10/16/2014

Maps

Satellite
data

SOURCES OF DATA AND DATA

INPUT

Digital
data

Scanning
Digitizing

Tabular
data

Soft
ideas

Key coding

Data
transfer

Data Capture
Editing/cleaning
Re-projection
Generalization
Edge matching and rubber sheeting

BABU P
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Civil Engineering
MES College of Engineering
Kuttippuram

INPUT OF SPATIAL DATA

Layering

INPUT OF SPATIAL DATA-CONTINUE

Need to have tools to transform spatial data of various

types into digital format

accuracy

Need to automate the input process as much as

Data input is a major bottleneck in application of GIS

possible, but:

technology. Costs of input often consume 80% or

editing problems later

more of project costs

Essential to find ways to reduce costs and maximize

automated input can create bigger

Source documents (maps) may often have to be

Many commercial GIS operations generate most of

redrafted

their revenue through data input

automated input

Data input is labor intensive, tedious, and error-prone

to

meet

rigid

quality requirements

of

Sharing of digital data is one way around the input

bottleneck. More and more spatial data is becoming
available in digital form

INPUT OF SPATIAL DATA-CONTINUE

Data input to a GIS involves encoding both the locational

and attribute data

The locational data is encoded as coordinates on a

particular cartesian coordinate system

INPUT OF SPATIAL DATA-CONTINUE

There are two methods for spatial data acquisition

Primary methods

Surveying,

Photogrammetry,

GPS,

Remote Sensing

Source maps may have different projections and scales

Several stages of data transformation may be needed to
bring all data to a common coordinate system

Attribute data is often obtained and stored in tables

(Database Management System)

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INPUT OF SPATIAL DATA-CONTINUE

Sl. Input
No. data type

Source

Topology /format

Raster
scanned
data

Scanner,
unmanned areal
vehicle(UAV),
oblique
photography

Matrix of pixels with the header

containing the boundary information,
GEOTIFF, GIF, PCX, XWD, CIB,
NITF, CADRG

Secondary methods
Digitization,

Automatic line following,

Satellite
image

satellite

BIL, BIP, TIFF

scanning

Vector
map

Field survey,
Digitiser output

DGN, DVD, DXF

Attribute
data

Field survey,
statistical

Textual records binding several

attribute observation, census data
fields stored in various RDBMS. Eg,
Oracle, Sybase, PostgreSQL, etc.

Elevation
data

Sensors, GPS,
DGPSLIDAR
(Hyper spectral
data)

Matrix of height values, approximating

the height of a particular grid of earths
surface, DTED-0/1/2, DEM, NMEA,
GRD, TIN

Sl.
No.

Input data type

Source

Topology /format

Marine navigation
charts

Marine survey,
coast and island
survey,
Hydrographic
and maritime
survey,
organisation

S57/ S56 electronic navigation

charts, coast and island map data

Ellipsoid
parameters/ geodetic
datum/ geo
referenced
information/
coordinate system
information

Geodetic survey,
marine survey,
government
surveying
organisation

Topology; semi major axis, semi

minor axis, flattening/ eccentricity,
origin of the coordinate center, the
orientation of the axis with respect
to the axis of the earth, centre with
an earth fixed reference frame

Projection
parameters

Geodetic survey
organisations or
agencies,

As meta data or supporting data to

the main spatial data- often saved
as header information of the main
file

Almanac and
meteorological data

Almanac tables,

Time of sun rise, sunset, moon rise,

moon set, weather information
including day and night, temperature
and wind speed etc.

AGENCIES

INVOLVED IN SPATIAL DATA COLLECTION

Survey of India: Topographic maps, tourist maps, city guide

maps etc.
Geological survey of India: Geological maps, district resources
maps, mineral resource maps etc.
National bureau of soil survey and land use planning: soil map
All India soil and land use survey: soil and land use maps
Forest survey of India: Forest maps
Central Ground water board: Hydrology maps
National remote sensing agency: Land use maps, waste land
maps, urban maps, ground water potential maps and other
thematic maps.
Central water commission: Command area maps
Naval Hydrography department: Naval Hydrography charts
National Atlas and Thematic mapping organisation: Atlas and
other thematic maps
State settlement survey and land records Departments:
Cadastral maps

SOURCES OF SPATIAL

DATA

MODES OF DATA INPUT: INPUT DEVICES

Grid overlay

keyboard

Digitizer

Scanner

Data in digital format (Total station, digital

photogrammetry, remote sensing, GPS)

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KEYBOARD

GRID OVERLAY
Grid on clear material is overlaid on map
Identity of each cell in the grid is
determined by what map features are in a
particular cell
Number or code is assigned to each class
of map features, and used to label cells in
grid
After filling in the grid, numbers or codes
are typed into the computer to produce a
raster layer
Pretty antiquated method, seldom used

Keyboard entry (X,Y,Z), or angle and distance

Input through keyboard is time consuming, but it is

more accurate

It is suitable for small areas i.e. when the number

of points/lines/areas are limited

Because of its high accuracy, sometimes it is used

in applications that need high quality e.g. cadastral
mapping

PROCEDURE
DIGITISER TABLE

Registration

Large flat table

Surface is underlain
a very fine mesh of wires
Cursor
Buttons allow user to
send instructions to the computer
The position of cursor
registered by reference to
its position above the wire mesh

Digitiser table

Digitising point features

Map fixed on the table top

Five or more control points
Geographic coordinates are noted
Digitising control points digitiser coordinates
Recorded as single digitised point
Unique code number

Digitising line features

Series of points joined by straight line segments

Point mode and stream mode
Unique code number

Digitising area features

Adding attribute information

Start and end points of a line join to form an area

Attribute data may be added to polygon features by linking
to centroid
Manually or automatically

DIGITIZATION

Digitization is a process of converting existing

maps to digital form (vector format)

A digitizer is connected to a computer and map

features are followed manually

Digitizers are available at different sizes (A4, A3,

A2, A0) and different accuracy (0.05 mm)

Example of digitizers are CalComp 9500 and

Summagraphic

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DIGITIZING-CONTINUE

DIGITIZING-CONTINUE

Digitizing the map contents can be done in two

subjectively, two point mode operators will not

Point mode: the operator identifies the points to

code a line in the same way

be captured explicitly by pressing a button

In point mode the operator selects points

different modes: point or stream

Stream mode: points are captured at set time

Stream mode generates large numbers of

points, many of which may be redundant

intervals (typically 10 per second) or on

movement of the cursor by a fixed amount

SCANNERS

DIGITIZING- PROBLEMS

Paper maps are unstable

If the map has stretched or shrunk in the interim,

Errors occur on these maps

Maps are meant to display information

Types of scanners: Line following and drum

Line following placed on a line and follow line using a

guiding device such as a laser

Two short comings:

1. sample lines at regular time or distance intervals (more

complex parts of the line should have more samples, less

Discrepancies across map sheet

User error causes overshoots, undershoots

complex need less samples)

2. lines that converge then diverge (e.g., contours along a cliff,

road intersections, etc), device

doesnt know which

line is which also broken lines (dashes, interrupted by label

etc.)

Line following technology can be reproduced in a

software environment (line tracing software)

SCANNING

Scanning is a process of converting existing maps to

digital form (raster format)

A scanner is connected to a computer and map

features are scanned automatically

Scanners are available at different sizes (A4, A3, A2,

A0) and different accuracy (300 dpi, 600dpi, 1000 dpi)

Example of Scanners are UMAX-S12, HP

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SCANNERS-PROBLEMS

MAP PREPARATION AND THE DIGITIZING

Scanners are generally very expensive

Editing can take nearly as long as manual

digitizing would have taken

Scanners should be thought of as time-saving

devices only when maps are clear, show good

contrast, and contain a relatively simple amount of

Identification of features to be digitized. Sometimes

marked directly on the map or on clear overlay.
Sometimes, identification of nodes vs. vertices
The digitizing process usually starts with telling the
computer about the coordinate system that the map is
in. Digitizer operates in its own cartesian coordinate
system, need to establish relationship between
digitizer
coordinates and map coordinates
(Transformation)
Registration points or tick marks identified. Allows
you to remove map from tablet to allow others to
access it, then put it back on and register the input
system
using tic marks. It is essential to locate
these precisely because they provide the reference for
all other spatial data entered

content

WHAT TO INPUT

SETTING UP DIGITIZING ENVIRONMENT

TO HANDLE ERRORS

Fuzzy tolerance - attempts to account for errors

caused by the "shaky hand. Based on the idea
that you will not be able to place the cursor
exactly the same location twice. Essentially
defines a distance for maximum separation . If
two nodes are within the limits of fuzzy tolerance,
the are snapped together. Same idea for line
features. Can be done before digitizing starts or
can be implemented in post-digitizing editing
process
Other variables: Material of map shrink/swell
with changes in humidity and temperature and
stable medium such as plastic (Mylar) is preferred

METHODS OF VECTOR INPUT

Define your purpose before hand and make sure the

data you are using are suitable for the goals of your
project and pre-plan carefully
Use the most accurate data, but not data that is too
accurate for your purpose
Check to see if data are already available
Keep coverages simple and use the same map to
extract different coverages when possible
How Much to Input:
Scale dependent
General rule - more complex features at larger
scales require more detail (more vertices, smaller
cell size)

Sample more for more information

REMOTE SENSING: SPECIAL RASTER DATA

INPUT

Manual digitizing, Registration marks

Location of nodes, lines not become nodes and
nodes dont become just points
Building of topology
Correcting of digitizing errors
Transformation and projection
Adding attribute data
Checking the accuracy of attribute data

Remote Sensing data is considered as special

raster data (in digital form). Image processing
software can be used to extract/classify remote
sensing imagery (cover later in the semester)
Attention should be paid to geometric and
radiometric corrections and method of
classification (supervised/unsupervised), different
radiometric, geometric, and temporal resolutions
Institutional problems related to remote sensing
data include availability of data (limited
coverage, cloud cover), cost, education and
training, and organizational infrastructure

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EXTERNAL DATABASES
An efficient method of building a GIS database is to
limit the amount of time and cost necessary to
develop database
A plenty of data already available in different
digital format an in different media 9-inch tape, 8
mm tape, CD-ROM, etc.
Need to evaluate data for its utility/quality for
projects and ability to import
Meta-data or data dictionary should be prepared for
the GIS database (information about the content)