Student Id: 11590288

Internet Technology PG

Sushant Satyal
sushantsatyal@gmail.com

Question 1:
Explain the difference between a EUI and a MAC address; give an example of their
practical use.
Answer: MAC address is the media access control address which is the physical address or
unique address assigned to network interfaces for communication in physical network.
Logically they are used in Media Access Protocol sub layer of OSI reference model
(wikipedia). These MAC addresses are represented in binary numbers and can be located in
the network hardware devices. The MAC address is 48 bit or bytes and it cannot be changed
by the user. Each manufacturer of these devices registers and gets the MAC prefixes as per
the guideline of IEEE (The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers). For instance,
the prefixes 00:13:10, 00:25:9C and 68:7F:74 (plus many others) all belong to Linksys
(abouttech).
On the other hand, Extended Unique Identifier (EUI) address is found in the network device
address 6 of the internet protocol IPv6. EUI is represented by two hexadecimal bits in eight
groups and length is represented in 64 bits. The IPV6, 64 bits EUI ensures the host
computers to assign itself 64 bits interface address. Therefore, it is not necessary for the host
computer to be configured manually. This property of EUI addressing makes IPV6 far more
superior than IPV4. The 64 bit EUI address is obtained from 48 bit MAC address by simply
inserting 16 bit hex value FFEE in between two halves of MAC address and by inverting flag
bit (bit 7) of the first octate of the bit frame.

Student Id: 11590288

Internet Technology PG

Sushant Satyal
sushantsatyal@gmail.com

Question 2:
Explain the difference between ICMP and ICMPv6, give some examples of their
practical use.
Answer: ICMP is the Internet Control Message Protocol that is designed to compensate the
lacking features of IPv4, i.e. IPv4 do not have error reporting and the error correcting
mechanism (Forouzan, Introduction To Application Layer, 2013, p. 575). ICMP is a protocol
that is used by network devices to send or report error messages. For instance, when sent
datagram is discarded ICMP sends error message to the application program or the original
source. Moreover, ICMP is also used to manage queries to get information from a router or
another host.
ICMP message format:
Error reporting message
8bits

8 bits

Query message
16 bits

8bits

8 bits

16 bits

Type

Code Checksum
Rest of the header
Type
Code
Checksu
Data Section
m
Identifier
Sequence
Number
There are various types of error
Datamessages
Section send by ICMP while processing datagram and
these data messages contain a data section that have original datagram to give the original
source that receives the error message information about the datagram itself. Some of the
errors messages that are send by ICMP are:
a) Destination unreachable message which may be send while the user want to access
certain webpage but the server is down.
b) Source quench message that informs senders that the datagram has been dropped due to
congestion in the network.
2

Student Id: 11590288

Internet Technology PG

Sushant Satyal
sushantsatyal@gmail.com

c) Redirection message when the sources try to use wrong router to send the message.
d) Parameter problem message when there is some problem in the header of the datagram
or when some problems that cannot be identified.

On the other hand, ICMPv6 is the implementation of the Internet Control Message Protocol
(ICMP) for Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) is an integral part of IPv6 and performs error
reporting and diagnostic functions (e.g., ping), and has a framework for extensions to
implement future changes (Wikipedia) . Basically, ICMPv6 performs the same tasks with
more features added to it. (Forouzan, Introduction To Application Layer, 2013) writes that
some protocols that were independent in version 4 are now part of ICMPv6 and some new
messages have been added to make it more useful and ICMP, ARP and IGMP protocols in
version 4 are combined into one single protocol ICMPv6 (p.679).
The ICMPv6 messages can be divided into four types:
a) Error reporting message: It is similar to ICMPv4 that reports destination unreachable,
packet too big, time exceed and parameter problems.
b) Informational message: It is used to check two devices in the network can communicate
with each other or not.
c) Neighbour- discovery message: It determines relationships between neighbouring nodes
and it replaces Address Resolution Protocol (ARP), Internet Control Message Protocol
(ICMP) router discovery, and the ICMP Redirect message used in IPv4. Moreover, it also
provides additional functionality and group-membership messages (networkingnotes.com) .

Student Id: 11590288

Internet Technology PG

Sushant Satyal
sushantsatyal@gmail.com

d) Group membership messages: It is used to convey information about multicast group

membership from nodes to their neighbouring routers which are connected to same link.

Question 3:
Describe the differences between structured and unstructured networks in decentralised
P2P networks? Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of both networks.
Answer: Unstructured networks in decentralized P2P networks do not have a particular
structure or arrangement of nodes. Instead, they are randomly formed on overlay network
design. (Forouzan, Introduction To Application Layer, 2013, p. 1025) writes that A search in
an unstructured P2P is not very efficient because a query to find a file must be flooded
through the network, which produces significant traffic and still the query may not be
resolved. Gnutella is an example of distributed unstructured network. In this network for
instance, if node C want to access a file then it will contact its neighbour whose address is
known to it. Node C sends a query to the neighbour (suppose node K) that includes the
name of a file that it wants to access. If the node K knows the address of a node (suppose
node Z) which has the file, then it sends the response message containing the address of
node Z. But in case when node K does not know the address then it sends the request
from C to all its neighbours and one of the nodes in the network will eventually respond to
the query and C can get access to node X to access the file. One of the major
disadvantages of Gnutella is that Queries flood the network and can cause a large amount of
traffic.
On the other hand, structured P2P networks have predefined or particular network design that
arrange or structure the nodes in the network. They strictly adhere set of rules so that the

Student Id: 11590288

Internet Technology PG

Sushant Satyal
sushantsatyal@gmail.com

query can be effectively and efficiently resolved. The most common technique used for this
purpose is the Distributed Hash Table (DHT). (Forouzan, Introduction To Application Layer,
2013)
Question 4:
Explain the advantages of verifying the hash function of the bit torrent peer to peer
network.
Answer:
The distributed hash table uses particular or redefined set of rules to select the node among
the sets of nodes (Forouzan, Peer To Peer Paradigm, 2013). The hash function of bit torrent is
a structured peer to peer system. There is information about the index where to find the
resources stored on the other nodes. Therefore, one of the major advantage of hash function
of bit torrent in peer to per networks that each peer has the responsibilities for the range of
data items. Furthermore, in order to avoid flooding overhead problem the hash functions
helps the peers in the network to have a partial knowledge about the whole network due to
which request about the data can be route easily and effectively. In this networking system,
user can download the files from peers in the network where the copy of file is available
without having to download from the main server. Another advantage of hash function of the
bit torrent in peer to peer network is that it helps to easily locate the files without consuming
too much time.

Question 5:

Student Id: 11590288

Internet Technology PG

Sushant Satyal
sushantsatyal@gmail.com

In the client-server paradigm, explain the process of FTP connection control and data
transfer.
Answer:
Client-server paradigm:
Client-server paradigm is the most popular application layer paradigm. Here, the service
provider is an application program called the server process which runs continuously, waiting
for another program called the client process, to make the connection through the internet and
ask for the service (Forouzan, Introduction To Application Layer, 2013). The server processes
must run all the time whereas the client needs to receive service. We will not be able to run
client application in absence of server program or vice versa. Example of client server
Microsoft outlook is a client application running on a personal computer acts as client to the
mail server. One of the major drawbacks of this paradigm communication or data exchange
depends completely upon the server. Therefore, the server should be powerful to handle many
client requests.

Process of FTP connection control:

File transfer control is the protocol used to send and receive file from one host to another. It is
regarded as a secured protocol for transferring files. FTPs client has three components used
in the transferring of file: the user interface, the client control process and the client data
transfer process. The server has two components: the server control process and the server
data transfer process. The control connection is made between the control processes. The data
connection is made between the data transfer process. The control connection uses very
simple rules of communication. We need to transfer only a line of command or a line of
6

Student Id: 11590288

Internet Technology PG

Sushant Satyal
sushantsatyal@gmail.com

response at a time. The data connection, on the other hand, needs more complex rules due to
the variety of data types transferred (Forouzan, Standard Client Server Protocol, 2013)
Question 6:
Explain the difference between persistent and non-persistent connections in the client
server paradigm.
While trying to retrieve objects from web pages from different servers located at different
locations, we can use persistent as well as non-persistent connections in client server
paradigm. When we use non persistent connections, in such case we have to make a new TCP
connection to get/ retrieve the object from the web page. In other words, for each request or
response we need create one TCP connection. During non-persistent connection at first, the
client creates TCP connection and sends the request to the server. Then the server sends the
response and closes the connection. The client reads the data until it finds end of file marker
and finally ends the connection (Forouzan, Standard Client Server Protocols, 2013). In this
system, at most one object is sent over a TCP connection. HTTP version 1.0 uses nonpersistent connection.

Student Id: 11590288

Internet Technology PG

Sushant Satyal
sushantsatyal@gmail.com

Non Persistent Connection (Forouzan, Standard Client Server

Protocols, 2013)

On the other hand, persistent connection is used by HTTP version 1.1 in a default mode.
When we use persistent connections, in such case we can just make a TCP connection and
retrieve all objects. The server leaves the connection open for more requests after sending a
response (Forouzan, Standard Client Server Protocols, 2013). Therefore, subsequent HTTP
messages between same client/server sent over open connection helps to reduces response

Student Id: 11590288

Internet Technology PG

Sushant Satyal
sushantsatyal@gmail.com

time. However, sometimes the server can close the connection in case of time-out or when
client makes the request to close the connection.

Persistent Connection (Forouzan, Standard Client Server Protocols, 2013)

Student Id: 11590288

Internet Technology PG

Sushant Satyal
sushantsatyal@gmail.com

References
(n.d.). Retrieved January 14, 2016, from networkingnotes.com:
http://computernetworkingnotes.com/ipv6-features-concepts-andconfigurations/ipv6-neighbor-discovery.html
abouttech. (n.d.). Retrieved January 13, 2016, from
http://compnetworking.about.com/od/networkprotocols/a/introduction-tomac-addresses.htm
(2013). Introduction To Application Layer. In B. A. Forouzan, Data
Communications And Netowrking (p. 820). MCGrawHill.
(2013). Peer To Peer Paradigm. In B. A. Forouzan, Data Communication And
Networking (p. 2016). McGrawHill.
Forouzan, B. A. (2013). Standard Client Server Protocol. In Data Communications
And Networking (p. 887). McGraw Hill.
(2013). Standard Client Server Protocols. In B. A. Forouzan, Data
Communications And Newtowrking (p. 876). McGrawHill.
wikipedia. (n.d.). Retrieved January 12, 2016, from wikipedia.com:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MAC_address
Wikipedia. (n.d.). Retrieved January 14, 2016, from Wikipwdia.org:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Control_Message_Protocol
Wikipedia. (n.d.). Retrieved Jaunary 14, 2016, from wikipedia.com:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Control_Message_Protocol_version_6

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