ABSTRACT

Soap is a generic term for the sodium or potassium salts of long-chain organic acids (fatty
acids) made from naturally occurring esters in animal fats and vegetable oils. Soaps are usually
prepared by boiling natural fats, or vegetable oil which was used in this experiment, with a base
or alkali, for example, sodium hydroxide, which was used in this experiment. The objective of
this experiment is to prepare soap and compare its properties to that of a synthetic detergent.
Firstly, the soap was prepared by using the saponification process by mixing vegetable oil,
ethanol and sodium hydroxide solution. Then, the prepared soap and the synthetic detergent were
compared by three aspects, which were precipitation, emulsification and its cleaning abilities.
Both soap and detergent were tested for precipitation by addition with 1% of CaCl 2 solution, 1%
of FeCl2 solution and 1% of MgCl2 solution while for emulsification test, all the solutions
containing soap and detergent were then added with a few drops of mineral oil. For the third test,
which was cleaning ability, the prepared soap, detergent and a commercial liquid were used to
clean a cloth which was stained with tomato sauce. After conducting all three comparisons, soap
forms a precipitate for all three solutions, while detergent does not. For emulsification, soap
emulsifies oil for all solutions, while detergent does not. As for cleaning ability, detergent has the
great cleaning ability. The stained cloth that soaked into the detergent cleaner compared to soap
and commercial detergent (dynamo).

INTRODUCTION
Soap is a generic term for the sodium or potassium salts of long-chain organic acids (fatty
acids) made from naturally occurring esters in animal fats and vegetable oils. All organic acids
contain the R-COOH functional group, where R represents methyl (CH 3), ethyl (CH3CH2),
propyl (CH3CH3CH2), or more complex hydrocarbon chains called alkyl groups. Chemists use
the R notation because these groups could be very large and the hydrocarbon chain has little
effect on the compounds chemical reactivity. All esters contain the R-COO-R functional group.
The R groups in soap are hydrocarbon chains that generally contain 12 to 18 carbon
atoms. Sodium fatty acids such as lauric (vegetable oil), palmitic (palm oil), and stearic (animal
fat) acids are just few example of soaps.
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(CH3CH2)10-COONa
(CH3CH2)16-COONa

sodium laurate
sodium stearate

The hydrocarbon chains in soap may contain saturated (single bond) or unsaturated chains
(double bond). Sodium salts are usually solid therefore; most bars of soap are of sodium salts.
Potassium salts are the basis of liquid soap shaving creams, and greases. Fats and vegetable oils
are triglycerides. Triglycerides in an ester derived from three fatty acids. A triglyceride made
from three lauric acid molecules is shown in Figure 1.
Saponification is basic hydrolysis of an ester producing a carboxylic acid salt and an
alcohol (Equation 3-1). A lone pair of electrons on the OH - is attracted to the partially positively
charged C atom in the C=0 bond in the ester (Equation1-1). The C-OR bond breaks generating a
carboxylic acid (R-COOH) and alcohol (R-OH). In the presence of NaOH, carboxylic are
converted to their sodium salts (R-CO2-Na+).
When a triglyceride is saponified, three fatty acids salts (soaps) and glycerol are produced
as shown in Equation 1-2. The R groups in the triglyceride may or may not have the same chains
length (same number of carbons). Thus, different types of soaps may be produced from the
saponification of a particular triglyceride.

Figure 1: Picture of triglyceride molecule made from lauric acid and glycerol.

(Equation 1-1)
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Equation 1-2 (1)

OBJECTIVES
The objective of this experiment is to prepare soap and compare its properties to that of a
synthetic detergent.

THEORY
Soap is the salt of weak acid. Most organic acids are weak acids. Consequently,
hydrolysis occurs to soe extent when soap dissolves in water. Soap solutions tend to be slightly
alkaline (basic) due to partial hydrolysis of the acid (Equation 1-3)

(Equation 1-3)
The cleansing action of soaps results from two effects. Soaps are wetting agents that
reduce the surface tension of water, allowing the water molecules to encounter the dirty object.
They are also emulsifying agents. Dirt frequently consists of a grease or oil along with other
organic species. In general, organic compounds are nonpolar. Water is a polar species. These two
substances will not dissolve in each other because of their dissimilar characteristics (the Like
dissolves Like rule). Soaps cross the boundary between polar and nonpolar because they contain
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a polar hydrophobic (water-hating) end and a polar hydrophilic (water-loving) ends as shown in
Figure 2.

Figure 2: Molecular structure (2)

Because soaps have both polar and nonpolar region in the molecule, they are soluble in
both polar and nonpolar species. The hydrophobic portion of soap is soluble in nonpolar
compound like grease and oils. The hydrophilic end dissolves in water. Soap molecules surround
the grease and oils and break them up into microscopic droplets can remain suspended in the
water. These suspended microscopic droplets are called micelles (Figure 3). Micelles contain
very small amounts of grease or oil in their center. Thus the grease or oil has been dissolved in
water forming an emulsion, one form of a suspension in water.

Figure 3: Formation of micelles (2)

Water supplies in certain areas are acidic as a result of acid rain or pollution, or hard
due to the dissolved mineral content. Both acidic and hard water reduce the cleansing action of
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soap. Soap is the salt of a weak acid. In the presence of a stronger acid, the sodium salt is
converted to an insoluble organic acid (Equation 1-4)

(Equation 1-4)
Hard water contains dissolved Ca2+, Mg2+ and Fe2+ ions from the minerals that the water
passes over. Normally, soaps made from sodium and potassium fatty acid salts are soluble in
water. However, in the presence of these ions, the Na + and K+ soluble salts convert to insoluble
Ca2+, Mg2+ and Fe2+ salts (Equation 1-5).

(Equation 1-5)
In either acidic or hard water, the soluble soaps form insoluble salts that becomes a
scummy ring on bathtubs and black areas on shirt collars. The cleansing ability of soap is
reduced because soap molecules are removed from solution. There are several techniques used to
circumvent the problems generated by hard water. Water can be softened via removing hard
water ions from solution using ion exchange techniques or by adding water-softening agents,
such as sodium phosphate (Na3PO4) or sodium carbonate (Na2CO3). Water-softening agents
reacts with the Ca2+, Mg2+ and Fe2+, removing the from water (Equation 1-6 and 1-7) and
preventing the reaction of these ions with soap (Equation 1-4 and 1-5)
3Ca2+ (aq) + 2PO43- (aq) Ca3(PO4)2 (s)

(Equation 1-6)

Mg2+ (aq) + CO32- (aq) MgCO3 (s)

(Equation 1-7)

Thus Syndets was design to overcome the soap problem with hard water. Syndets
differ from soaps in that the nonpolar fatty acids groups are replaced with alkyl or aryl sulfonic
acids (R-OS3H). The alkyl or aryl sulfonic acids have long chains of carbon atoms giving the
hydrophobic end. The salt of sulfonic acid (sulfonate) group forms the hydrophilic end of the
molecule. The difference in polar group is one of the key distinctions between soap and a
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synthetic detergent. Syndets form micelles and cleanse in the same manner as soaps. Two
examples of synthetic detergents are shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Example of synthetic detergents (3)

Because sulfonic acid is a stronger acid than carboxylic acids, Syndets do not precipitate
in acidic solutions. Furthermore, alkyl or aryl sulfonates do not form insoluble salts in the
presence of the typical hard water ions. Thus synthetic detergents remain soluble in both acidic
and hard water.

PROCEDURE
A) Soap Preparation
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12.5 mL of vegetable oil is placed in a 250-mL Erlenmeyer flask. 10 mL of ethanol and

12.5 mL of 6 M sodium hydroxide solution are added to the flask. The mixture is stirred

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with the stirring rod to mix the contents of the flask.

250-mL flask is heated in a boiling-water bath inside of a 600-mL beaker.
The mixture is stirred continuously during the heating process to prevent the mixture
from foaming. If the mixture had foam to the point of nearly overflowing, the flask is
removed from the boiling-water bath until the foaming subsides, then the heating is
continued. The mixture is heated for 20-30 minute or until the alcohol odour is no longer

detectable.
The paste-like mixture is removed from the boiling-water bath and the flask is cooled in

an ice bath for 10-15 minutes.

While the flask is cooling assemble the vacuum filtration apparatus shown in Figure 3-5,
the vacuum flask is secured to a ring stand with a utility clamp to pre-vent the apparatus

from toppling over.

A piece of filter paper is weighed to the nearest 0.001 g and the mass id recorded. The
filter paper is placed inside the Buchner funnel. The paper is moistened with water so that
it fits flush in the bottom of the funnel.
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Once the flask has cooled, 75 mL of saturated sodium chloride (NaCl) solution is added

to the flask to salt out the soap.

The water at the aspirator is slowly turned on. The mixture is poured from the flask into
the Buchner funnel. Once all the liquid has filtered through the funnel, the soap is washed
with 10 mL of ice-cold water. The suction filtration is continued until all the water is

removed from the soap.

The soap is removed from the funnel and it is pressed between two paper towels to dry it.
The filter paper and dried soap are weighed and the mass is recorded to the nearest 0.001
and the mass of the soap is determined by difference and the mass is recorded.

B) Comparison of soap and detergent properties-precipitation and emulsification

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A stock soap solution is poured is prepared by dissolving 2 g of the prepared soap in 100
mL of boiling, distilled water. The mixture is stirred until the soap has dissolved and the

solution is allowed to cool.

Step 1 is repeated using 2 g of synthetic detergent (Dynamo). When both solutions are

cool, the pH of each solution is determined by using pH meter.

Three test tubes are labelled as test tube 1, 2, and 3. 4 drops of mineral oil is added to
each test tube. 5 mL of distilled water is added to test tube 1. 5 mL of stock soap solution

is added to test tube 2. 5 mL of stock synthetic detergent is added to test tube 3.

Each solution is mixed by shaking and let stand for three to five minutes. The solutions

are noted if any, emulsified the oil by forming a single layer.

The mixtures are poured into the Waste Container. The three test tubes are cleaned and

dried.
Three test tubes are labelled as test tube 1, 2, and 3. 2 mL of stock solution is placed in
each of the three test tubes. 2 mL of 1% CaCl 2 solution is added to test tube 1. 2 mL of
1% MgCl2 solution is added to test tube 2. 2 mL of 1% FeCl 2 solution is added to test

tube 3. Each of the test tubes is shacked to mix the solutions. The observation is recorded.
4 drops of mineral oil is added to each of the test tubes in step 6. Each test tube is
shacked to mix the solutions and let the solutions stand for three to five minutes. The

solutions are noted, if any emulsifies the oil by forming a single layer.
8 Steps 6-7 is repeated using 2 mL of stock detergent solution.
9 The solutions are noted if any emulsifies the oil by forming a single layer.
10 The mixtures are poured into the Waste Container. The test tube is cleaned and dried.
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11 5 mL of stock solution is placed in cine clean test tube and 5 mL of stock detergent
solution in a second test tube. 1 mL of HCl one drop is added at a time to both solutions
until the pH in each test tube is equal to 3. The number of drops is counted to each
mixture.
12 1 drops of mineral oil is added to each test tube in step 11. Each test tube is shacked t mix
the solution.

C) Comparison of the cleaning abilities of a soap and detergent

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Three beakers are cleaned, dried, and labelled. 20 mL of stock soap solution is placed in
the 1st beaker. 20 mL of stock detergent solution is placed in the 2 nd beaker. 20 mL of a

commercial liquid Dynamo is added.

Three cloth test strips that have been soaked in tomato sauce are obtained and one strip is
placed in each of the beaker. One cloth strip is placed in beaker 1, one cloth strip in
beaker 2, and one cloth strip in beaker 3. Each solution is repeatedly stirred with a stirring

rod for 5 minutes.

The cloth strips is removed from the soap and detergent solution and the excess water is
squeezed out. Each cloth strip is visually compared to determine their respective
cleanliness. The observation is recorded.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL

APPARATUS
250 ml Erlenmeyer flask
600 ml beaker
Vacuum filtration
Test tubes
Droper
Stirring rod

MATERIALS
Vegetable oil
Ethanol
Sodium hydroxide solution
Saturated sodium chloride
Mineral oil
1% CaCl2
1% FeCl2
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1% MgCl2
Synthetic detergent (dynamo)
Tomato sauce

RESULTS
Experiment A: Preparation of soap
Mass of filter (g)
Mass of filter paper +
soap (g)
Mass of soap recovered
(g)
Mass of soap after a
week (g)

0.0057
0.16555
0.15985
15.7259

Experiment B: Comparison of soap and detergent properties, precipitation and emulsification

Type of Solution

pH

soap

10.05

synthetic detergent

7.32

(i)
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System

Observations

4 drops of oil + 5 ml of
distilled water
4 drops of oil + 5 ml of
soap
4 drops of oil + 5 ml of
detergent

Oil dissolves in solution

System

Observations

Oil layer formed

Oil layer formed

ii) Soap solution

2 ml of CaCl2 solution + 2
ml of soap solution
2 ml of MgCl2 solution + 2
ml of soap solution
2 ml of FeCl2 solution + 2
ml of soap solution

System
2 ml of CaCl2 solution + 2
ml of soap solution + 4
drops of oil
2 ml of MgCl2 solution + 2
ml of soap solution + 4
drops of oil
2 ml of FeCl2 solution + 2
ml of soap solution + 4
drops of oil

White scum formed

White scum formed
Scum formed

Observations
precipitate formed

precipitate formed

precipitate formed

Detergent solution

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System

Emulsification occurred

2 ml of CaCl2 solution + 2
ml of detergent solution
2 ml of MgCl2 solution + 2
ml of detergent solution
2 ml of FeCl2 solution + 2
ml of detergent solution

No scum formed
No scum formed
No scum formed

System

Observations

2 ml of CaCl2 solution + 2
ml of detergent solution +
4 drops of oil
2 ml of MgCl2 solution + 2
ml of detergent solution +
4 drops of oil
2 ml of FeCl2 solution + 2
ml of detergent solution +
4 drops of oil

Oil dissolves in solution

Oil dissolves in solution

Oil layer formed

iii)
Observation

Number of drops until pH

3

System
5 ml soap solution + 1M
HCL
5 ml of detergent solution
+ 1M HCL

Precipitate formed

8 drops
3 drops

System
5 ml soap solution + 1M
HCL + 1 drop of oil
5 ml of detergent solution
+ 1M HCL

Oil dissolves in solution

Observation
Emulsify
No emulsify

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iv)
Material

Cleaning ability

Soap

Detergent solution

Dynamo

DISCUSSION
This experiment was conducted to compare the properties of soap and synthetic detergent
solution. From the experiment, soap solution emulsifies oil when oil dropped into the solution.
This is because the nonpolar hydrocarbon portions of the micelles break up the nonpolar oil
molecules and caught inside the micelles. Meanwhile, distilled water and oil does not mix well
because oil is insoluble in water.
CaCl2, MgCl2 and FeCl2 solution act as hard water. White scum formed as a result of
mixing between CaCl2, MgCl2 and FeCl2 solution and soap solution and does not emulsifies oil.
Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of long chain fatty acids. When soap is added to this hard
water, sodium salts will converted to corresponding calcium, magnesium or iron salts which are
precipitated as scum. In addition, scum will leave deposits on clothes when washing with hard
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water. As for detergent solution, there is no scum formed when CaCl2, MgCl2 and FeCl2 solution
are added and the detergent solution emulsifies oil when added. This is because they do not react
with Ca+ or Mg+. Therefore it will not leave any scum on clothes after washing. Same thing occur
when HCL was added into the soap and detergent solution, the scum will formed in soap solution
while none in detergent solution.
The cleaning abilities of soap solution, detergent solution and dynamo were observed.
Three pieces of cloth strip were immersed in tomato sauce and then is clean with soap solution,
detergent solution and dynamo. It showed that detergent solution clean better than soap solution
and dynamo as the cloth strip in detergent solution is more cleanly compared to others. Cloth
strip in dynamo contains blue tinted as the dynamo used is concentrated but clean far better than
soap solution. Therefore, the detergent solution can clean better both in hard water and soft water
without forming any scum.

CONCLUSION
In the nutshell, the soap was successfully prepared from mixture of vegetable oil, ethanol
and sodium hydroxide solution. The comparison between soap and detergent based on
precipitation, emulsification and cleansing ability were successfully conducted. All the changes
were observed and recorded.
From the experiment conducted, the prepared soap solution will produce scum when 2 ml
of CaCl2 solution, 2 ml of MgCl2 solution and 2 ml of FeCl2 solution are added into the soap
solution. Then precipitate will produced when the mixture solution are added with 4 drops oil
mineral oil. As for detergent, it does not form precipitate or scum for all solutions. Soap will
emulsify which mean a single layer will formed when added mineral oil into it but detergent does
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not emulsify. From the experiment, detergent have great cleaning ability compared to the soap
and the commercial liquid detergent (dynamo).

RECOMMENDATION
There are several recommendation that can be done in order to improve the experiment and to
get the accurate result:
1) Tests for emulsification and precipitation were only conducted once. Repeat the experiment
twice or trice and compare both observations for all conditions in order to get clearer observation
and to get accurate analysis.
2) When takin the pH after the stock soap solution and detergent solution were cooled, make sure
it is taken simultaneously, as temperature change can affect the pH values.
3) There are various chemical reagents used in this experiment. Some can bring harm.Therefore,
it is recommended to handle all reagents with care, wearing gloves, and dispose the waste
properly in chemical waste container provided.

REFERENCES
Cleaning Capacity of Soap with Hard and Soft Water (Theory) _ Class 10 _ Chemistry _ Amrita
Online Lab. Retreived December 11, 2015 from http://amrita.olabs.co.in/?
sub=73&brch=3&sim=120&cnt=1
Soap Chemistry _. Retreived December 11, 2015 from
https://goldmansoap.wordpress.com/chemistry/
What Is Behaviorism and How Does It Work?. Retrieved December 11, 2015 from
http://psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsychology/f/behaviorism.htm
http://www.chem.latech.edu/~deddy/chem122m/L06U00Soap122.htm
http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/technical-documents/articles/biofiles/detergent-properties.html
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http://www.tutorvista.com/content/chemistry/chemistry-ii/carbon-compounds/soaps-anddetergents.php

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