 1815 decision united Holland and Belgium under the Dutch house of orange,
to act as a barrier against French expansion
Two countries had;
-

Complementary economies

Religious and linguistic differences

Was a difficult union as Belgians felt represented and called for independence.
Early 1830;
-

Wellington established conference in London to discuss the problems in

Belgium

William I of Holland accepted independence in January 1831

Belgium drew up new constitution

Elected new king, duke Nemours. ( Son of louis-Phillippe)

Knowing this wouldnt be acceptable to other powers, L-P vetoed it

Leopold of Saxe-Coburg became king

Dutch invaded Belgium in august 1831, as they didnt accept new king

Leopold asked for British and French aid;

o British fleet blockaded the coast
o French army forced Dutch to withdraw

Decided Belgium would become independent, and its neutrality would be

secured

Belgium accepted this but Dutch didnt, William still held Antwerp and
refused to withdraw until France forced him to leave by intervening in 1832

Palmerston accepted French intervention, but struggled to get

parliamentary and royal support, as it contradicted the containment of
France agreed earlier

1833- New armistice agreed between Belgium and Holland, but final settlement
delayed till treaty of London, 1839.

The Iberian Peninsula

- Palmerstons rep was improved with his handling of problems in Portugal and
Spain.
- British support for Maria had almost collapsed with Cannings death, by Nov
1830 Miguel was in control of almost the whole country Maria supporters
were Terceira in Azores.
- Palmerston believed that Britain needed the liberal Maria on the throne
rather than Miguel who was an absolutist.
- 1831 France sent a fleet to Lisbon to put pressure on Miguel Palmerston
gave his approval to this but came under opposition from Tories.
- British opinion support Maria pleased when Pedro (king in Brazil) abdicated
to come the assistances of Palmerston daughter.
- July 1833, Napier defeated Miguels fleet of Cape St Vincent and took
possession of Lisbon thus securing Marias throne. Crowned the following
year
- Spain also divided between liberal and absolutists in 1830s.
- Sept 1833 King Ferdinand VII died, his succession was disputed. Daughter
Isabella and her mother Christina (proclaimed regent) argued with his
younger brother Carlos who argued the Salic Law forbade the accession of
women to the throne
- Carlos had support of conservatives and catholic church Isabella supported
by liberals
- Palmerston more concerned about attitude of Russia, Prussia and Austria.
Theyd signed an agreement at Munchengratz in Sept 1833 pledging an

uphold to conservative cause. 1 effect of this = provided finical support to

Carlos.
April 1834, P reacts with Quadruple Treaty between Britain, France and
queens of Portugal and Spain idea of balancing power blocs
Conflict between Christiana and Carlos continued until late 1839 when
Carlos was defeated.

The Eastern Question

- Palmerston took a decisive stand on the Eastern Question, considerable
influence on events
- Hoped that Turks would leave Europe but knew that would benefit Russia. As
a result adopted a policy of support for the Ottoman Empire which in late
1830s was under attack from rebellious pasha of Egypt, Mehemet Ali ruler
since 1805.
- Mehemet Ali aided Turkey against Greece in 1820s
- In return the sultan had promised him Syria and Crete.
1831 Mehemet Ali invaded Syria and year after defeated Turkish Army
- The sultan of Turkey appealed to Britain for assistance to try and limit
Mehemet Alis advance.
- Palmerston would be willing to provide aid but cabinet over ruled him.
- Sultan turned to Russia, as Russian naval squadron entered the Bosphorus
Mehemet Alis forces retreated
- Brit and France = worried about Russian help urged the sultan to comprise.
1833
May - Peace was made.
July - Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi formalised Russian influence in
Constantinople aroused suspicion with Britain and France
Uneasy peace prevailed in Near East until 1839. Sultan of turkey wanted revenge
against Meh A and Meh A wanted at least hereditary possession of Egypt under
Ottoman rule
- By 1839, the sultan army reorganised and invaded Syria to drive Egyptians
out, but Meh A son Ibrahim defeated sultan army again
July 1st 1839 the sultan died succeeded by the 16 year old Abdul Mejid
- Ottoman empire seemed on the point of total collapsed
- Palmerston in difficult position, knew crisis gave Russia chance to
strengthen its powers but he was now also very suspicious of Frances
appearance in Mediterranean
- France had interest in north Africa.
1803: French had consolidated hold over Algeria and favoured giving concessions to
Mehemet Ali.
- This made him a threat to British economic and strategic interested
Directly threatened British routes to the River Euphrates and the Persian
Gulf

Frances growing support for Mehemet Ali posed a threat to British interests in
India, where 18th century France had fought Britain for control
Palmerston joined with the other Eastern powers and Turkey to sign the
Convention of London in July 15th 1840.
Mehemet Ali was offered the hereditary possession of Egypt and possession of Syria
during his lifetime only-He failed to respond in the 20 days
- 3rd November: A British fleet bombarded Acer (in present-day Lebanon)
- The French were angry and began to speak warlike
- However, French cabinet was divided between peace and war and so their
threats were meaningless/irrelevant
Once Mehemet Ali submitted in 1841, Palmerston allowed the French to rejoin the
Concert of Europe.
The Convention of London was superseded by the Straits Convention 13th July 1841
- Forbade the passage of foreign warships through the Straits while the
Ottoman Empire was at peace
- Ended the Russian advantages gained in 1833 with the Treaty of Unkiar
Skelessi
Palmerstons policy achieved stability in the Near East using limited military action
He also ensured the preservation of the CoE through his co-operation with Russia
China and Opium
Trade between Britain and China had been under the control of the East India
Company until the abolition of its monopoly in 1833.
After 1833, the protection of British trade and British citizens became the
responsibility of the British goverment
Britain wanted to open up the Chinese trade to make Peking adopt Western
conventions
There was a huge demand for opium in China
- The East India Company had made good profits by growing it in India and
exporting it to China in return for merchandise.
late 1830s: there was a ban on opium imports
British ships refused to allow Chinese authorities to search for opium, The Chinese
places the small British trading area at Canton under virtual arrest
- Then they attacked a British warship and ordered suspension of all trade
with Britain.
- The British goverment in India sent naval assistance to Canton
A naval war began June 1840.
1841: a major battle took place in which the Chinese fleet was sunk and shore

batteries captured
- Palmerstons problem was that British interests in the peaceable trading
community in Canton were under attack
The Chinese stated that the community should be held accountable for its actions
- Palmerston did not accept that this gave the Chinese the right to interfere
with British subjects
The treaty of Nanking in 1842 meant that the Chinese made concessions at the end
of the war
5 ports were opened up to foreign trade
Britain and the USA
1807
1815
-

Both Britain an the USA had made slave trade illegal

The Congress of Vienna also made it illegal
Enforcing the ban was a problem though
Britain signed right of search treaties with smaller European nations
permitted British ships to arrest slavers flying their flags

1831, 1833 and 1838 Palmerston negotiated treaties like above with France and in
1838 he almost secured agreement of all the great European powers to one treaty
allowing a common right of search, however, the French were still angry at the
handling of the Eastern Question and so the treaty was never put into place
The USA refuse to sign any right of search agreement with Britain.
- Partly due to Britains action against American shipping during the
Napoleonic Wars
- Also due to the power of the slave-holding states un Southern America
Britain accepted that because the USA had not signed the treaty, they could
not stop and search American ships but Palmerston was worried that other
slave-carrying ships would put up an American flag to avoid being searched
proposed a right of visit treaty
1840 USA signed a treaty that agreed to a mutual right of search.