rd

Chem 16

3 Long Exam Reviewer

May 2015

LIQUIDS, SOLIDS AND PHASE CHANGES

PHYSICAL STATES
Intramolecular forces are bonding forces
that exist within each molecule and
influence the substances chemical
properties
Intermolecular forces are nonbonding
forces that exist between the molecules
and influence the physical properties of
the substance
Kinetic Molecular View

The reverse processes, condesing and

freezing, have enthalpy changes of the
same magnitude but opposite sign

The heat of sublimation

(Hsubl) is the enthalpy
change when 1 mol of
substance sublimes
The Clausius-Clapeyron
equation gives us a way of finding Hvap.
It is given by:

Where P is vapor pressure, R is the

universal
gas
constant
(8.314
J/molK) and T is temperature

PHASE CHANGES

Evaporation
is
also
known
as
vaporization and melting is also called
fusion
Condensing and freezing are exothermic
changes while melting and vaporizing are
endotherming changes
For pure substances, each phase change
has a specific, standard enthalpy change
per mole. For vaporization, its called the
heat of vaporization (Hvap) and for
fusion, it is the heat of fusion (Hfus)

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PHASE DIAGRAMS
Combines the
liquid-gas, solidliquid and solidgas curves to
describe phase
changes of a
substance at
various conditions
of temperature
and pressure
Each
region
corresponds to one phase of the
substance. A particular phase is stabe for
any combination of pressure and
temperature within its region.
The lines show the pressure and
temperature at which the two phases on
either side exist in equilibvrium
At the critical point, the liquid and vapor
densities
have
reached
critical
temperature (Tc) and critical pressure (Pc).
At this point, the two densities are equal
and the phase boundary disappears

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Phase Changes

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rd

3 Long Exam Reviewer

May 2015

The triple point represents the pressure

and temperature at which the three
phases are in equilibrium

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES (IMF)

When an ion and a nearby polar molecule
(dipole) attract each other, an ion-dipole
force results
When polar molecules lie near one
another, their partial charges give rise to
dipole-dipole forces: the positive pole of
one molecule attracts the negative pole of
another
o Higher boiling point for compounds
consisting of polar molecules as
compared to compounds of nonpolar
molecules with the same molar mass
The hydrogen bond (H bond) is a type of
dipole-dipole force that arises from an H
atom bonded to a small, highly
electronegative atom with lone e- pairs
(usually N, O & F)
A nearby electric field can induce a
distortion in an e- cloud, pulling e- density
toward a (+) charge or away from a (-) one
o For a nonpolar molecule, this
distortion creates a temporary,
induced dipole moment; for a polar
molecule, it enhances the dipole
moment already present
o Polarizability is the ease with which
the e- cloud of a particle can be
distorted
Ion-induced dipole and dipole-induced
dipole are the 2 types of charge-induced
dipole forces
Dispersion
(London)
forces
are
responsible for the condensed states of
nonpolar substances. They are caused by
momentary oscillations of e- charge in
atoms and are present in all particles
o Dispersion
forces
(DF)
are
instantaneous dipole-induced dipole
forces. They contribute to the overall
energy of attraction of all substances
o For polar molecules, relative strength
of DF depends the polarizability of the
particles. For nonpolar, it depends on
molecular shape

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PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS
Surface tension is the energy required to
increase the surface area by a unit
amount. In general, the stronger the
forces between the particles in a liquid,
the greater the surface tension
Capillarity is the rising of a liquid through
a narrow space against the pull of gravity.
It results from a competition between the
IMF within a liquid (cohesive forces) and
those between the liquid and the tube
walls (adhesive forces)
o Right adhesive > cohesive
Left cohesive > adhesive

A liquids resistance to flow is called

viscosity. Liquid viscosities are higher
compared to gases because IMF operate
over
shorter
distances.
Viscosity
decreases with heating
The boiling point of a substance is the
temperature at which the vapor pressure,
the pressure exerted by a vapor at
equilibrium, equals the external pressure
and the liquid turns into vapor
SOLIDS
Types
Based on the orderliness of shapes and
particles
o Crystalline solids have a well-defined
shape due to the orderly arrangement
of their particles
o Amorphous solids have poorly
defined shapes because their particles
lack order
Structure
The points (centers of identical particles)
form a regular pattern throughout the
crystal called the crystal lattice. The

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Phase Changes

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lattice consists
of all points with
identical
surroundings
The unit cell is
the smallest
repeating unit of
a crystal
The coordination number of a particle is
the number if nearest neighbours
surrounding it
There are 7 crystal systems but we will
focus on the cubic system, which gives
rise to the cubic lattice
o In a simple cubic unit
cell, the centers of 8
particles define the
corners of a cube. The
coordination number of
each particle is 6. A
simple cubic unit cell
contains 8(1/8) = 1 particle
o In the body-centered
cubic unit cell, there is
an additional particle in
the center of the cube.
Coordination number = 8.
A BCC unit cell contains
8(1/8) + 1 = 2 particles
o A face-centered cubic
unit cell has simple cubic
structure but with an
additional particle in each
face. It has 8 corners and
6 faces. Coordination
number = 12. A FCC unit
cell contains 8(1/8) +
6(1/2) = 4 particles

May 2015

Properties

Bonding
The electron-sea model proposes that all
the metal atoms in a sample pool their
valence e- to form an e- sea that is
delocalized throughout the piece. The
valence e- are shared among all the
atoms in a sample
According to the band theory, the highest
energy e- occupy either a partially filled or
a filled band that overlaps an empty band

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Phase Changes