Studies of Landscape History on East Asian Inland Seas (2010)

NEOMAP Project
Research Institute for Humanity and Nature

Experimental Pilot Study of Peach/Apricot Kernel Detoxification:

For Reconstruction of Chinese Early Rice Farmers Broad
Spectrum Subsistence Strategy

HOSOYA, Leo Aoi ("Research Institute for Humanity and Nature)

WOLLSTONECROFT, Michele (University College London)
FULLER, Dorian (University College London)
QIN, Ling (Peking University)

Studies of Landscape History on East Asian Inland Seas

July 2010
Edited by Keisuke MAKIBAYASHI and Megumi UCHIKADO
NEOMAP Project
Research institute for Humanity and Nature (RHIN)
ISBN 978-4-902325-52-2

Neolithisation and Modernisation: Landscape History on East Asian Inland Seas

(NEOMAP Project)

Research Institute for Humanity and Nature(RHIN)

Kamigamo Motoyama 457 - 4 Kyoto, Japan
http://www chikym ac j p/neo- map
TEL: +81(0)75-707-2480
Fax: +81(0)75/707-2513

Experimental Pilot Study of Peach/Apricot Kernel Detoxification:

For Reconstruction of Chinese Early Rice Farmers Broad Spectrum
Subsistence Strategy
HOSOYA, Leo Aoi
Research Institute for Humanity and Nature

WOLLSTONECROFT, Michele
University College London

FULLER, Dorian
University College London

QIN, Ling
Peking University

1. Introduction

The Prunoid subfamily of the Rosaceae produces some of the most popular edible tree fruit of temperate
environments, including the plums (Prunus spp), the peaches (Amygdalus/Prunus spp.) and the apricot
(Armeniaca/ Prunus spp.). These species are of global importance for consumption and trade. Their fruit is

a drupe, which is a fleshy fruit with two soft and pulpy outer layers (exocarp and mesocarp) that enclose a
much smaller hard stone (endocarp) that contains a starchy and proteinaceous seed. In Europe and the
Americas people typically eat the fleshy parts of the fruit, in fresh or dried -form, and discard the stone and
enclosed seed. However, within East Asia, both the fleshy fruit and the seeds of the Prunoids are consumed
In China, the Prunoid cultivars of greatest importance are the common peach (Amygdalus persica L, syn.
Prunus persica (L.) Batsch) and the apricot (Armeniaca vulgaris Lam., syn. Prunus armeniaca L.). The
fleshy fruit and the kernel (seed) of both these species are utilized. Of particular importance is the apricot
kernel, which is known as the 'Chinese almond'. It is frequently used as an ingredient in drinks, sweets and
soups. According to Porterfield (1951), apricot kernels have a range of culinary and medical uses such as
cough medicine in the Hubei region where it is eaten whole and made into flour. Recent archaeobotanical
research has revealed that the food and medicinal uses of apricot and peach kernels may date back to the
Neolithic in China, when the fruit were collected from wild trees. Remains of the kernels have been
recovered from a number of Chinese Neolithic sites [Table 1]. The fact that peach kernel were found in
storage pits at the Hemudu site (BCE 4,900-4,600) (Qin et al 2006) clearly indicates that they were not merely
discarded debris from the consumption of the fleshy fruit but valued for their own food and/or medicinal
qualities.
The kernel of apricot, as well as peach, is rich in nutrition such as protein, fiber, carbohydrate and mineral
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(AlmsIan & Hayta 2006, Kx- e-7. kakuda 1992, Porterfield 1951), and usable as food additive. On the
other hand, the Pnmoid seed titters that can be harmful for humans. Apricots, particularly the hitter
varieties, contain .varpirE.-

of prussic acid, and consuming as few as two kernels can cause death

(Porterfield 1951). Thereitre. blue we can address questions about the role of these kernels in the Chinese
Neolithic' sti3sigetre syseem and diet, we must first consider how Neolithic people managed to remove the
toxiis. T

7-acaraructinn of potential detoxification techniques, using technology and methods known to

have ham avalabk it Neolithic China, is fundamental to addressing such questions. In this paper, we
memo a Ow study, a preliminary step in our experimental studies on the detoxification of Prunoid kernels.
2. Batcherocmd of the research- Broad spectrum economy of early farmers
Camay to the previously accepted concept that the introduction of farming immediately caused wholesale
shifts to strictly `agricultural societies', that subsisted exclusively on cultivated plants, recent archaeobotanical

research demonstrates that the existing subsistence strategies did not conspicuously change for hundreds to
1,000 years after the beginning of farming. This is the case for both Near Eastern wheat farming (Tanno
Wilcox 2006) and Chinese rice farming (Fuller et al. 2009, Nakamura 2010). Archaeobotancial and

archaeofatmal evidence from Chinese Yangtze early rice farmers' sites indicate that these communities
continued to use broad spectrum subsistence strategies, which included hunting, gathering and fishing; rice
cultivation was only a small part of the food procurement system (Kohmoto 2001, Nakamura 2002). This
type of diversified economy remained stable for hundreds of years.

An agricultural society was established in the lower Yangtze area approximately 2,000-3,000 years after the
beginning of rice fanning (BCE 6,000, Kuahuqiao culture) between_ the Songze culture period (BCE
3,800-3,200) and the Liangzhu culture period (BCE 3,400-2,200). The shift is attributed to the intensification
of paddy rice farming as a result of the introduction of new techniques such as irrigation (Nakamura 2002,
Fuller and Qin 2009). These examples show that auricultural societies are not necessarily the 'natural' and
inevitable outcome of the introduction of cultivation and domestication. Instead, agricultural societies emerged
due to specific shifts in the social organization of the group in question, process that must have been driven by,
and therefore be reflected in, routine subsistence-related activities. The principal questions are: How did
early rice farmers organize their routine broad spectrum subsistence-related activities?; and How was this
trimnization transformed through time?
Food processing activities, for the purpose of to making plant and animal tissue edible, are as important to
prehistoric subsistence as gathering and cultivation. Many processing activities, e.g. crop dehusking and
cooking,- may well have taken place within the settlement area. Consequently food processing activities,
vArk areas and scheduling must have been an integrated part of the domestic cycle. Therefore, it may be

3ossable to reconstruct the routine food processing activities of Neolithic people, by synthesizing what we
imam- about their processing facilities, tools, work areas and organic debris. If we can identify the distinct

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stages of processing possibly from within the settlement, we may be able to better interpret the scale and
frequency of each series of those activities and how people organized them on a daily basis. What we would
expect to see is early rice farming economies employing regionally diverse, but nevertheless broad-spectrum,
subsistence systems, and temporal trends including shifts of social organization as well as changes in land-use,
towards the establishment of agricultural societies.
The difficulty with reconstructing ancient processing activities from archaeological contexts is that the
archaeological record is patchy and incomplete. Therefore it is not easy to discern the sequences of the
processing procedures, such as which tools and facilities were used, and during which stage, and for what end.
Among the more useful methods of addressing such problems are ethnographic sh dies of traditional
processing techniques by modern (non-mechanised) societies as well as experimental food processing. Such
studies allow us to assess the feasMitv and plrvsical effects of various processing techniques and evaluate
their usefulness for archaeological interpretation. For example, recent work on the potential tuber foods of
Near Eastern hunter-gatherers shows that the nutritional value of a particular wild sedge tuber is dependent on
the techniques of processing only a sequence of techniques, e.g. pulverizing and/or grinding, as well as
cooking, will transform this wise inedible tuber into a form that is suitable to eat (Wollstonecroft et al.
2008).
Our pilot study on the eqperimental detoxification of prunoid seeds was designed to assess whether
processing techniques can be obsa -ved (with microscopy) on modern, and possibly ancient, seed remains, and
to decide Nvhetheir further analysis comparing different processing techniques are warranted.
3. Selection of Methods for the plot study
The experiment discussed here is a pilot study to determine whether the stages of apricot/peach
detoxification can be observed from the kernel microstructure, and whether high-magnification microscopy is
useful for this type of analysis. This is part of a lom-term study to examine the effectiveness of prussic acid
detoxification on peach / apricot seeds using techniques that were available during the Chinese Neolithic.
The present paper describes a pilot study for the

firsi

stage of a two stage analysis: i) observations, using

high-magnification microscopy, of the microstructure of the raw and processed seeds to observe how the tissue
responds to the various techniques; in particular, how steaming / boiling / pulveriaing / grinding / fermentation
modify the cell walls (cw) and cell contents, because if the cell does not rupture or separate, the contents may
pass through the human gut without becoming available for digestion and absorption (see Ellis et al. 2004); the
latter is very important because, if the cell contents are not available for absorption it may mean that the toxins
are not accessible as they pass through the human gut; The second stage will involve chemical assays of the
raw and processed seeds, sampling and measurements will be taken after each stage of processing to identify
any changes in prussic acid concentrations.
For the second part of the study, detoxification techniques will be used that are known to be effective and

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also. can be made with Erbil:Nicer at

tads used by Chinese Neolithic peoples. Prunoid seed detoxification

tecliaiwes fcr modem vial purposes are well-documented, e.g. bitter apricot detoxification is discussed
by Nout et al. (1 4:-,5
The bittercc
et aL (19931 r,.

Tercel et aL (1993) and peach detoxification by El-Adawy & El-Kadousy (1995).

Y detadfied by applying a sequence of grinding, soaking and boiling (100 C). Tuncel
547. l

soaking temperatures and times (25 C and 30C; 30 minutes, 1, 3, 4, 6 and 22

Sams and aril' ilia Jmes (5. 15 and 30 minutes). They observed that toxins were reduced after only five
;dim but that complete removal was difficult. They concluded that microbiological processing
was further needed for complete detoxification. Nout et al. (1995) tested several
'a-mei:aim bacteria and yeasts on apricot seeds that had been previously processed by grinding, soaking and
botlim (30 minutes). They concluded that fermentation with `Ragi' (Endomyces fibuliger), a yeast often
used in the production of Chinese rice wines, gave the best detoxification result. El-Adawy & El-Kadousy
(1995) applied chemical processing procedures to peach pits, with a sequence that entailed: grinding, soaking
in distilled water, washing with 70% ethyl alcohol, before drying, de-fatting and grinding again. They
obtained a 99% reduction of hydrocyanic acid and amygdalin. 50.3% of tannin. 38.6% of phytic acid, as well
as improved digestibility (the latter possibly due to greater reduction of particle size and increased cell rupture
and separation).
Among the processing techniques listed above, girding. soaking and boiling are known to have been
available during Neolithic times. Whether or not fermentation was used at that time in that region is not yet
known, although possible fermented grape and rice 'wines' have been identified with ceramic residues
analysis on materials from the Neolithic site of Jiahu (McGovern et al. 2004). For the present trial
experiment, we began with boiling and we are presenting some results of the microstructure changes here.
As noted by Tuncel et al. (1993) boiling appeared to be the most effective stage in the detoxification sequence.
Although both Tuncel et al. (1993) and Nout et al. (1995) claimed that boiling without microbiological
processing was not sufficient for complete detoxification, we believe that it is useful to begin our analyses with
this pilot study of the physical effect of boiling on the Prunoid seeds. Given the probable role of steaming in
the Chinese Neolithic, streaming was also carried out for comparison.
4. Methods used in the Pilot Study
Amin, the aim of this pilot study was to determine whether the stages used in apricot / peach detoxification

can be observed from the kernel microsctructure. Apricot seeds were purchased from a medicine and food
shops in London Chinatown. The purchased apricot kernels had had their endocarp (stone shell) and testa
(brown skin) removed such that only the seed kernel (cotyledons) was present [Photo 1]. Despite the fact that
these specimens were probably low in prussic acid, they were considered suitable for microstructure studies, i.e.
observing the effects of boiling on the kernel tissue. The seeds were separated into samples for boiling and
samples for steaming; boiling and steaming were applied to the whole seeds for 2 hours. After processing,

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the surface and inner part of the apricot seeds were observed with the SEM (Hitachi 3400 Variable Pressure
Scanning Electron Microscope, at the Institute of Archaeology, University College London). Four sets of
samples were examined. The food shop boiled (FSB) apricot seeds were observed from 14 angles, food shop
steamed samples (FSS) were observed from 13 angles; medicine shop boiled (MSB) from 16 angles, and
medicine shop steamed (MSS) from 8 angles.
5. Results, interpretation and future perspective
Clear differences were observed between the boiled and steamed samples. The cell walls of the boiled
seeds were generally intact [Photo 2] thus retained all their cell contents. On the other hand, the cells of
steamed seeds were ruptured [Photo 3] and the cells emptied of their contents. There is thus high possibility
that toxin, thought to be mainly intracellular, could have been removed The results of the steaming and
SEM studies suggest that steaming may be an effective stage in the detoxification process. This observation
has implications for the routine activities of Chinese early rice farmers.
In the lower Yangtze area, steamers became remarkably diverse in style from the early to the latter half of
Neolithic. It has been inferred that this diversity in steaming tools is a sign of a diversification of steaming
methods (Maldbayashi 2005, Fuller and Rowlands 2009: 11-12). Furthermore, in the case of the Yangtze

it as the preliminary result of the

present experiment suggest, steaming had a role in the detoxification sequence, it will be necessary to revise
our long-held views about Neolithic Yangtze steaming being used for rice, and to recognize that steaming may
have been used to process other types of foods. It is highly likely that peach / apricot kernels were used as
supplementary foods. rather than staple foods, and moreover, that the Neolithic 'menu' may have been more
diverse than previously thought.
The pilot study demonstrates the usefulness of the experimental approach, and has confirmed that at least
one of the processes used in detoxification can be observed in changes in kernel microstructure. Future
research will entail developing a systematic framework in which all the stages of processing (grinding, soaking,
boiling and grinding again, as well as fermentation) will be studied with SEM and chemical measurements of
the toxins. Grinding experiments on Prunoid seeds with replicated Neolithic grinding stones, including
measurement of the particle size and its relationship of detoxification effects, is one of the future task of this
research. In addition, further ethnographic information of traditional Prunoid seeds processing techniques
must be collected in future, to obtain ideas on the combination of several techniques in non-industrial contexts.
Recently the possibility of more diverse uses of Chinese Neolithic grinding stones than previously assumed
has emerged as a controversial issue (Makibayashi 2004), so grinding can also have been a significant
processing method to study.
Further ethnographic studies will also be made to collect more information on traditional detoxification
methods. A broader range of samples of peach / apricot kernels will be used as the experimental material,
area, it has long been assumed that steaming was used mainly for rice.

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including those of Chinese indigenous species. Moreover, in the long term, other wild plants known to have
been used by Chinese early farmers, including toxic species, will be investigated, e.g. some species of nuts
such as Lithocarpus and Cyclobalanopsis acorns. This experimental study, then, will contribute one part of
multiple approaches for understanding the actual state of Chinese early farmers' broad spectrum subsistence
strategy and discussion on social transformations towards establishment of agricultural society.
Acknowledgement
The experimental study presented in this paper was carried out with the support of the British Council
Darwin Researchers Exchange Programme grant (2009). This study will be continued with the support of
Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (C) "Discussion on Chinese
early rice agriculture and society from the interdisciplinary view of archaeology and genetics" (2009-2011).

Photo 1: Apricot seeds from London

Photo 2: SEM observation of boiled

Photo 3: SEM observation of steamed

Chinatown

apricot seed (from a food shop)

apricot seed (from a food shop)

Table 1: Finds of peach / apricot kernel remains from Chinese Neolithic and historical sites
Amygdatus

Site

Period

persica/cf.
persica

Anneniaca
vulgarlil

Reference

Armeniaea

Bashidang, Hunan

7000-6000 BC

Gu 2007

Chengtoushan, Hunan

4500-4000 BC

Liu and Gu 2007

Kualmqiao, Zhejiang

6000-5400 BC

Hemudu, Zhejiang

Hemudu (4900-4600 BC)

Tianluoshan, Zhejiang

Hemudu (4900-4600 BC)

ZPIAC 2004; see Fuller et al. 2007:

Table 1
ZPIAC 2003; see Fuller et al. 2007:
Table 1; Qin et al. 2006
Fuller et al, unpublished; d Fuller et al.
2009

Puanqiao, Zhejiang

Late Songze (3500-3300

BC)

- Qin Sz Fuller, unpublished data

Bianjiashan, Zhejiang

Liangzhu (3300-2200 BC)

Zheng Yunfei, personal communication

Yangcun [I/AC], Henan

Yangshao

Fuller and Zhang 2007

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Shiya
, nruan [SYG], Henan

Late Yangshao

Fuller and Zhang 2007

Wuwan [WUNV], Henan

Late Longshan

Fuller and Zhang 2007

Youfangtou [YET], Henan

Late Longshan

Fuller and Zhang 2007

LonArin

Fuller and Zhang 2007

Jizhai [HZ], Henan

T are Loillan

Shidao [SID], Henan

Editou

Yinzhai., Henan

I ate Longshan

Yangzhuan& Henan

Erlitou

13aliDnu: Henan

Longshan

Kangjia, Shaanxi

Late Longshan

Ehinhuang Xuanquanzhi,
Gansu
Sampula cemetery Ttupan
Xinjiang

Western Han

Xiawu [XW], Henan

I an-

Fuller and Zhang 2007

Fuller and Zhang 2007

Zhao 2005

Archaeology Department at Peking

University 1998

Fuller & Qin, unpublished data

Shaanxi Kangjia archaeology team

1992

X- ancient
text record

Li and Xu 2007

Jiang et al 2008; 2009

X- ancient
text record

400-100 BC

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