Board of Trustees, Boston University

News and Short Contributions

Author(s): Emma Lou Davis, John S. Henderson, Thomas R. Hester, W. D. Kingery, W. H.
Gourdin, John Tomenchuk, Steve Tomenchuk, R. Ross Holloway, Norman Hammond
Source: Journal of Field Archaeology, Vol. 3, No. 3 (1976), pp. 341-357
Published by: Boston University
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346 NewsandShortContributions
carefullysquared blocks. Surprisingly,there is no apparent patternin the distributionof the dressedstone,
and there are no surface indicationsthat the mounds
supportedstructures.We did not excavatein the central
zone, but we did clean and recordproEllesexposed by
huaqueros'pits in threeof the mounds.One was a solid
cobble construction;the others contained a combination of trash fill and stone construction,but they were
too badly destroyedto permitidentificationof their internalstructures.
We excavatedthreetest pits in the northernsector of
the site, where stream cuts revealedstratifiedcultural
deposits extending to a depth of more than 4 m.
Analysis of the excavatedmaterialis now in progress;
the preliminaryindicationsare that La Sierrais basical[y a Late Classic site (ca. 650-900 A.C.). The lower
excavationlevels probablyrepresentan earlier(Earlyto
Middle Classic, ca. 200-650 A.C.) occupation. Radiocarbon assays on a series of charcoalsamplesfrom the
excavationsshouldrefinethe dating.
Judging by the variety of polychromepottery from
the excavations, La Sierra had wide-rangingexternal
connections:with Copan and the Maya area to the west
and north and with the Ulua Valley, Lake Yojoa, the
Comayaguabasin,and probablystill more distantareas
to the east and south. The constructionsin the central
part of La Sierra present an intriguing possibility.
Similar massive mound complexes on the island of
Cozumel a late exchange center have been interpreted as storage facilities for goods in transit.5At La
Sierra,the platformscould easily have servedto protect
perishable goods from the river, which periodically
floods lowerpartsof the site.
We excavated two test trenches and made a topographicmap at El Regadillo,a small site some 3.5 km.
west of La Sierra.El Regadilloappearsto be a singleperiodsite contemporarywith the earlieroccupationof
La Sierra.The flaked stone from the excavationsconsists mainly of several varieties of crypto-crystalline
quartz which exists in outcrops on the hill above the
site. El Regadillo may have been a supplier of these
local rawmaterialsfor othersettlementsin the valley.
Analysesof the data from the 1975season are now in
progress. In future Eleldseasons we plan intensiveinvestigationsof Naco and La Sierra.At both sites, the
first priority will be completingaccuratemaps which
can be used in systematicprogramsof intensivesurface
survey and excavation to investigate functional and

5. JeremyA. Sabloff and David A. Freidel, 'A Model of a PreColumbianTradingCenter,"AncientCivilizationand Trade(Albuquerque 1975) 369-408;JeremyA. Sabloff and William L. Rathje,
"The Riseof a MayaMerchantClass,"SAm233:4(1975)72-82.

chronologicalvariation within the sites. We hope to

identifycraftproductionzones, residentialareas,public
sectors, and perhapsstorage facilitiesand even foreign
barrios.We shall also proceed with the survey of the
rest of the valley, with test excavationsin a series of
sites, to produce additionaldata for the chronological
sequence, settlementpattern analysis, and other basic
studies.
JOHN S. HENDERSON
CORNELL UNIVERSITY

Functional Analysis of Ancient Egyptian

ChippedStone Tools: The Potential for Future
Research
Introduction
The analysisof wear patternson ancientstone tools
has become one of the primaryresearchtechniquesfor
archaeologistsseekinginformationon the precisefunction of prehistoricimplements.lThe evidence of use
comes in many forms, such as dullingof the tool edge,
use-removalof tiny flakes along the edge, scratchesor
striations,and other marks associatedwith tool function. In some instances,certain kinds of wear can be
detected with the naked eye; most wear pattern
research, however, has been done with microscopes
capable of high magnification.2The data providedby
patternsof use-wearcan be combinedwith other kinds
of informationobtained from the tool, includingthe
angle formedby the tool workingedge (the edge angle),
morphological attributes, breakage patterns, experimental use of tool replicas, and ethnographic
1. See T. R. Hester and R. F. Heizer, "Bibliography of Archaeology
1: Experiments, Lithic Technology and Petrography," AddisonWesley
Modulein Anthropology
29 (1973). Experiments using Egyptian tools
have been reported by J. Swauger and B. L. Wallace, "An Experiment
in Skinning with Egyptian Paleolithic and Neolithic Stone Implements," Pennsylvania
Archaeologist35 ( 1964) 1-7.
2. See L. H. Keeley, "Technique and Methodology in Microwear
Studies: A Critical Review," WA7 (1974) 323-336; R. E. Tringham et
al., 'sExperimentation in the Formation of Edge Damage: A New Approach to Lithic Analysis," JFA 1 (1974) 171-196, and S. A. Semenov,
PrehistoricTechnology
(London 1964).

Journalof FieldArchaeology/Vol.3, 1976 347

analogy. With these data, we can often infer, on other
than subjective grounds, the actual function of the
prehistoric stone tool and the behavioral patterns
associatedwith tool use. This avenueof anthropological investigationis still in a nascent stage and will no
doubt be greatlyrefinedand expandedin comingyears.
During two researchtrips to Egypt, I had the occasion briefly to examine a number of chipped stone
tools, from Predynasticand Dynastic times, in the
EgyptianMuseum(Cairo).3It occurredto me, as I am
sure it has to many others, that these materialscould
yield a wealth of functionaland behavioraldata if subjected to wear-patternanalysis.At the time of my visits
in Egypt, there was neither the opportunity nor the
facilities to carry out such research.I have, however,
conducted a test study with a sample of Egyptian
chipped stone artifactsassembledfrom the collections
of the Lowie Museumof Anthropologyat The University of California, Berkeley. The wear-patterndata
recordedduringthis study, and the inferencesbased on
these data, are reportedhere.
Most of the artifactsexamined are from mortuary
contexts at the site of Naga-ed-Der, dating from
Predynastictimes into the first and second dynastiesof
the Old Kingdom.4The bulk of the specimensare from
variousburialsin CemeteryN7000.

ArtifactAnalyses
Unifacial Series

A group of eight unifaciallyworked flints were examined. One specimen is a large "end scraper"(FIG.
I,a), made on a large flake and unifaciallytrimmedat
the distal end, forminga convex "scraping"edge. This
particularspecimenwas found in the badly plundered
Tomb N7538 (Cemetery 7000) and dates from the
Predynasticera. The specimenwas part of a clusterof
flint tools, includinga "tailedscraper"(describedlater)
and a small blade.5The entirelengthof the convex distal edge of this large unifaceexhibiteddulling;the edge
angle of the distal edge was 70. In two areas, marked
3. The major objective of the research trips (supported by the
NationalGeographicSociety)was a studyof the Colossiof Memnon
(directedby R. F. Heizer);see R. F. Heizeret al., "The Colossi of
MemnonRevisited,"Science 182( 1973)1219-1225.
4. G. A. Reisner, The Early Dynastic Cemeteries of Naga-ed-Der,
Part / (Leipzig 1909);A. C. Mace, The Early Dynastic Cemeteries of
IVaga-ed-Der,Part 11 (Leipzig1909);A. M. Lythgoe,The Predynastic
Cemetery N7000, Naga-ed-Der, Part /V (Berkeley1965).
5. Lythgoe,op. cit. (in note4) Fig. 158,h, i.

X
,

4
,

5
1z

Figure1. Unifaces. a, largeend scraper(TombN7538);areasmarked

A and B exhibitheavyedgedulling;b end scrapermadeon blade
(Tomb7185);crosssectionillustratesthe alternatelybeveledlateral
edges.

A and B in Figure l,a, dulling was heavy.6A glossy

sheen accompaniesthe heavy dulling on the specimen,
and dulling extends onto the faces of the flake scars at
the distal end. Since the artifactwas recoveredfrom a
tomb context, one cannot attributethe extensivegloss
or polish and the widespreaddulling to weatheringor
other natural processes. The combination of wear
patterns on the artifact suggests that the tool might
have been used in skin-workingor meat-processing
tasks, or in the workingof some other pliable material
into which the edge was repeatedlyimbedded.Dulling
wear also occurs along a portion of one lateral edge.
This edge is bifaciallytrimmed,perhapsrepresentative
of the resharpeningof a previously dulled working
edge.7The artifactis quite large (12.5 cm. long and 7.8
cm. wide) and could have been hand-heldfor use as a
scrapingand/or cuttingtool.
Five other unifacial artifacts can be technically
describedas "end scrapersmade on blades." All are
from Cemetery 7000 (FIG. l,b; FIG 2). These are the
"tailedscrapers"of Reisner8and the "flint knife"form
of Quibell.9All have been unifaciallyflakedat the distal
end. One specimen(from Tomb 7579 accordingto the
Lowie catalog) exhibits heavy dulling along the bit or
working edge, a second (from Tomb 7538) has both
dulling and step-flaking(tiny flakes detached during
6. A definitionof "heavy dulling"is providedin T. R. Hester, D.
Gilbow, and A. Albee, "A FunctionalAnalysisof'Clear Fork'Tools
fromthe Rio GrandePlain,Texas,"AmAnt 38 (1973)90-96.
7. The techniqueof bevelingin the resharpeningof a dulled cutting
edge is describedin detailby J. B. Sollberger,"A TechnologicalStudy
of BeveledKnives,"Plains Anthropologist 16 (1971)209-218.
8. Reisner,op. cit. (in note4).
9. J. E. Quibell,"ArchaicObjects,"Catalogue Ceneral des Antiquites
Egyptiennes du Musee du Caire ( 1905).

f
348 NewsandShortContributions

\1-!

Figure2. Unifaces. a - c. end scrapersmadeon blades;a has heavy

dullingon bit (Tomb7579);b, step-fracturing
presentalong bit
(Tomb7579);c, note lightdullingon bit and heavydullingalong
lateraledge(Tomb7185).

I -l-

1
a

Figure 3. Unifaces and Bifaces. a, uniface made on truncated blade

(Lowie Museum 6-3664); b, asymmetrical biface, with beveling along
left edge and dulling and abrasion at distal tip (Lowie Museum 64257); c, "fish tail" biface; specimen has wear along lateral edges; EIsh
tail end has been broken and reworked (see text; Lowie Museum 63 102).

use), another(Tomb 7185) has a lightly dulledbit edge

and heavy dulling on the distal portion of the lateral
edge adjacentto the bit, and a fourth example(Tomb
7579), shows no evidence of use. The Elfthspecimen
(FIG. I,b), from Tomb 7185 (Predynastic),has a distal
workingedge that has seen heavy, sustaineduse. There
is markedstep-flaking(undercuttingthe workingedge)
and the edge itself has been crushed. Such wear may
have resulted from wood-working,perhaps using the
tool in an "adzing"fashion.'
These Elvespecimens also exhibit alternate dorsalventraltrimmingof the lateraledges. This trimmingis

quite steep and has resultedin bevelededges with edge

angles of 60-75. While such trimmingmay have been
done to help shapethe artifact,there are some tracesof
wear on the edges. I suggestthat the bevelingis simply
the resultof resharpeninga worncuttingedge."
Anotherunifacialtool is madeon a largeblade,truncated at one end. There is extensive,invasivetrimming
or retouchalong one lateraledge. We can describethe
piece technologicallyas a "sidescraper."This termwell
suits the tool, as there is heavy step-flakingalong the
trimmededge, indicativeof the tool's use as a scraping
implement.'2It is listed in the catalog of the Lowie
Museumas specimen6-3664(FIG. 3,a).
Bifacial Series

A number of specimens in the Lowie sample are

bifacially flaked flint artifacts.They representa wide
varietyof forms.
One biface (FIG. 3,b) iS asymmetricalin outline, with
one edge convex and the other straight.The main "cutting" edge appearsto have been the convex one as it is
roughlybeveled from resharpening.'3
The straightedge
is lightly to moderatelydulled along most of its length,
with high polish and abrasion of flake facets for 1-2
mm. away from the edge.'4 The heaviest wear, in the
form of dulling and abrasion,occurs at the tip of the
specimen.The artifactwas found in Tomb N7579 accordingto the Lowie catalog;two "end scrapers"were
also apparentlyfromthis samecontext.
Several of the bifaces are quite large. One lunate
specimen (31.7 cm. in length) is described as "ceremonial" by Reisner.'sIt is made of tan-pinkishchert.
There is some light dulling,which is not necessarilythe
result of use, near one edge, with the remainingedges
showingno signs of wear.Thereis, however,bevelingat
a 45 angle along the convex edge of the biface;in this
case, the bevelingmay not representresharpening,but
perhaps platform preparation for flake removal or
some other aspect of the manufacturing process.
Lythgoedescribestwo other large bifaceswhich I have
not personallyexamined.'fiOne, fromTomb 7491, is 26
cm. long, with "one end roughlyworkedfor a handle."
11. This is an opinion shared by Quibell, op. cit. (in note 9) 252;
Pl. S 1.

12. Hester,Gilbow,and Albee,op. cit. (in note 6) 94-95.

13. See Quibell,op. cit. (in note 9) Pl. 51, for illustrationsof beveling
resultingfrom resharpeningof edges on EgyptianPredynasticstone
tools.
14. See Semenov,op. cit. (in note 2) 106, for a discussionof stone
tool wearresultingfrommeat-cuttingtasks.
15. Reisner,op. cit. (in note 4).

10. See Hester, Gilbow, and Albee, op. cit. (in note 6) 94.

16. Lythgoe,op. cit. (in note 4) 310, 381-383.

Journalof FieldArchaeology/Vol.3, 1976 349

It was found "in the right hand, claspedin the fingers"
of an adult female, "well on in years."'7It appearsto
have been ceremonially broken near mid-section.
Anotherlarge biface describedby Lythgoecomes from
Tomb 7583. It is 23 cm. long, and is describedas "two
halves of a broken flint spearhead,one end roughly
worked as a handle. The other end finished to a fine
fish-teethedge on all sides."'8It was found associated
with an adult male. The placementof the biface in the
grave suggests that it, too, was held in or near the
hands; however, the limbs of the skeleton had been
removedby plunderers.
I also examinedsix of the well-known,serrated"fish
tailed knives" (the "fish tailed lance heads" of A1dred'9), all from Naga-ed-Der. These tools were apparently hafted, with the pointed (normally "distal")
end insertedinto a haft and the''filshtail" portion exposed.20Lythgoenotes the discoveryof one specimenin
Tomb N7625 associated with a wooden handle. The
pointedend had been inserted4-4.5 cm. in the haft. The
particularspecimenwas found nearthe left forearmand
elbow of an adultmale skeleton.21
Thesebifacesare here,as in othercollections,typiEled
by tiny, sharpserrationson the edges of the "fish tail,"
with heavy,intentionaldulling(to facilitatehafting,one
assumes)on the pointed portion. One specimen(Tomb
N7120; Lowie 6-3102) appearsto have seen use. There
is dulling on both the ''fiIshtail" and pointed portions,
and indeed, the serrations have been worn away.
Moreover,one cornerof the "fishtail" has been broken
and subsequentlyreworked(FIG. 3,c).
Most of the "fishtail" bifaces,however,seem to have
been destined for ceremonialuse and disposal. Many
have been intentionallybroken by direct blows at the
near-center of the blade, with the fracture lines
radiatingoutward.22Lythgoe notes the following circumstancesin which several of the "fish tail" bifaces
were found:in Tomb N7014, the base of the bifacewas
in a ceramicsaucercontainingpiecesof malachiteand a
lump of resin; the tip lay outside; in Tomb 7271, a
brokenspecimenoccurred,with the "fish tail" end un-

der a shallow bowl in one part of the grave, and the tip
lyingnearthe skeleton.23
One notes that among the ''filshtail" bifacesat Nagaed-Der, all are made of dark gray chert with light tan
mottling.This obviously representsa preferenceon the
part of the flint-workingcraftsmen(or craftsman?)who
producedthe specimens.
Crescent-shaped
Flints
Lunate or crescenticchipped stone tools have been
describedby variousauthoritiesas havingbeen used to
bore or drill alabastervases or other stone vessels, or
used for cutting limestone.24Such implementsare particularly common at the site of Saqqara.25Various
hieroglyphicrepresentationsof stone vase boringequipment indicatesome kind of detachable"drillbit," often
of crescenticform.2fi
Having helped to record in great detail the contemporary alabaster vase making technology in Upper
Egypt in 1971and 1972, I am convincedthat had such
"crescents"been used to bore stone vessels,very heavy
use-wear (especially heavy edge dulling) would have
resulted. I examined one such specimen in the Lowie
collections, and it showed absolutely no wear. Those
crescents I examined while in Egypt also showed no
macroscopicevidence of having been used in such arduous tasks. I feel certain that the crescentswere not
vase borers, although furtherwear pattern analysis of
these specimensin other collections is requiredto test
this assertion.The actual drill bits weremost likely lenticular pieces of sandstone or quartzite,specimensof
which have been found bearing appropriate wear
marks.27

ModifiedBlades
Thirty blades in the Lowie sample have been unifaciallytrimmed(ventralto dorsal)and/or truncatedat
the proximaland distal ends. Many of these resemble
sickle components,and are especiallysimilar to those
23. Lythgoe,op. cit. (in note 4) 156;FIg.68.

17. Ibid.,310;fig. 138,f.

24. C. M. Firth"A DatableFlintTool,"Antiquity 4 (1930) 104-105.

18. Ibid.,381-383;fig. 171,c.

25. C. M. Firthand J. E. Quibell,Excavations at Saqqara, The Step

Pyramid, Vol. I (Cairo 1935);J-P Lauerand F. DeBono, "Technique
de Faconnage des Croissantsde Silex Utilises dans lsEnceintede
Zoser,"Annales du Service des Antiquites de l'Egypte 50 (1950) 1-18.

19. C. Aldred,Egypt to the End of the Old Kingdom (New York 1966)
25. For otherdescriptionsof this artifactform,see Quibell,op. cit. (in
note 9?and C. T. Currelly,"Stone Implements,"Catalogue General
des Antiquites Egyptiennes du Musee du Caire (1913).
20. Currelly,op. cit. (in note 19)P1.XLVII,illustratesa haftedexample.
21. Lythgoe,op. cit. (in note 4) 409;FIg.184.h.
22. Quibell, op. cit. (in note 9) Pl. 52, illustratesa number of
specimensbrokenin this manner.

26. P. Montet,Les Scenes de la Vie Prive'edans les Tombeaux Egyptiens de l'Ancien Empire (Strasbourg1925);V. G. Childe, "Rotary
Motion,"History of Technology, Vol. I (New York and London 1954)
193.
27. L. Borchardt"Das Gradbdenkmaldes Konigs Ne-User-Re,"
Deutsche Oriente-Gesellschaft Wissenshaftliche Veroffent-Lichungen
(1907).

350 NewsandShortContributions

ED72

{'

/-

b
O
l

i0

1
l

2
X

'

One distallytruncatedbladein the samplehas a striking platformwhich is distinctlylipped(overhangingon

the ventral side). The dorsal rim of the platform is
dulled. Such dulling was often done in stone working
technologies as platform preparation,and the overhanging or lipped platforms are usually the result of
soft-hammer percussion.31No evidence of use was
found on this specimen(FIG. 4,c).

_
e

lem

Figure4. Blade Tools. a, b, bi-truncatedblades(LowieMuseum6544 and 6-2539);specimena has dullingwearat both truncatedends;
e, sickleblade(LowieMuseum6-412);d, pointedbladewith trimming
alongleft edgeand at tip (LowieMuseum6-544);e, distallytruncated
blade(see text;LowieMuseum6-544).

found in place on wooden handles in a tomb at Saqqara.28Eighteenexamplesbear no traces of utilitarian

use. The other 12 evidencevaryingdegreesof wear, including glossy sheen, minute step-fracturingon the
trimmed (truncated)ends, edge retouch, and dulling.
Interestingly,most of those with wearrevealedevidence
of use on the truncatedends, suggestingthat they might
have been "end scrapers" in functional terms (FIG.
4,a,b).

Two bi-truncatedbladesexhibiteduse-wearwhich indicates their use as sickle blades (FIG. 4,c). Both have
one lateral edge with numerousserrations,dulled and
worn from use, and accompaniedby the characteristic
"sickle polish" or glossy sheen. However, th.eopposite
lateral edges on both specimensare also heavily dulled
and have the glossy sheen. It seems likely that these
edges were originally serrated but were worn down
(with "sicklepolish" accruing),and then "reversed"so
that the opposite edge could be used. Several archaeologists have described the traits found on "sickle
blades,"29and Petrie has done so particularlyin reference to Egypt.30
Six pointed blades ("lancets") were also studied.
These had tiny striking platforms(1 x 1 mm. on the
average)and diffuse bulbs of percussion.Two had the
platforms and bulbs trimmed away, suggesting that
they might have been hafted. However, only one
specimen (Lowie 6-544) bore any trace of use, in the
form of fine edge trimmingalong one side and at the tip

ConcludingComments
In this brief note, I have summarizedthe resultsof a
test studyof wearpatternsfound on chippedstone tools
from ancient Egypt. Of coursethis exercise,using such
a small sample of artifacts, cannot lead to any farreachingcommentsor interpretationsregardingthe actual function of certain categories of Egyptian stone
tools. However,I hope this study has at least suggested
the potential for wear-patternresearchwith Egyptian
lithics. Technologicalor functionalstudies (as well as
almost all other considerations)of Predynasticand
Dynastic stone tools in Egypthave been almost totally
31. For a descriptionof flake attributesresultingfrom soft-hammer
,nercussion,see D. E. Crabtree,An Introduction to Flint- Working
(Pocatello, Idaho 1975)44, 74-75;see also p. 84 for a discussionof
dullingas a formof platformpreparation.

cml 11 21 31 41 51

(FIG. 4,d).
28. Examplesof well-preservedsickles(with stone blades)are on display in the EgyptianMuseum(Cairo),and are from the site of Saqqara;see also H. Frankfort,The Birth of Civilization in the Near East
(GardenCity, New York 1956)Pl. 1, E.
29. See J. Witthoft,"GlazedPolishon FlintTools,"AmAnt 32 (1967)
( I967) 383-388.
30. See W. M. F. Petrie,Tools and Weapons(London 1917)46.

Figure 5. Biface. Large biface typical of those used in ceremonial

oxen butchering in Old Kingdom times. Beveling resulting from
resharpening technology is to be found along the convex (lower) edge
(length of specimen, 15.3 cm.; Lowie Museum 6-1861).

Journalof FieldArchaeology/Vol.3, 1976 351

ignored since the early publications of Quibell32and
Currelly.33Both Quibell and Currellymade numerous
statementsabout the presenceof wear on stone tools in
the collections of the EgyptianMuseum. Currelly,for
example,noted the recurrenceof beveling(whichhe interpretedquite correctly as evidence of resharpening)
on the large,handledflint bifacesused in oxen butchering duringOld Kingdomtimes (FIG. 5).34
There are large samples of Egyptian stone tools in
museum collections around the world. A program of
systematic wear-patternanalysis, coupled with replicative experimentsand a review of pertinent ancient
Egyptian texts and tomb reliefs, could provide the
archaeologistwith substantiveinformationon the dayto-day use of these tools. Review of tomb association
data might also provide, as I indicated earlier in this
paper,the specificlinkageof certaintool formseitherto
male or female use. I believe such studies would be a
significantcontributionto the anthropologicalanalysis
of life in ancientEgypt.

Figure 1. Scanning electron micrograph of refractory illustrating

boundary between unaltered sandstone structure on right and altered
structure on left (58x).

THOMASR. HESTER
THE UNIVERSITYOF TEXASAT SAN ANTONIO

analysis showed the slag to be of a fayalite type, with

less than 1%coppercontent.

32. Quibell,op. cit. (in note 4).

Descriptionof the Samples

Samples561A, 561C, and 561D were sent to us from
this site by B. Rothenberg,and were describedas furnace linings. In each sample, a layer of refractory
materialapproximately20 mm. thickwas coated on one
side by a black slag layerwhichvariedfrom 1 to 5 mm.
thick.

33. Currelly,op. cit. (in note 4).

34. Additionaldescriptionof resharpeningtechniquescan be found
in T. R. Hester,"Notes on Stone KnifeSharpeningTechnologyin the
EgyptianOld Kingdom,"manuscript;and F. L1.GriffithBeniHasan,
PartIII (London1896).

Examinationof FurnaceLinings
fromRothenbergSite #590 in WadiZaghra
Rothenbergsite #590 in the SE Sinai was visited in
1905 by C. T. Currelly,'who found neolithic arrowheadsand metallurgicalartifacts.B. Rothenbergcarried
out a preliminarysurveyin 1972 and an excavationin
1973.2The site is describedas an Early BronzeAge II
site in which metallurgicalremainswere discovered,including rough slag adhering to furnace walls and
remains of smelting furnaces. The furnaces were
describedas built of medium-sizedstones, and chemical
1. C. T. Currelly,in W. M. FlindersPetrie,Researchesin Sinai(New
York 1906)239-240,pl. 170-171.
2. B. Rothenberg,SinaiExplorations1967-1972,MuseumHaartzAnnual, Tel-Aviv 14 (1972)35-36;B. Rothenberg,H. G. Bachman,and
A. Lupu, "Two EmergencyExcavationsin Sinai," private report
( 1974).

SampleExamination
Microscopic examination indicated that the refractory materialmore than 5-15 mm. from the slag surface
consists of a rather poorly consolidated sandstone in
which angularquartzgrains are bonded in a matrixof
clay, feldspar,and mica. Up to a depth of 5 to 15 mm.
from the surface there is severe alteration of this
material,the formationof sphericalbubbles in a hard
glass-quartzconglomerate.In the slag layer there are
frequentquartz grain inclusionsand local areas of intense reddishcolorationcorrespondingto copperoxide.
No pellets of copper were observed,but there are fine
particles of copper, in the size range 5-10, microns
present, with irregular surfaces suggesting that the
temperatureat the refractoryinterfacewas not above
the melting point of copper at the time these particles
wereformed.
Scanningelectron micrographsof a polished surface
are shown in Figure 1. At the right-hand side the
irregular structure of angular quartz grains of the
sandstone is apparent, together with a fairly sharp