This chapter provides a general introduction to research design by examining several issues:

The main purposes of social research

Units of analysis
How to design a research project
The elements of research proposals
Measurement
Three Purposes of Research
Social research can serve a variety of purposes. Three of the most influential and common
purposes of research are exploration, description and explanation.
Exploration involves familiarizing a researcher with a topic. Exploration satisfies the
researcher's curiosity and desire for improved understanding. Exploration tests the feasibility of
undertaking a more extensive study. Exploration helps develop the methods that will be used in a
study.
Description involves describing situations and events through scientific observation. Scientific
descriptions are typically more accurate and precise than causal ones. For example, the U. S.
Census uses descriptive social research in its examination of characteristics of the U. S.
population.
Explanation involves answering the questions of what, where, when, and how. Explanatory
studies answer questions of why. For example, an explanatory analysis of the 2002 General
Social Survey (GSS) data indicates that 38 percent of men and 30 percent of women said
marijuana should be legalized, while 55 percent of liberals and 27 percent of conservatives said
the same. Given these statistics, you could start to develop an explanation for attitudes toward
marijuana legalization. In addition, further study of gender and political orientation could lead to
a deeper explanation of this issue.
The Logic of Idiographic vs. Nomothetic Explanation

Idiographic explanation - a "full", detailed, in-depth understanding of a case; for

practical reasons, only a few subjects are studied in this way. An idiographic explanation
of the marijuana legalization survey would involve a more conclusive list of factors that
could influence a person's viewpoints on this issue. Therefore, an idiographic explanation
would need to consider several factors, such as information from parents and previous
experiences, not just political orientation.

Nomothetic explanation - a generalized understanding of a given case, with the goal of

finding new factors that can account for many of the variations in a given phenomenon; is
applicable to many subjects. Regarding the survey mentioned above dealing with people's
stances on marijuana legalization, a nomothetic explanation may simply suggest that
political orientation is the main driving force behind people's differing opinions on this
issue. Hypotheses are not required in nomothetic research.

o There are three main criteria for nomothetic causal relationships in social
research:
1) the variables must be correlated
2) the variables are nonspurious
3) the cause takes place before the effect

o Correlation - an empirical relationship between two variables such that changes

in one are associated with changes in the other, or particular attributes in one are
associated with particular attributes in the other.

o Spurious relationship - a coincidental statistical correlation between two

variables shown to be caused by some third variable. For example, increased ice
cream consumption is related to the crime rate rise. But this relationship is caused
by a third variable, summertime yielding hot weather and closed schools.
Therefore, for a causal relationship, variables must be nonspurious

o False criteria for nomothetic causality:

Complete causation - proper nomothetic explanation is probabilistic and

does not explain every single case.

Exceptional cases - exceptions do not disprove nomothetic explanation.

Majority of cases - nomothetic explanation may be applicable to only a

minority of cases in a given situation.

o Necessary and Sufficient Causes:

A necessary cause represents a condition that must be present for the

effect to follow. Example: It is necessary for you to take college courses in
order to get a degree. Take away the courses, and the degree never
follows.
***A sufficient cause represents a condition that guarantees the effect if it

is present. Example: Skipping an exam would be a sufficient cause for

failing it (even though there are other ways to fail it).
Units of Analysis
A unit of analysis is used to classify what or whom is being studied. The classifications include
individuals, aggregates, and social artifacts.

Individuals: In social science research, individuals are the most commonly studied.

Aggregates: can be considered groups, organizations, and social interactions.

Social artifacts: objects, such as paintings, articles, and diaries.

Social interactions: interactions among individuals or aggregates.

o Examples: school children(individuals); elementary schools(aggregate-groups);
education (aggregate-organization); journal (artifact); class attendance (social
interaction).
o Particularly concerning groups, one can derive certain characteristics of a social
group by observing the behaviors of individual members. (note: street gangs can
imply all gangs/social groups and can be specified by city, sizes, locations, etc.)
Organizations can be generalized too either by grouping organizations together or
segregating a single organization by itself. In the context of corporations, and
individual corporation can be studied via the employees (total employment,
number of ethnic minority groups), gross assets, net annual profits, etc.

Faulty Reasoning about Units of Analysis:

o The ecological fallacy is the assumption that something learned about an
ecological unit says something about the individuals making up that unit.

Example: If we found that suicide rates are higher in Protestant countries than in Catholic ones,
we could not draw the conclusion that more Protestants commit suicide than Catholics; this
would be an ecological fallacy.

o Reductionism involves attempts to explain a particular phenomenon in terms of

limited and/or lower-order concepts.
Example: For many social scientists, the field of sociobiology (social behavior can be explained
solely in terms of genetic characteristics and behavior) is too limited and is an example of
reductionism.

The Time Dimension

Cross Sectional Study: a study based on observations representing a single point in time; a cross
section of a population. Example-The amount of people who registered to vote
Longitudinal Study: a study based on data that is collected at several different times. ExampleThe Tuskegee Experiment

There are three types of longitudinal studies:

o Trend Study: A type of longitudinal study in which a given characteristic of some
population is monitored over time. Example: The series of Gallup Polls showing
the electorate's preferences for political campaign, even though different samples
were interviewed at each point
o Cohort Study: A study in which some specific subpopulation, or cohort, is
studied over time, although data may be collected from different members in each
set of observations. Example: A study on the occupational history of the class of
1970 in which questionnaires were sent every five years
o Panel Study: A type of longitudinal study, in which data are collected from the
same set of people (the sample or panel) at several points in time

Longitudinal studies do not always provide a feasible or practical means of studying

processes that take place over time. Sometimes cross sectional-data can be used

-to imply processes over time on the basis of simple logic

-to make logical inferences whenever the time order of variables is clear
-ask individuals to report their past behaviors -cohort analysis to infer processes over time
How to Design a Research Project
Steps for designing a research project:
1) Define the purpose of your project (exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory?)
2) Specify the meaning of each concept being studied
3) Select a research method
4) Determine how you will measure the results
5) Determine the unit of analysis
6) Collect empirical data
7) Process the data
8) Analyze the data
9) Report your findings
The problem with a simple definition:
A real definition does not exist (fallacy of reification), as it mistakes our theoretical construct for
a real entity.

A nominal (conceptual) definition is one that is simply assigned to a term without any claim that
the definition represents a real entity.
An operational definition specifies precisely how a concept will be measured that is, the
operations we will perform.
The problem with an advanced definition:
Some conceptual accuracy is lost at every step along the way.
The meaning of measures are also highly contextual.
Conceptualization
Once you've decided on a purpose for your research and the type of research you will do
(exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory) the next step in designing a research project is
conceptualization- the mental process whereby fuzzy, imprecise and abstract notions (concepts)
are made more specific and precise.
During this step, researchers specify definitions of concepts that will be used to examine a topic.
For example, concepts like education, prejudice, and poverty need to be made more specific and
precise before they can be used to understand a topic.

Concepts have indicators and dimensions. An indicator is something the researcher has
chosen to recognize as a reflection of a variable being studied. Example: if you're going
to study how college students feel about abortion and why, the first thing you'll have to
specify is what you mean by "the right to abortion" (because support for abortion often
varies according to conditions). A dimension is a specifiable aspect of a concept.
Example: dimensions of religiosity: belief, ritual, devotional, knowledge.

Operationalization
Operationalization is the development of specific research procedures that will result in empirical
observations representing those concepts in the real world. Example: If you decided to use a
survey to study attitudes about abortion rights, part of operationalization is determining the
wording of questionnaire items. Some important questions to consider when doing
operationalizations: How broad is the concept we want to study? How are we going to define
(operationalize) or variables and attributes?

Example of Conceptual vs Operational definitions: Weight

o Conceptual definition: a measurement of gravitational force action on an object.
o Operational definition: a result of measurement of the object on a Newton spring
scale.

Choice of Research Method

Each research method has its strengths and weaknesses which need to be considered when
choosing what is most appropriate for your study. Example: A survey might be the most
appropriate method for studying attitudes towards abortion rights.

Population and Sampling

The population for a study is that group about whom we want to draw conclusions.
The sample is the group you select to be representative of that population. Example: For the
abortion study, your population might be college students, and your sample might be 200 Pitt
students.
Observations
The next step is to collect empirical data. Example: To conduct a survey on abortion, you might
want to print questionnaires and mail them to a sample selected from the student body.
Data Processing
You next need to process your data so that it is interpretable. Example: Coding responses on the
survey and transferring the information to a computer.
Analysis
The next step is to interpret the data for the purpose of drawing conclusions. Example: Calculate
the percentages of students who favored or opposed each of the several different versions of
abortion rights.
Application
Determine how your research and the conclusions you made can be used. Example: Prepare or
publish a written report on your findings of abortion rights attitudes and discuss how they might
apply to policy goals. Give suggestions for future research.
The Research Proposal:
It is often necessary to create an outline or layout of one's research plan, in the form of a
"research proposal". This is beneficial to the researcher because it serves as an aid in planning. In
addition, it makes it easy for others to understand and critique a researcher's ideas before they are
carried out. Some common elements of a research proposal (and questions that it should answer)
include:

Problem/Objective: What are you planning to study, and why does it need to be studied?

Literature Review: What previous research exists regarding this topic? What can you
learn from existing research or theories pertaining to your topic? Will your study be able
to improve or contribute to what already exists?

Subjects for Study: Whom or what will you be studying, and how do you plan to get in
touch with them? How will your research affect those whom you will be studying? Are
you sure that your research will not be harmful to them? Is it ethical?

Measurement: What are the key measurements (variables) pertaining to your study? How
do you plan to define and measure them?

Data-Collection Methods: How do you plan to collect data for your study? Will you use
an experiment or survey, etc.?

Analysis: What kind of analysis are you going to utilize? Are you planning to describe
phenomena in detail, or will you attempt to explain the reasoning behind such
phenomena?

Schedule: What is a proposed timeline for the various stages in this project?

Budget: Roughly, how much money do you estimate will be necessary for this project?
Over the course of the project, where should the money be allocated?

The Ethics of Research Design

It is important to consider ethical conerns when you plan your research design, so that
-the subject's privacy is concerned
-the subject's well-being is protected
It may be appropriate and necessary for your design to be reviewed by an Institutional Review
Board (IRB).
Measurement
Measurement: careful, deliberate observations of the real world for the purpose of describing
objects and events in terms of the attributes composing the variable. Social scientists measure:

Direct observables: physical characteristics (sex, height, skin color)of a person being
observed and/or interviewed

Indirect observables: characteristics of a person as indicated by answers given in a selfadministered questionnaire (age, place of birth, education)

Constructs: level of alienation, as measured by a scale that is created by combining

several direct and/or indirect observables

Levels of Measurement - all measurements in science are conducted using 4 different types of
scales:

Nominal Level -variables with attributes of exhaustiveness and mutually exclusiveness.

Examples: gender, religious affiliation, college major, hair color, birthplace, nationality

Ordinal Level -variables with attributes we can logically rank in order. Examples:
socioeconomic status, level of conflict, prejudice, conservativeness, hardness

Interval Level - variables for which the actual distance between attributes has meaning.
Examples: temperature (Fahrenheit), IQ score

Ratio Level - variables whose attributes meet the requirements of an interval

measurement and has a true zero point. Examples: age, length of time, number of
organizations, number of groups

Implications: Analyses require minimum levels of measurement. And some variables can
be treated as multiple levels of measurement.

Measurement Quality:
While conducting an experiment or study, the quality of the measurements are very important.

Precision - Precise measures are superior to imprecise ones. Precision is not the same as
accuracy.

Reliability - suggests that the same data would have been collected each time in repeated
observations of the same phenomenon. There are different kinds of reliability: Stability,
representative, and equivalence.
o Stability reliability consists of remeasuring the data over and over again in hopes
of getting the same result.
o Representative reliability focuses on whether or not the data collected is the same
when dealing with different "sub groups" in a certain population.
o Equivalence reliability deals with multiple indicators such as questions or coders
and focuses on whether or not these different indicators can yield the same results.
o Ways to improve reliability:

Make sure that measures capture only the concept of interest

Increase the level (range) of measurement of the instrument

Make use of multiple indicators

Make use or pretests / pilot studies

Validity -A term describing a measure that accurately reflects the concept it is intended to
measure. There are four types of validity: face validity, criterion-related validity,
construct validity, and content validity.
o Face validity the quality of an indicator that makes it a reasonable measure of
some variable. It relies on the readers common sense to make a judgement.
o Criterion-related validity the degree to which a measure relates to some external
criterion
o Construct validity asks whether the various measures for a given concept all
seem to correspond to the same thing

o Content validity the degree to which a measure covers the concept it

operationalizes
Problem: Validity and reliability can interfere with one another. Repeated measures should be
taken to ensure the highest levels of both.