Operational Amplifier

Chapter 2
Chapter 2 Operational Amplifier

The term operational amplifier refers to high gain dc amplifier that has a differential
input (two input leads) and a single ended output (one output lead). OpAmps have
characteristics such as high input resistance, low output resistance, high gain, low drift
etc. that make them highly suitable for many applications and therefore, wide spread use
in electronic circuits.

2.1Operational Amplifier
The Operational Amplifier is the ideal, simple amplifier. It is an integrated circuit
contains many discrete components (resistors, capacitors, and transistors) all made at the
same time on the same piece of silicon and put into a standardized package. They are
particularly easy to use. An op amp has almost infinite input impedance, very low output
impedance, and extremely high gain (105 is typical).

As shown below, an op amp has two input signal terminals, one output signal
terminal, and positive / negative voltage power supply terminals.

Figure 1: Typical operational amplifier scheme

The two input signal terminals have impedances to ground of 1MΩ to thousands of
mega ohms depending on the quality of the op amp. The output impedance is typically
100Ω or less. The output voltage, e0, is measured referent to the power supply common.
In its linear region, the output voltage is:

eo = A(e + −e − ) ……………………………………………………... (1)

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Chapter 2 Operational Amplifier

Refer to equation 1, e+ and e- are the signals applied to the non-inverting and to the
inverting input, respectively. The magnitude of the gain, A, is frequency dependent, so
that, it is static value.

Figure 2: Static voltage gain characteristic

Operational amplifier require two power supplies to operate, supplying a positive

voltage (+V) and a negative voltage (-V) with respect to circuit common. This bipolar
power supply allows op amp to generate output signals of either polarity. The output
signal eo range is not unlimited. The voltages of the power supplies determine its actual
range. Thus, a typical op amp fed with -15 and +15 V, may yield a eo within the
approximately -13 to +13 V range, called operational range. Any result expected to be
outside this range is clipped to the respective limit, and op amp is in a saturation stage.

Because of their very high open loop gain, op amp are almost exclusively used with
some additional circuitry (mostly with resistors and capacitors), required to ensure a
negative feedback loop. Through this loop a tiny fraction of the output signal is fed back
to the inverting input. The negative feedback stabilizes the output within the operational
range and provides a much smaller but precisely controlled gain, called closed loop gain.

2.2 Inverting Amplifier

When configured as an inverting amplifier, the op amp has its positive input
connected to ground. The input signal is fed through a resistor to the op amp’s negative

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Chapter 2 Operational Amplifier

input. The op amp’s output is connected to the negative input by a negative feedback
resistor. Because of the op amp very high input resistance, practically all of the input
current flows through the negative feedback resistor to the output. The almost equal
currents in the two resistors and the high open loop gain result in an output voltage that
produces a very small input voltage difference (practically 0 V). The inverting input is a
virtual ground. The op amp high open loop gain is reduced by the negative feedback. The
actual gain is equal to the quotient of the negative feedback resistance divided by the
resistance between the signal input and the op amp’s inverting input, with a minus sign
indicating the inversion.

Figure 3: Inverting op amp connection

2.3 Non-Inverting Amplifier

The non-inverting is obtained when a voltage divider feeds part of the output voltage
to the op amp’s inverting input and the input voltage is fed to the non-inverting input.
Because the input currents and the op amp’s input voltage difference are very small, the
voltage divider may be regarded as being unloaded. The circuit gain is obtained by
dividing the sum of the two resistances by the resistance to ground.

Figure 4: Non Inverting op amp connection

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Chapter 2 Operational Amplifier

2.4 Operational Amplifier Basic Function

The basic function of the Op-Amp is to multiply a voltage level by the gain of the
amplifier. If you were to couple a DC level of +1v into the + input of the op amp, then
the output would be 1v x amplification value. The output, however, cannot exceed the
supply voltage as described above, and vise versa.

In other words, both inputs act on the output simultaneously and the output is the sum
of both input functions. If both inputs are identical then the output should always be zero.
This is a good test for an op amp. If you connected both inputs to the same input, then the
output should be zero volts. In reality, there are small differences in the circuit's
characteristics and components, this will result in a small offset voltage.

2.5 Operational Amplifier Analysis

An operational amplifier circuit can be analyzed with the use Kirchhoff’s Current
Law (KCL). KCL simply states that the currents entering a node are equal in magnitude
to the currents leaving that same node. A node is any junction wherein two or more two
terminal components meet.

Figure 5: General KCL definition

The principle of KCL is the heart of node voltage analysis. The purpose of node
voltage analysis is to find the voltage value at a certain node(s). This is done by
representing the currents entering and leaving the node by their Ohm’s law equivalent
(i.e. I=V/R). KCL and node voltage analysis apply to all electrical circuits including
operational amplifiers. The following figure is a common non-inverting op amp circuit,
which is described in section 1.3.

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Chapter 2 Operational Amplifier

Figure 6: KCL applied on op amp

At the main node (red one), a current is assumed to leave the inverting terminal (V-)
of the op amp and go through Ri to ground. Another current is assumed to feed from the
output back to the inverting input through resistor Rf. The third current (i-) feeds into the
inverting terminal, but i- always equals zero. In fact, there are two important assumptions
that concern op amps when it comes to KCL circuit analysis, −i =+i =0 , and
+V =−V .

In Figure 6, i- equals zero, so If equals Ii. The voltage drops are across the resistor, so
the voltage value of the side to which the current is flowing is subtracted from the side
that the current is coming from (or the side of higher potential).

Vout Rf
=1 + ……………………………………………..…………. (2)
Vs Ri

2.6 Input and Output Impedance

Two positive aspects of operational amplifiers are that they have a very high input
impedance and a very low output impedance. A high input impedance is a good thing
because the surrounding circuit in which the op amp is a part sees the op amp as having a
large resistance, so nearly all of the voltage will be dropped across it, instead of, for
example, it being dropped across the internal resistance of a preceding source. In relation,
a low output impedance is like having a low internal resistance, so all of the output
voltage leaving the op amp will be dropped across the subsequent circuitry or load and
not very much of it will be lost across the internal resistance of the op amp. A reasonable
output impedance value could be between 0-100 Ω, while an input impedance could be
around 1 MΩ.

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Chapter 2 Operational Amplifier

2.7 Frequency Response and Bandwidth

The frequency response of the op amp is straightforward. As the operating frequency
of the op amp increases, the voltage gain decreases. Actually, it is only after the cutoff
frequency is reached that the attenuation of voltage gain starts happening. The cutoff
frequency is defined as the frequency at which the open loop gain equals 70.7% of its
maximum gain, or, equivalently, down 3 dB from the maximum gain. All frequencies
lower than the cutoff frequency, even 0 Hz, see the max gain because the op amp is a dc
amplifier. Gain bandwidth product is a simple formula that relates closed loop gain,
bandwidth, and unity gain frequency.

f unity =closed loop gain ×cutoff frequency …………………………. (3)

Unity gain frequency is the maximum frequency possible where the gain equals 1.
Where that a closed loop lowers the voltage gain, yet by lowering the voltage gain,
higher operating frequencies are made available. Therefore, depending on what is needed
for the job, a certain degree of flexibility is available. A high gain, low frequency (or
bandwidth) arrangement is possible, as is a low gain, high bandwidth configuration, as
long as their product equals the unity gain frequency. See the figure below to better
understand op amp frequency response.

Figure 7: Gain and frequency response of the op amp

As described above, the operational amplifiers bandwidth is the frequency range over
which the voltage gain of the amplifier is above 70.7% or -3dB (where 0dB is the
maximum) of its maximum output value as shown below.

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Chapter 2 Operational Amplifier

Figure 8: Bandwidth representation of the op amp

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