1 Appendix-C: Fundamentals of Radio

Network Planning

Contents
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
2
3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
4
5
6
7

Mobile Radio Network Planning Tasks

Collection of Basic Planning Data
Terrain Data Acquisition
Coarse Coverage Prediction
Network Configuration
Site Selection
Field Measurements
Tool Tuning
Network Design
Data Base Engineering
Performance Evaluation and Optimization
Repetition
Radio Wave Propagation
Path Loss
Shadowing - Long Term Fading
Multi Path Propagation - Short Term Fading
Maximum Path Loss and Link Budget
Cellular Networks and Frequency Allocation
Traffic Models
Exercises
Solutions

Objectives of Radio Network Planning

To provide service
to many subscribers

with high service quality

Capacity for a traffic model Quality of service

at low costs
Efficiency

service types

low blocking

low number of BS sites

call rate

low wait time

high frequency re-use

mobility

high speech quality

low call drop rate

Boundary conditions
Physics:

frequency spectrum, radio propagation coverage & frequency

planning

System:

receiver characteristics, transmit power

algorithms and parameter setting

channel configuration
cell design & network structure
link quality improvement

focal point of this course !

Fig. 1

As shown in the figure below, the main topic of this course is adjustment of system
parameters for the Siemens Base Station System (SBS) as part of the radio network
planning process.
Before going into the details of the system features and control parameters, this
introduction chapter summarizes some basics on radio network planning:
In the first and second section of this chapter the steps within the radio network
planning process are explained. In sections 3 - 5 simple models concerning radio
propagation, frequency re-use and teletraffic are presented.
As each model they are only an approximation of reality. Nevertheless

they reflect the main physical effects,

they help to understand the meaning of parameters and the way of working the
algorithms,

they allow to estimate parameter values.

Mobile Radio Network Planning Tasks

The mobile radio network is the connecting element between the mobile telephone
users and the fixed network.
In this network the base transceiver station equipment (BTSE) is the direct
interface to the subscriber. It has to make radio communication channels available to
the users and to care for a satisfactory signal quality within a certain area around the
base station. This area may be split into different sectors (cells) which belong to one
BTSE.
Planning a mobile radio network is a complex task, because radio propagation along
the earth surface is submitted to many influences due to the local environment.
Furthermore the performance requirements to a radio network cover a wide field of
applications which depend on the operators potentialities and goals. To respond to all
these subjects, it is necessary to observe a certain sequence of tasks.
The first step is to get knowledge about the customers/operators objectives and
resources (basic planning data). On this basis it is possible to estimate the size of the
project and to establish a coarse nominal cell plan.
Then it is necessary to install a digital terrain data base into a planning tool which
contains topo-graphical and morphological information about the planning region.
This digital map permits to make more accurate predictions about the radio signal
propagation as compared to the first rough estimation, and to create a more realistic
cell structure, including the recommendable geographical positions of the base
stations equipment(coarse coverage prediction).
The network elements defined up to this moment have been found on a more or less
theoretical basis. Now it has to be checked if the envisaged radio site locations may
really be kept. A site survey campaign in accordance with the customer, who is
responsible for the site acquisition, must clarify all problems concerning the
infrastructure and technical as well as financial issues of the BTSE implementation.
Inside a tolerable search area the optimum site meeting all these issues has to be
selected.
This site selection should also take into account particular properties of the area,
e.g. big obstacles which are not recognizable in the digital maps.
Field measurements, to be carried out in typical and in complex areas must give
detailed informations about the radio characteristics of the planning region. The
measurement results will then help to align the radio prediction tool for the actual
type of land usage (tool tuning).
Now, fixed site positions and an area-adapted tool being available, it is possible to
start the detailed radio planning. The final network design has to care for both
sufficient coverage and proper radio frequency assignment in respecting the traffic
load and the interference requirements.
The last planning step is the generation of a set of control parameters, necessary to
maintain a communication while a subscriber is moving around. These parameters
have to comply with the existing cell structure and the needs to handle the traffic load
expected in each cell.

After commissioning of the network, the performance must be checked by the

network operator by evaluation of statistical data collected in the operation and
maintenance center. Situations of congestion or frequent call rejections may be
treated by modification of the pertinent control parameters and lead to an optimized
network.
The individual planning steps are considered more closely in the following sections.

Collection of Basic Planning Data

The requirements of the network operator concerning traffic load and service area
extension are basic data for the design of a mobile network . A coarse network
structure complying with these requirements can be created on this basis.
Two fundamental cell types are possible; their properties may be determined
a)

by the maximum radio range of the involved transceiver stations and mobile
terminals; the range is limited by the available transmit power and the noise figure
of the receivers. This type is called a noise limited cell; it is typical for rural regions.

b)

or it may be determined by the limited traffic capacity of a cell in the case of

high subscriber concentration. This leads to the implementation of small cells,
mainly in urban areas where interference will become the major problem.

The result of this first planning step is a rough estimate of the network structure,
called a nominal cell plan, which gives knowledge about the number of radio stations,
their required technical equipment and their approximate geographical positions.
Thus allowing to assess the monetary volume of the project.

Terrain Data Acquisition

Mobile communication occurs in a natural environment. The radio signal propagation
is highly affected by the existing terrain properties like hills, forests, towns etc.
Therefore the real mapping data must be taken into account by the planning tool.
The signal level encountered by a subscriber in the street is influenced by absorbing,
screening, reflecting and diffracting effects of the surrounding objects and along the
radio path.
To make realistic signal level predictions, the propagation models implemented in the
prediction tool must be fed with the relevant terrain data.

A very important factor for correct modeling is the morphographic classification of an

area :

building heights and density of built up areas (metropolitan, urban, suburban,

village, industrial, residential) or forest, parks, open areas, water etc.

The screening by hills which may affect the coverage of a service area must be made
evident by consideration of the terrain profile (height contour lines).
The procurement of digital maps with these informations may be rather expensive.
The prediction accuracy is directly related to the size of area elements (resolution)
and to the reliability of these information (obsolescence of maps!)

Coarse Coverage Prediction

On the basis of the digital terrain data base and by using standard propagation
models, which have been preselected to fit for special terrain types, it is possible to
make field strength predictions without having a very detailed knowledge of the
particular local conditions.
By variation and modification of the site positions and antenna orientations, coverage
predictions of rather good quality may be attained.
Yet, the definitive site locations are subject to a later scheduled site selection process
in accordance and by cooperation with the customer.
The particular local characteristics must be introduced later by comprehensive survey
measurements. These measurements will be used to upgrade the propagation
models.

Network Configuration
The results of the coarse prediction steps will allow to define the radio network
configuration and the layout of individual base stations.
A first frequency allocation plan may also be derived from these predictions. The
result might already be a well functioning network. But it is still based on
assumptions. The actual impact of the natural environment must be considered in the
following steps. Nevertheless, the coarse planning results will help to better assess
the special details brought in by the real situation.
In designing the radio network one has to keep in mind the requirements emerging
from an increasing subscriber number. A multiple phase implementation plan has to
govern the network configuration concepts.
In the initial phase a relatively low number of users has to be carried. On the other
hand complete coverage of the service area has to be provided from the beginning.
Existing sites of the first implementation phase must be useable in later phases.
Increasing subscriber numbers (synonymous with increasing interference tendency!)
should be responded by completion of the existing TRX-equipment and by addition of
new sites. This means reconfiguration of the existing cell patterns and frequency
reassignment. The planner should anticipate the future subscriber repartitions and
concentrations from the beginning, in creating cell structures capable to respond to
future needs. Increasing interference problems arising with higher site density may
be overcome by downtilting of directional antennas initially mounted for maximum
signal range, as now the radio cell areas will be smaller.

Site Selection
The site positions found in the coarse planning process on a theoretical basis, must
now be verified in a joint campaign, called site survey, between the customer and the
radio network planner. All site candidates within a tolerable search area around the
theoretical site positions must be checked.
This check includes the availability of electric power and of data transmission lines.
The most important topic is the possibility to install the antennas in a suitable height
above the roofs or above ground.
Environmental influences (screening obstacles, reflectors) have also to be regarded.
The best fitting site should be selected.
Another important task of this campaign is to declare a certain number of the radio
sites be suitable to serve as survey sites. This means that radio field measurements
shall be done with these stations as transmitters. The resulting measurements will be
used for the alignment of radio propagation models.
The environment of the survey sites should be typical for a considerable number of
other radio sites.

Field Measurements
Digital terrain data bases (DTDB) as derived from topographical maps or satellite
pictures do not contain all details and particularities of the existing environment.
Especially in fast developing urban areas maps cannot keep pace with reality and
thus reflect an obsolete status. Keeping maps on this quality level would be very
expensive.
The characteristics of built up zones and vegetation areas with respect to radio
propagation differ in a wide range if we regard different countries. Even climatic
conditions may influence the signal level. Knowledge about this specific behavior
must be acquired by measurements.
The survey measurements have to be carried out in typical areas. Evaluation of
these measurements will result in models that can be applied in comparable areas as
well.
Special measurements must be carried out in very complex topographical regions
where standardized propagation models will fail. The resulting models are valid
exclusively for this measurement zone.

Tool Tuning
The measurement results have to be compared with the predictions of proven
standard models. The standard parameters will be slightly modified to achieve
minimum discrepancies with the measurements, i.e. to keep the mean error and rmserror as low as possible. As the signal level is subject to statistical variations which
cannot be predicted, the rms-error will never be zero.
The reliability of the created models increases with the number of measurement runs
that can be exploited.
The new specific model may also be applied in other base stations located in similar
environment.

Network Design
The area-specific models are the basis for the final planning steps. The detailed
network design has to care for

a suitable signal level throughout the planning area

sufficient traffic capacity according to the operators requirements

assignment of the pertinent number of RF-carriers to all cells

sufficient decoupling of frequency reuse cells to respect the interference

requirements for co-channels and adjacent channels.
Moreover, attention has to be paid to an optimized handover scenario in heavy traffic
zones.
The detailed planning process commits the final structure of the radio network and
the configuration of the base stations.
The capacity of digital data links connecting the radio stations to the fixed network
elements may now be defined.

Data Base Engineering

A cellular network is a living system with moving subscribers. The service must be
maintained while mobiles change radio cells and superior organization units, called
location areas. All control parameters, necessary to support this task, have to be
administered and supervised in central data bases.
There is a permanent signaling information exchange between mobiles, base
stations and control centers.
This signaling communication occurs on predefined time slots, called control
channels which are assigned to one of the RF-carriers of each radio cell.
Important control informations for each radio cell are :

cell identification within the network

control carrier frequency

potential neighbor cells

minimum received signal level

maximum transmit power of a mobile

power reduction factor to perform power control

power margin for handover to neighbor cells

Performance Evaluation and Optimization

Regular performance checks must be carried out after commissioning of the network.
These checks comprise the evaluation of statistical data collected in the operations
and maintenance center (OMC) as well as measurements by means of test mobile
stations to explore e.g. handover events under realistic conditions; unwanted
handover may lead to traffic congestions in certain cells, or may drain off traffic from
other cells.
Detection of multipath propagation problems caused by big reflecting objects is also
subject to measurements.
Another goal of these checks is to investigate the real traffic load and its distribution,
as subscriber behavior in a living system will not necessarily reflect the original
assumptions of the operator; assumed hot traffic spots may have been changed or
shifted after a couple of years.
Careful evaluation of the measurement data will help to optimize the network
performance by modification of the system parameters. As the number of subscribers
will normally increase in course of time, supervision and control of these parameters
should become a permanent maintenance procedure.

Repetition

Mobile Radio Network Planning Tasks

Collection of basic planning data

Terrain data acquisition

Coarse coverage prediction

Network configuration

Site selection and field measurements

Tool tuning

Network design

Data base engineering

Performance evaluation and optimization

Collection of basic planning data

Customer must define basic network performance goals:

Size of service area and area types

Traffic load and distribution

Mobile classes and service quality

Future development (forecast)

Available RF - bandwidth

The resulting nominal cell plan is a first planning approach

to determine the required number of radio stations

to figure out the approximate equipment configuration

to get an idea of the financial volume of the project

Terrain data acquisition

Topographical and morphographical properties of the planning region must be
compiled in a digital data base for further processing.
Contents of the digital terrain data base DTDB:

Height profile (topography)

Land coverage and usage (morphography)

Possible sources :

Scanning of topographic maps

Processed satellite pictures or air pictures

Coarse coverage prediction

A coarse coverage prediction based on the nominal cell plan and on the digital terrain
data base:

using standard propagation models

using standard antenna types

Results :

Geographical distribution of the radio signal level

Coarse cell structure

Nominal position of the radio sites and antenna orientation

Search areas for final site positions

Knowledge about the attainable degree of signal quality

Network configuration
Internal configuration of individual radio station:

Equipment to be installed

Configuration of the radio network (network structure):

Number of base station controllers BSC

Number of location areas

Definition of data lines between the network elements

Site selection and field measurements

Selection of definitive radio site locations

Radio measurements in typical areas

Radio measurements in complex topographical regions

Tool tuning

Radio measurements are exploited to adapt standard propagation models to

specific environmental conditions

Resulting models may be applied in similar environment

or are restricted to the special measurement area

Network design
The final radio planning is performed by means of the area - adapted models
Planning goals:

Sufficient signal level throughout the planning region

Sufficient traffic capacity according to subscriber distribution

Assignment of radio carriers to all cells

Low interference level for co-channels and adjacent channels

Definition of neighbor cells

Data base engineering

Control and maintenance of the radio network requires parameters for

Identification of serving cell and neighbor cells , i.e.:

cell identity
location area
color code

Cell - allocated control- and traffic carriers

Maximum transmit power level

Minimum receive signal level

Power margin for handover to each neighbor cell

Performance evaluation and optimization

By analyzing statistical data from maintenance center

Measurements performed by a test mobile station roaming about the operating

radio network

Radio Wave Propagation

There are three main components of radio propagation which are discussed in the
next section:

mean path loss (loss due to the distance between MS-BS),

shadowing (long term fading),

multi path propagation short term (Raleigh) fading.

Path Loss
Standard path loss models are of the form:
Lm[dB]= A + B log d [km]
where Lm is the mean propagation path loss between the base station (BS) and the
mobile station (MS) at a distance d.
A:

unit loss at 1 km,

B:

propagation index or loss per decade.

The propagation coefficients A and B depend upon:

the transmit frequency,

the MS and BS antenna heights,

the topography and morphology of the propagation area.

Examples are:
1. Free space loss:
L0 = 32.4 + 20 log f [MHz] + 20 log d [km]
or more important propagation in real environment - the famous Hata model:
2. Hata model
The Hata model describes the mean propagation effects for large cells and
distances d > 1 Km. For urban environment one has:
A = 69.55 + 26.16 log f - 13.82 log Hb - a(Hm)
B = 44.9 - 6.55 log Hb

Frequency:

f [Mhz]

150...1000 -Mhz

BS antenna height:

Hb [m]

30...200 m

MS antenna height:

Hm [m]

a(Hm) = 0 for Hm = 1.5 m

Example:

Hm = 1.5 m

Hb = 50 m

A = 123.3

B = 33.8

f=900 Mhz

Path Loss for LargeCells - Hata Model (GSM 900)

BS height 50 m

MS height 1.5 m

220
210

Path Loss [dB]

200
190
Suburban

180
Urban

170
Urban Indoor

160
150
140
130

Rural (quasi open)

120

Rural (open)

110
100
90
1

10
Cell radius [km]

Fig. 2

100

For other environments (suburban, rural-quasi-open) the path loss per decade
remains the same, but the unit loss is reduced by a certain amount. The free space
loss and the Hata model are illustrated in the figure above.
Models of this type are adequate for estimating the received level for large cells.
However for a real network planning, refinements of the model and adaptations of
parameters to morphological and topographical data and to measurement values are
necessary (refer to section 1).
The smaller the cells, the more important are the details of e.g. the building structure
within the cell.

Shadowing - Long Term Fading

In larger cells where the BS antenna is installed above the roof top level, details of
the environment near the MS are responsible for a variation of the received level
around the mean level calculated by the models discussed above.
Usually this variation of level - caused by obstacles near the MS (e.g. buildings or
trees) - is described by the statistical model, i.e. the total path loss L tot is given by the
mean distance path loss plus a random shadowing
Ltot [dB] = Lm + S
S<0: free line of sight,
S>0: strong shadowing by e.g. a high building near the MS.
S has a Gaussian distribution (see figure below) with mean value 0 and a standard
deviation s which typically lies in the range s = 4...10 dB.

0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
-3

-2

-1

Shadowing S/s [dB]

Fig. 3 Gaussian distribution of shadowing S

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The length scale for variation of the long term fading is in the range 5 ... 100 m, i.e.
the typical size of shadowing obstacles.

Multi Path Propagation - Short Term Fading

The superposition of several reflected waves arriving at the receiver on different
paths and therefore with different amplitudes and phases causes peaks (constructive
superposition) and deep fading dips (destructive superposition) of the received level.
The length scale for variation (e.g. peak to peak) is given by the half of the
transmission wave length, i.e. about 15 cm for GSM900 or 7.5 cm for DCS1800. An
example for the variation of the received level due to short term fading is shown in
the figure below.
A comparison with the length scale for shadowing explains the names for these
fading types.
The statistics of the Raleigh fading is described in the following way:
Consider the received level due the path loss and long term fading which is called
local mean: LLOC[dBm]. The received local mean power is then given by
Ploc[mW] = 10LlOC/10
Using this formula the probability density function for the received power P is given
by:
f(P) = 1/Ploc* exp(-P/Ploc)
which means that the probability function for the signal amplitude P = A2 is given by a
Raleigh distribution.
Using these formulas and some mathematics, one can calculate the probability that
the received level L (affected by Raleigh fading) is x dB below the local mean level
Lloc:
Prob (L - Lloc< x dB) = 1 - exp ( - 10 x/10)

Example:
x = 3 dB
x = 0 dB
x = -3 dB
x = -6 dB
x = -10 dB
x = -20 dB

Prob = 86,5 %
Prob = 63,0 %
Prob = 39,5 %
Prob = 22,0 %
Prob = 9,5 %
Prob = 1,0 %

Changing the transmission frequency and therefore the wave length, changes the
position of Raleigh peaks and dips. This means that at a given position, the received
level affected by Raleigh fading in general differs for different transmission
frequencies. The higher the frequency difference the lower is the correlation for the
receive signal for the different frequencies. The coherence bandwidth B coh is defined
as the frequency difference at which this correlation has decreased to 0.5. The
coherence bandwidth depends upon the spread of arrival times of the different multi
path components of the received signal. This spread is called delay spread T:

Coherence Bandwidth and Delay Spread

Bcoh

1
2T

i.e. the higher the delay spread the lower is the coherence bandwidth.
The delay spread depends upon the propagation environment. Typical values are:

10 s for hilly terrain (corresponding to path length between difference of 3 km).

0.1 ... 1 s for urban area (corresponding to path length between difference of
30 ... 300 m).

Keeping in mind that a Raleigh fading dip of more than 10 dB occurs with a
probability of 10 %, measures should be provided to combat Raleigh fading:

Means to combat Raleigh fading:

Averaging of Raleigh fading over speech frames (interleaving of 8 bursts)

Frequency Hopping
spacing between frequencies in hopping sequence >> coherence bandwidth
Motion (speed v)
Example: v=50 km/h, distance between bursts = TDMA frame length T = 4.6 ms
distance between MS positions at subsequent bursts D = 6.4 cm
distance for 8 bursts_ 8 * D 50 cm > 3 * wavelength

Combining of signals received at positions of mutually uncorrelated fading

Antenna Diversity
spacing between RX antennas >> half wavelength

Fig. 4

Short Term Fading

Fig. 5

Maximum Path Loss and Link Budget

The maximum radius of a cell depends on the maximum possible path loss between
transmitter and receiver, i.e. upon the difference between the maximum output power
level EIRP (emitted isotropic radiation power) at the transmitter antenna and the
required input power level (RIPL) at the receiver antenna.
Output BTS:
EIRPBTS = Power Amplifier Output - Combiner Loss - Downlink Cable Loss + Antenna
Gain
Power Amplifier Output:

25 Watt = 44 dBm (GSM900)

(higher power amplifier output power in further BTS
versions)

Combiner Loss
Combiner Type

1:1

2:1

4:1

Duplexer

2.7 dB

2.7 dB

5.9 dB

Hybrid Combiner

2.0 dB

5.2 dB

8.4 dB

The ratio x:1 denotes the number of carriers which are combined. In the case of
hybrid combiners the signals are fed to 1 transmitter antenna. In the case of
duplexers the signals are fed to 2 antennas (on air combining) which are used for
transmission as well as for reception.
Using these antennas for reception, a two branch (maximum ratio) antenna diversity
combining can be realized. This means that - using Duplexers - two antennas per cell
are needed, whereas when using Hybrid Combiners and applying Antenna Diversity
two receive plus one transmit antenna is needed.
Downlink Antenna Cable Loss:

3 dB (example)

Antenna Gain (example):

16 dB (typical value for 600 half power beam

width antenna)

Output MS:
For the MS there is no need combining different carriers; and the cable loss and
antenna gain reduce to zero. The EIRP depends upon the power class of the MS
specified in GSM Rec 05.05:
Power Class (GSM 05.05)

Max. Output Power

(GSM900)

Max. Output Power

(DCS1800)

--

1 Watt = 30 dBm

8 Watt = 39 dBm

0.25W = 24 dBm

5 Watt = 37 dBm

4 Watt = 36 dBm

2 Watt = 33 dBm

0.8 Watt = 29 dBm

Input BTS:
The required input power level RIPL at the BTS antenna is given by
RIPLBTS =
Receiver Sensitivity Level - Antenna Diversity Gain + Uplink Cable Loss
- Antenna Gain
Receiver Sensitivity Level < - 104 dBm
The receiver sensitivity level is defined in GSM Rec. 05.05 for scenarios where short
term Raleigh fading is (at least) partly averaged either by motion or by frequency
hopping. The receiver sensitivity level has been measured to be better than required
by GSM Rec. 05.05.
Antenna Diversity Gain:

4 dB (for a typical scenario).

The gain which can be achieved by antenna diversity strongly depends upon the
propagation environment, the velocity of the mobile and on whether frequency
hopping is applied or not.
For a typical urban environment, a mobile speed of 3 km/h and frequency hopping
applied the antenna diversity gain is about 4 dB.
Uplink Cable Loss

3 dB

without tower mounted preamplifier RXAMOD

0 dB

with tower mounted preamplifier RXAMOD

The (uplink) cable loss from the antenna to the receiver input can be compensated
using a tower mounted amplifier called RXAMOD.
It should be noted that this preamplifier cannot be used together with on air
combining (Duplexers).
Antenna Gain (example):

16 dB (typical value for 600 half power beam width

antenna)

Input MS:
For the MS there is neither antenna gain nor antenna diversity gain. Cable losses
can be neglected. Therefore the required input power level at the MS antenna is
given by the MS receiver limit sensitivity as specified by GSM 05.05:

104 dBm for class 2 and 3 (GSM900),

102 dBm for class 4 and 5 (GSM900),

100 dBm for class 1 and 2 (DCS1800)

Maximum allowed path loss (Link Budget)

downlink

Ld[dB] = EIRPBTS - RIPLMS

uplink

Lu[dB] = EIRPMS - RIPLBTS

Example:
Duplexers 2:1:

no RXAMOD, uplink cable loss = 3 dB

MS of Power Class 3:

EIRPMS= 37 dBm

Antenna Diversity Gain:

4 dB

Lu[dB] = 37 dBm - (- 104 dBm - 16 dBi + 3 dB - 4 dB) = 158 dB

Ld[dB] = 44 dBm - 3 dB - 3 dB + 16 dBi - (- 104 dBm) = 158 dB

i.e. there is a symmetric link budget for uplink and downlink.

Requirement: Area Coverage Probability: 90 % Coverage Probability at Cell

Border: 75 %

Standard Deviation of Shadowing: s= 6 dB 75 % value of Shadowing: S75%= 4

dB

allowed loss L - S75% = 154 dB

Lm = L - S75% = 154 dB
Path loss model (Hata):

Lm [dB] = 123.3 + 33.7 log d [km]

Cell Radius: dmax =10 (154-123.3)/33.7 = 8.15 km

Example 2:
Designing a radio cell for mainly MS of Power Class 4 (instead of power class 3), the
following values for link budget are obtained:
Lu[dB] = 154 dB
Ld [dB] = 156 dB
To obtain a symmetric link budget, the power amplifier output power of the BTS has
to be reduced by 2 dB. This is done using the O&M parameter BS_TXPWR_RED:

Object

DB Name

Range

Meaning

TRX

PWRRED

0, 1, ...6 * 2dB

Reduction of BTS power amplifier

output

Reducing the BTS output power has the advantage that less downlink interference is
caused by this cell.
If there are also some mobiles of Power Class 2 and 3 within the cell designed for
mobiles of Power Class 4, their maximum transmit power has to be limited for a link
budget balance. This is the reason behind the following parameters:
Specification
Name

DB Name/
Object

Range

Meaning

MS_TXPWR_MA
X

MSTXPMAX /
BTS-B

2...15
GSM
0...15
DCS
* 2 dB

Maximum TXPWR a MS is
allowed to use on a dedicated
channel (TCH or SDCCH) in the
serving cell
GSM: 2 = 39 dBm, 15 = 13 dBm
DCS: 0 = 30 dBm, 15 = 0 dBm
PCS: 0 = 30 dBm, 15 = 0 dBm
30 = 33 dBm, 31 =
32 dBm

0...31
* 2 dB

Maximum TXPWR a MS is
allowed to use on the uplink
common control channel
(Random Access Channel,
RACH) in the serving cell:
GSM: 0 = 43 dBm,19 = 5 dBm
DCS: 0 = 30 dBm, 15 = 0 dBm

MS_TXPWR_MA MSTXPMAXCH /
X_CCH
BTS-C

Another effect illustrated by this example is the following:

Since there is a balanced link budget Lu[dB] = Ld[dB], but a difference of the receiver
sensitivity level for the MS and BTS of 2 dB, there is difference between the mean
downlink and uplink received level RXLEV of about 2 dB:
RXLEV_DL - RXLEV_UL 2 dB.
The consequence is that level threshold for e.g. the handover algorithm have to be
set 2 dB higher for the downlink than for the uplink.

Cellular Networks and Frequency Allocation

One important characteristic of cellular networks is the re-use of frequencies in

different cells. By re-using frequencies, a high capacity can be achieved. However,
the re-use distance has to be high enough, so that the interference caused by
subscribers using the same frequency (or an adjacent frequency) in another cell is
sufficiently low.

MS
Interferer
Carrier

Re-us e
Ditance D

Cell Radius R

Fig. 6

Co-channel
Re-us e
Cells

To guarantee an appropriate speech quality, the carrier-to-interference-power-ratio

CIR has to exceed a certain threshold CIRmin which is 9 dB for the GSM System
(GSM Rec. 05.05).
taking the situation of the example above and a path loss model L = A + B log d, one
has
C/Itot[Watt] = C / (I1 + ... + INI) C / (NI * I1)

NI: number of interferes

or in dB
C/Itot [dB]

= C[dB] - Itot[dB] B log D - B log R - 10 log NI

= B log D/R - 10 log NI > CIRmin + LTFM (x%)

By introducing the long term fading margin LTFM (x%) for a required coverage
probability of x%, the effect of shadowing is taken into account.
For homogeneous hexagonal networks frequencies can be allocated to cells in a
symmetric way. Defining the cluster size K as group of cells in which each frequency
is used exactly once, the following relations between Cluster Size, Cell Radius and
Re-use Distance are obtained.

Frequency Re-use and Cluster Size

D
R

Fig. 7

Outer Cell Radius

Inner Cell Radius

r = 0.5 x

Re-use Distance

D = R x 3 x (n 2 m 2 nm)

3xR

D
= 3xK
R

Cluster Size:

Group of cells in which each frequency is used exactly once

K = (n 2 + m 2 + nm)
n, m = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
K = 1, 3, 4, 7, 9, 12, 16, 19, ...

Inserting the formula for the cluster size into the formula for the minimum CIR one
obtains:
0.5 * B log 3 K > CIRmin + LTFM (x%) + 10 log NI
which gives a lower bound for the cluster size which can be used.
For a given cluster size K and total number of frequencies N tot, the number of
frequencies per cell Ncell is given by:
Ncell = Ntot/K
i.e. the capacity of a cell can be increased by reducing the cluster size.
A reduction of cluster size can be achieved by

reducing the number of interferes Sectorisation.

reducing the interference from co-channel cells Power Control, Discontinued

Transmission, ...

Examples for sectored network structure are shown in the figures below. Methods for
interference reduction are discussed in chapter 6.
Obviously a real network does not have such a regular hexagonal structure and
frequency allocation is performed by planning tools using complex algorithms for
optimizing the CIR in each cell.
The objective is to achieve a high mean value of frequencies per cell <N cell>. The
ratio
<K> = Ntot/Ncell
can viewed as the mean cluster size in such an inhomogeneous environment.
The capacity of the radio network depends upon the available number N of radio
channels per area F (e.g. F = 1 km2).
N
N
N
N
1
1
Ncell x BTS CPF x tot x
CPF x tot x
F
F
K
F / NBTS
K
CA

NBTS:

number of BTS

CA:

cell area

CPF:

channel per frequencies

Omnicells - Cluster 7

7
6
7
6

2
1
5

2
1
5
3
4
7
6

Fig. 8 Example for homogeneous frequency allocation

3
4
7
6
2
1
5

7
6
2
1
5
3
4

2
1
5
3
4
7
6

3
4
7
6
2
1
5

2
1
5
3
4

3
4

3-Sector Cloverleaf - Cluster 3 x 3

2a

2a
1a
1c

2c

1a
1c

3a

1b
2a

2c

3c

3c

1c

2c

3c

Fig. 9 Example for homogeneous frequency allocation

1a

2b
1c
3b

1c
3b

2c

2a

3c
2b

3a
3c

3b

2b
3a

1b

2c
1b

2a

3b
1a

2b

3c

3a

1b

3c

3a

1b

2b
3a

1b

2c

2a

3b

2c

2a

3b

1c

1a

1c

1a

2b
3a

1b

1a

2b

3b

Traffic Models

A traffic model reflects the behavior of the subscribers, as their mobility, the mean call
rate or call duration. It is needed e.g. for calculating the required total number of
channels within a cell and how to split them between traffic and control channels.
These traffic model information is always a mixture between field observations in
similar networks and arbitrary assumptions.
Traffic data are variable in time, therefore statistical characterization is used.
The goal of planning is to manage traffic even in busy hour.
In mobile networks we have to evaluate two main factors:

user mobility

communications

User mobility:
The user moves with a velocity v.
For example the handover and location update rates depend on this velocity.
Communications:
The number of subscriber in a cell, the traffic per subscriber has to be considered.
Furthermore, one needs information the mean call duration, the mean call cell rate
(or busy hour call attempt BHCA). separately for mobile originating calls (MOC) and
mobile terminating calls (MTC).

An example for a traffic model is given in the table below:

number of call attempts (MOC+MTC) per subscriber per hour

1,1

percentage of MOC

58 %

percentage of engaged in the case of an MOC

19,8 %

duration of TCH occupation in the engaged case

3s

no answer from a person called by MOC

14,4 %

mean TCH occupation for this case

30 s

percentage of successful MOC

65,8 %

mean time for ringing (MOC)

15 s

percentage of MTC

42 %

no paging response

32,5 %

duration of TCH occupation in this case

0s

no answer from a mobile subscriber

13,5%

means TCH occupation fir this case

30 s

successful MTC

54,0 %

mean time for ringing (MTC)

5s

mean call duration (MOC/MTC)

115 s

mean TCH occupation call attempt

83 s

TCH load per subscriber

0,025 Erl

time for MOC/MTC setup signaling on SDCCH (authentications, ...)

3s

time for a location update

5s

number of location update per subscriber per hour

2,2

resulting SDDCCH load per subscriber (no TCH queuing applied)

0,004 Erl

Standard traffic model for GSM

The formula for calculating the load on the respective dedicated channel are given on
the next page.

Load on Dedicated Channels

SDCCH load
[Erl]:

SUBSCR *

((MTC_PR_ph + MOC_ph) * T_SETUP + LU_ph *

T_LU+ IMSI_ph * T_IMSI + SMS_ph * T_SMS)

TCH load [Erl]:

SUBSCR *

(MTC_PR_ph + MOC_ph) * T_CALL

SUBSCR:

number of subscribers within the cell

MTC_PR_ph:

mobile terminating calls per subscriber per hour with paging

response

MOC_ph:

mobile terminating calls per subscriber per hour

LU_ph:

location updates per subscriber per hour

IMSI_ph:

IMSI attach/detach per subscriber per hour

SMS_ph

short message service per hour

T_SETUP:

mean time [sec] for call setup signaling on SDCCH

T_LU:

mean time [sec] for location update signaling

T_IMSI:

mean time [sec] for IMSI attach/detach signaling on SDCCH

T_SMS:

mean time [sec] for short message service

T_Call:

mean TCH occupation time per call

For the values of the traffic model above one has

TCH load per subscriber:
SDCCH load per subscriber:

25 mErl
4 mErl

n
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50

p=1%

p=3%

p=5%

p=7%

0.01
0.15
0.46
0.87
1.36
1.91
2.50
3.13
3.78
4.46
5.16
5.88
6.61
7.35
8.11
8.88
9.65
10.44
11.23
12.03
12.84
13.65
14.47
15.29
16.13
16.96
17.80
18.64
19.49
20.34
21.19
22.05
22.91
23.77
24.64
25.51
26.38
27.25
28.13
29.01
29.89
30.77
31.66
32.54
33.43
34.32
35.22
36.11
37.00
37.90

0.03
0.28
0.72
1.26
1.88
2.54
3.25
3.99
4.75
5.53
6.33
7.14
7.97
8.80
9.65
10.51
11.37
12.24
13.11
14.00
14.89
15.78
16.68
17.58
18.48
19.39
20.31
21.22
22.14
23.06
23.99
24.91
25.84
26.78
27.71
28.65
29.59
30.53
31.47
32.41
33.36
34.30
35.25
36.20
37.17
38.11
39.06
40.02
40.98
41.93

0.05
0.38
0.90
1.53
2.22
2.96
3.74
4.54
5.37
6.22
7.08
7.95
8.84
9.37
10.63
11.54
12.46
13.39
14.31
15.25
16.19
17.13
18.08
19.03
19.99
20.94
21.90
22.87
23.83
24.80
25.77
26.75
27.72
28.70
29.68
30.66
31.64
32.62
33.61
34.60
35.58
36.57
37.57
38.56
39.55
40.54
41.54
42.54
43.53
44.53

0.08
0.47
1.06
1.75
2.50
3.30
4.14
5.00
5.88
6.78
7.69
8.61
9.54
10.48
11.43
12.39
13.35
14.32
15.29
16.27
17.25
18.24
19.23
20.22
21.21
22.21
23.21
24.22
25.22
26.23
27.24
28.25
29.26
30.28
31.29
32.31
33.33
34.35
35.37
36.40
37.42
38.45
39.47
40.50
41.53
42.56
43.59
44.62
45.65
46.69

Erlang B formula

n
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100

p=1%

p=3%

p=5%

p=7%

38.80
39.70
40.60
41.50
42.41
43.31
44.22
45.13
46.04
46.95
47.86
48.77
49.69
50.60
51.52
52.44
53.35
54.27
55.19
56.11
57.03
57.96
58.88
59.80
60.73
61.65
62.58
63.51
64.43
65.36
66.29
67.22
68.15
69.08
70.02
70.95
71.88
72.81
73.75
74.68
75.62
76.56
77.49
78.43
79.37
80.31
81.24
82.18
83.12
84.06

42.89
43.85
44.81
45.78
46.74
47.70
48.67
49.63
50.60
51.57
52.54
53.51
54.48
55.45
56.42
57.39
58.37
59.34
60.32
61.29
62.27
63.24
64.22
65.20
66.18
67.16
68.14
69.12
70.10
71.08
72.06
73.04
74.02
75.01
75.99
76.97
77.96
78.94
79.93
80.91
81.90
82.89
83.87
84.86
85.85
86.84
87.83
88.82
89.80
90.79

45.53
46.53
47.53
48.54
46.54
50.54
51.55
52.55
53.56
54.57
55.57
56.58
57.59
58.60
59.61
60.62
61.63
62.64
63.65
64.67
65.68
66.69
67.71
68.72
69.74
70.75
71.77
72.79
73.80
74.82
75.84
76.86
77.87
78.89
79.91
80.93
81.95
82.97
83.99
85.01
86.04
87.06
88.08
89.10
90.12
91.15
92.17
93.19
94.22
95.24

47.72
48.76
49.79
50.83
51.86
52.90
53.94
54.98
56.02
57.06
58.10
59.14
60.18
61.22
62.27
63.31
64.35
65.40
66.44
67.49
68.53
69.58
70.62
71.67
72.72
73.77
74.81
75.86
76.91
77.96
79.01
80.06
81.11
82.16
83.21
84.26
85.31
86.36
87.41
88.46
89.52
90.57
91.62
92.67
93.73
94.78
95.83
9689
97.94
98.99