‘Women’s Empowerment and Masculinity’: The limitations of Excluding

Men.

Niamh Barry

This dissertation is submitted to the University of Dublin in partial fulfilment of the requirements for
the award of MSc Global Health degree

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 Declaration

I declare that this thesis has not been submitted as an exercise for degree at this or any other
University. It is entirely my own work, acknowledgement is provided for all references to and
citations from published or unpublished documents. I agree that the Trinity College Library may
lend or copy this thesis upon request.

This thesis was completed under the supervision of Posy Bidwell at the University of Dublin
Trinity College.

Name: Niamh Barry

Date: 15-08-2008

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‘Women’s Empowerment and Masculinity’: The Limitations of Excluding Men.
Niamh Barry

It was realised in the 1990s that it was necessary to include men into women’s empowerment
programmes in order to contribute to their success. Little has been done, in regards to research,
program design or evaluation, especially in Africa. This study seeks to further understand the
consequences of excluding men from women’s empowerment programs by examining the levels of
women’s empowerment and attitudes to empowerment; expressed through the male viewpoint.
Campaign for Female Education (CAMFED) an NGO working in Zambia implementing female
empowerment programs was used as a sample. Qualitative research was used with interviews and
Focus Group Discussions (FGDs), targeting married men whose wives have completed the CAMFED
empowerment program, a control group of men whose wives have never undergone empowerment
was also sampled. It was found that while the CAMFED women had higher levels of empowerment
in spousal selection, contraceptives and domestic duties compared to the control group. However
when it came to full social and economic empowerment high levels of resistance were
demonstrated and focused on male control over women and gender stereotypes. Men are happy
with their wives earning but this did not translate to an equal status in the household. Tenants of
masculinity were the greatest barrier to success. 100% of men asked to be included in the
empowerment program and the findings suggest that education and inclusion is vital to the
advancement of women’s empowerment.

Key words: women’s empowerment, male inclusion, masculinity, Zambia.

Word count: 14,996

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 Acknowledgements

This study was made possible through TCD masters in Global health program and its fellows. The
Campaign for Female Education (CAMFED) and the Ministry of Agriculture in Zambia are gratefully
acknowledged in their assistance in locating participants. And the participants in CAMFED and the
Control group are acknowledged for generously taking the time to share their opinions, ideas and
reality with the researcher.

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 Table of Contents
Chapter One: Introduction Page 1

1.1 Introduction Page 1

1.2 The Zambian Context Page 2

1.3 Defining Empowerment Page 3

1.4 The Missing Component of Gender in Development, Male Inclusion Page 4

Chapter Two: Literature Review Page 6

2.1 Literature Review Page 6

2.2 Men and Sexuality Page 6

2.3 Men, GBV and Economic Dependency Page 8

2.4 Involving Men in Educational and Social Empowerment Programs Page 10

Chapter Three: Research Methodology Page 13

3.1 Research Objectives Page 13

3.2 Research Question Page 13

3.3 Research Methodology Page 14

3.4 Analysis of Data Page 16

3.5 Ethical Consideration Page 16

Chapter Four: Results Page 17

4.1 The Field Setting Page 17

4.2 Sex and Selection Men have the Key Page 19

4.2.1 Spousal Selection and Marriage Timing Page 19

4.2.2 Use of Contraception within Marriage Page 20

4.3 Societal Pressures: Real or Imaginary Page 21

4.3.1 Discussion of Family Size Page 21

4.3.2 Responsibility for Domestic Chores Page 23

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4.3.5 Care Giving Within the Household Page 24

4.4 Masculinity and Violence Page 25

4.4.1 Freedom from Violence Page 25

4.5 Empowerment: A Society Struggling with Gender Page 27

4.5.1 Economics Outside and Within the Household Page 27

4.5.2. Reactions to Women as Household Heads Page 29

4.5.3 Barriers to Women’s Employment Page 30

4.5.4 Women’s Freedom of Movement Page 31

4.5.5 Overall Views on Women’s Social and Economic Empowerment Page 32

4.5.6 Views on the CAMA Program Page 33

Chapter Five: Discussion Page 35

5.1 Levels of Empowerment Between the Two Groups of Women Page 35

5.1.1 Marriage Timing and Spousal Selection. Page 35

5.1.2 Contraceptive Use Page 36

5.1.3 FP Discussion Page 37

5.1.4 Household Domestics and Childcare Page 37

5.1.5 Freedom from Violence Page 38

5.1.6 Social and Economic Empowerment Page 39

5.2 Barriers to Women’s Empowerment: The Male Viewpoint Page 40

5.2.1 Barriers to Sexual Negotiation and Shared Domestic Responsibility Page 40

5.2.2 Barriers to Freedom from Violence Page 42

5.2.3 Barriers to Accessing Social and Economic Spaces Page 42

Chapter Six: Conclusions, Limitations and Suggestions for Further Research Page 44

6.1 Limitations of the Study and Suggestions for Further Research Page 44

6.2 Conclusion Page 45

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References Page 46

Appendixes Page 51

VII
 List of Tables

Table 4.1 Summary of Themes

Table 4.2 Contraceptive Use

Table 4.3 Number of Children

Table 4.4 Responsible for Domestic’s Chores

Table 4.5 Main Care Giver

Table 4.6 Women’s Employment

Table 4.7 Main Provider in the Household

Table 4.8 Reactions to Women as the Main Providers

Table 4.9 Cited Barriers to Women’s Employment

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List of Acronyms

AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

BCI Behavioural Change Intervention

CAMA Alumni Association of CAMFED

CAMFED Campaign For Female Education

CMA Conscientizing Male Adolescents Program

CUP Caring, Understanding Partners

FGD Focus Group Discussion

FP Family Planning

GAD Gender In Development

GBV Gender Based Violence

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GGG Report Global Gender Gap Report

HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus

NGO Non Governmental Organisation

SRH Sexual and Reproductive Health

STD Sexually Transmitted Disease

UN United Nations

VCT Voluntary Counselling and Testing

WHO World Health Organisation

WID Women in Development

YWCA Young Women’s Catholic Association

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